Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

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Journal of Building Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jobe

Performance assessment of solar-driven indirect evaporative

cooling with a novel wet channel: An experimental study
Ram Ji Tripathi a, Devesh Kumar a, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, UP, 273010, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The expanding energy requirements for cooling underscore the urgency of technological up­
Wet channel heaval. Evaporative cooling emerges as a promising solution, offering an eco-friendly alternative
Wet bulb depression that consumes significantly less energy. A novel wet channel of solar-driven indirect evaporative
Wet bulb efficiency cooling system for HVAC is constructed and tested. IEC can cool the air without increasing hu­
Cooling capacity midity to the process air. In CFIEC, the multi-tubular wet channel is a novel objective for con­
And flow parameters
struction that can work in hot and dry climate conditions. In this work, the experimental setup
was developed to evaluate the performance of a system based on temperature drop, Cooling
capacity, and wet bulb effectiveness at the inlet condition of flow variables (velocity, humidity,
and temperature) for process or working air, wet bulb depression and CO2 emission analysis. The
results found that cooling capacity ranged between 124.31 W and 1083.2 W and wet bulb effi­
ciency between 59% and 90%. The experimental test was conducted in the AC lab room of
MMMUT Gorakhpur (26.7606◦ N, 83.3732◦ E), Uttar Pradesh, from March 27, 2023 to April 27,
2023. Results explained that the wet bulb effectiveness for CFIEC with novel wet channels is very
high under different inlet conditions. The results of the experiments were assessed towards
energy-efficient and eco-friendly cooling solutions. The results of the experiments work were
compared with previous work in the literature.

Nomenclature

Abbreviations
HVAC Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
CFIEC Cross Flow indirect evaporative cooling
COP Coefficient of Performance
RH Relative Humidity
RIEC Regenerated Indirect evaporative cooling
HX Heat exchanger
IEC Indirect evaporative cooling
WBE Wet Bulb efficiency
MVC Mechanical vapour compression
DIEC Dew point Indirect evaporative cooling

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ramjitripathi7499@gmail.com (R.J. Tripathi), dev77mmmut@gmail.com (D. Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107674
Received 4 July 2023; Received in revised form 25 August 2023; Accepted 27 August 2023
Available online 1 September 2023
2352-7102/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

Symbols
A Area of duct (m2)
D Diameter (m)
V Volumetric flow rate (m3/sec)
ω Moisture Content of air (kg/kg of dry air)
η Efficiency (%)
P Power Consumption (KW)
Q Cooling Capacity (W)
cp,a Specific heat of air (kJ/kg. K)
ṁ Mass flow rate (kg/s)
T Temperature (◦ C)
Φ Relative humidity (%)
ρ Density (Kg/m3)
ν Velocity (m/sec)

Subscripts
a air
w water
d duct
p, in process inlet
p, out process outlet
w, in working inlet
wb wet bulb temperature
db dry bulb temperature

1. Introduction
HVAC (Heating, ventilation, and Air conditioning) systems help perform a vital part in maintaining indoor temperature in
buildings. Although conventional HVAC systems utilize mechanical vapour compression systems for air conditioning can be high
energy consumption and operational costs, especially in regions with hot and humid climates like India. In adaptation to this inves­
tigation, a novel technology named Indirect evaporative cooling was subsequently established, which can substantially minimize
energy usage while ensuring effective cooling. The researcher aims to investigate the use of HVAC systems focusing on IEC experi­
mentally. In addition, the intricate experimental details of cross-flow indirect evaporative cooling (CFIEC). IEC uses water evapora­
tion’s natural cooling effect to reduce air temperature without a mechanical compression system. For the functionality of Indirect
evaporative cooling, warm air is passed over an HX (Heat exchanger) that has been moistened with water. The water evaporates as
warm air passes across the HX, resulting in cool air. Subsequently, the cooled air is distributed throughout the buildings.
In 1903, Dr Willi Elfert was the first person to invent the IEC system. IEC system can cool the air with no extra moisture because it
separates water and air, making it easier to install in humid locations [1,2]. Using indirect evaporative cooling can significantly
decrease energy consumption and emissions by as much as 90% compared to conventional air conditioning systems. This technology is
highly suitable for regions with hot and arid climates, where conventional air conditioning systems exhibit reduced efficiency, and the
cooling process can take advantage of water availability [3]. In India, the projected growth of energy consumption for cooling is an
area of concern as it is provided to increase by 15 times from 2016 to 2050. Indirect evaporative cooling technology is regarded as a
sustainable and eco-friendly means of natural cooling. This cooling method has gained significant recognition within the industry and
has been implemented in many sectors [4,5]. The passive cooling strategies for hot arid climates, their performance can be optimized
with active cooling integrated [6]. IEC system outlet temperature was reduced to 10 ◦ C and RH up to 20%. Analyzed regarding cooling
effectiveness, COP, moisture absorption, and thermal resistance and explored the effective air conditioning for buildings using the IEC
system [7,8]. An indirect evaporative cooling system can potentially recover energy for thermal comfort. Various research studies
show these results from its efficient, low energy footprint, pollutant-free, and accessible maintenance properties [9,10]. Jain and Dilip
[11] studied COP experimentally for tube-type IEC under summer conditions. The maximum COP was found to be 22.
El-Dessouky et al. [12] evaluated the performance of IEC by implementing various shapes and cooling media. Duan et al. [13]
experimentally investigated a counter-flow RIEC system based on the performance parameter (wet bulb efficiency, cooling capacity,
EER) and tested it for parameter investigation, geometry optimization, and operating conditions. Riangvilailul and Kumar presented
[14] empirical results for an evaporative cooling process at different inlet conditions for humid climates. The wet bulb efficiency was
obtained from 92% to 114%. Zhan et al. [15,16] provided a novel point cooling system for enhancing cooling effectiveness and
developed it numerically and experimentally. M counter flow HX’s found that 20% increase in cooling capacity and 15–23% in wet
bulb effectiveness when compared with cross-flow M cycle Heat exchangers with the same operating conditions. Chen Q. et al. [17]
experimentally found that novel hybrid IEC-mechanical vapour compression (MVC) system enhanced the cooling load by 50%,
reduced energy consumption by 15%, and COP was 22% higher than MVC. Chen, Ye. et al. [18] examined a plant fiber polymer-based
IEC. Cooling capacity increased by 10% when the initial inlet air temperature decreased by 15.2 ◦ C and varied between 30.4 ◦ C and

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R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

38 ◦ C, with the enhancement attributable to a working ratio ranging from 0.1 to 1.1. Depending on the working air/product air flow
rate, they also observed an improvement in dew point and wet bulb efficiency between 60% and 78%. Liu, Q. et al. [19] investigated
the variation of outlet parameters in response to changes in primary air temperature and relative humidity between 25 and 30 ◦ C and
50%, respectively. The IEC system efficiency was 20% enhanced, while the heat transfer quantity improved. Furthermore, the enthalpy
efficiency increased by 75%. Shahzad, M. W et al. [20] experimentally investigated an enhanced IEC design. The performed result
designed cooler configuration obtained a cooling capacity of 8.77 kW and energy consumption of up to 2.49 kW. The cooler had a
specific cooling power (SCP) of 203.4 W/kg with an overall cooling efficiency of 63.2%. The cooler’s wet bulb efficiency (WBE) was
determined to be 10%, while its cooling capacity was 42%, and its coefficient of performance (COP) was 50%. Chen, Y et al. [21]
examined the effects of primary and secondary air temperature on an IEC system. The results showed that increased temperature
variation from 26 ◦ C to 27 ◦ C reduced energy consumption by 35%. In addition, moisture content improved by 57.1%, while the
extraction ratio improved by 25%. Moreover, the cooling load elevated from 2250 kJ/h to 2995 kJ/h.
Meng, D et al. [22] performed a Visualized experiment on an IEC with condensation. They observed partial condensation at dry
bulb temperatures of 35 ◦ C and 70% RH (primary air) and 30 ◦ C and 80% RH (secondary air). The author showed that the sensible heat
factor ratio increased to 28.61%. Li et al. [23] investigated the impact of evaporation water temperature on primary air inlets in an IEC.
Their finding showed that a mere 10 ◦ C increase in evaporation temperature had a minimal impact on the primary air temperature,
resulting in only a 2 ◦ C drop. The vertical IEC’s secondary air temperature was improved by 2 ◦ C cooler than the horizontal IEC. This
temperature difference showed a 30% increase in cooling capacity compared with IEC horizontally. Kabeel A et al. [24] reported that
the cooling load enhances up to 64%, and COP ranges from 0.214 to 0.319. For airflow rates of 70 m3/h, the DCOP ranges from 1.78 to
2.256 for water flow rates of 38.65 L/day for distilled water productivity. Zhu G et al. [25] focused on the RIEC system under various
temperatures and humidity. The author found that when the supply air temperature was increased from 27.4 ◦ C to 31 ◦ C with RH
improved from 40% to 70%, the cooling capacity was reduced by 2.6% and observed a linear increase in dew point effectiveness from
0.6 to 0.96. Wang, F et al. [26] found that wet bulb efficiency improved 2.86% with a supply air flow ratio is 0.9 rather than enhanced
up to 1.1 when the inlet velocity increased to 9.5 m/s for a flow rate of water ranged from 250L/h to 100 L/h, and COP increased from
7.9 to 20.5. E Gomez et al. [27] focused on various types of plate type, tube type, and heat pipe indirect evaporative cooling systems.
These include experimental, analytical, and comparative models of the HX indirect evaporative cooling system, verifying its accuracy
and modifying it using test results.
In addition, the Research aimed to optimize the HX’s Indirect evaporative system geometrical configuration and operational
conditions [28,29]. The metal aluminium is widely used to make Indirect evaporative cooling due to its desirable thermal conductivity
and ease of manufacturing flexibility [30]. The spraying water evaporation process is enhanced by wet bulb effectiveness. The pro­
cedure mentioned earlier facilitates changing sensible heat to latent heat, reducing dry bulb temperature. The IEC comprises alter­
nating dry and wet channels partitioned by metal. The process involves the introduction of flowing water into the wet channels,
resulting in the formation of a water film layer that addresses the wall. When the water evaporates, the wall temperature decreases
because secondary air flows over the wettability surface. At the same time, process air present in the adjacent dry channels exhibits an
apparent drop in temperature [31–33].
Even though many researchers worked on plate, tube, and fin types of the cross-flow IEC, very few researchers reported the change
in the shape of a wet channel as a multi-tubular type. The Novelties of the IEC Experiment system are multi-tubular wet channels. The
multi-tubular configuration improves the thermodynamic process of water evaporation and heat removal from the dry channel to the
wet channel. The main objective of this Research is to find out the effect of working airflow parameters such as velocity, temperature,
and relative humidity and the effect of wet bulb depression on the performance of novel multi-tubular wet channels of cross-flow IEC.
The experimental test was conducted in MMMUT Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, from March 27, 2023 to April 27, 2023. Different inlet
flow parameters for Working air and Process air for dry and wet channels, in which the system energy output parameters analogously
wet bulb effectiveness, temperature differences, cooling capacity, COP, and sensible efficiency have been evaluated. In the previous
research work, the plate, fin, and tube type wet channel are explained through the heat exchanger design using the effect of process air
is studied only. In the present work, the effect of working air and wet bulb depression is studied exclusively.

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of Novel Wet and dry channels.

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R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

2. Material and methodology

2.1. Cross flow IEC system principles
The CFIEC has two different streams: Process and Working air stream. The Process air stream is the air that needs to be cooled, while
the working air stream is used for cooling and air conditioning through cross-flow (CFIEC). IEC has two different separate channels:
wet and dry. The cooled water is sprayed onto the surface in the wet channel through the heat transfer evaporating and cooling the
process air streams. The humid air proceeds to go outside. As a result, the process air stream is reduced Temperature while Humidity
remains constant.

2.2. Functionality and fabrication of novel wet tubular channel in CFIEC

In a cross-flow IEC, the novel wet channel is a section of the cooling unit where the working air stream and the cooling water flow
are perpendicular. The multi-tubular wet channel is designed as several open small tubes positioned on the dry channel side, as
depicted in Fig. 1. This arrangement enables air to pass through both dry and wet channels. While process air flows along the dry
channel, it undergoes cooling and partially enters the wet channels through the numerous open small tubes. In novel wet channels,
heat is transferred through both convection and conduction.
Fig. 2 depicts the novel wet channel of the experiment setup. The novel wet channel typically consists of a series of horizontal tubes
designed to maximize interaction between the cooling water and the surface over which the air stream passes. The material of the wet
channel is made up of aluminium. The inner wall of the channel’s multiple tubes is open on the dry channel side to prevent water from
entering the dry channels (see Fig. 3).
The entire network of tubes functions as capillary structures with the same diameter. The diameter and length of each tubular pipe
are 10 mm and 20 mm, respectively. The multiple tubular wet channels are situated in between dry channels. There are 96 small tubes
inserted and arranged in an alternate pattern. The spacing between dry and wet channels is 20 mm (see Fig. 4). Finally, fixed sealing is
ripped to join the multiple tubular wet channels and cross-flow heat exchangers. Cross-flow IEC is employed in a wet channel
composed of multiple tubular channels. The dimensions of the cross IEC with novel wet channels have been mentioned in Table 1. Wet
channels depend on the channel’s specific parameters (see Table 2).

2.3. Specification of an experimental setup

The novel wet channel is employed in a cross-flow IEC, integrated into multiple tubular channels. Its fabrication and working under
the condition of the Mohan Malviya University of Technology, Gorakhpur, UP Location (26.7606◦ N, 83.3732◦ E).
The detail dimensions of the CFIEC experimental setup are mentioned in Table 1. The complete setup consists of the exhaust fan,
Cross flow heat exchanger, water tank, flow pipes, spray nozzle with spray water pump. The spray pump and exhaust fan are the
requirement of energy source for their application and are fulfilled by using solar panels. The auxiliary-type equipment power is run
through solar panels, and solar panels drive the cross-flow IEC system. The number of solar panels used will depend on the power
requirement of the experimental setup.
The experimental setup, including measuring instruments, is illustrated in Figs. 5,6. Six HTC Digital Hygrometer with a ther­
mometer is used at the process and working air stream inlet and outlet position of setup. The anemometer is measured velocity at a
circular and rectangular cross-section of the duct through the process and working air inlet and outlet position. Table 3 Describes the
parameters that differentiate various types of measuring devices. The relative humidity is measured in the heat exchanger at the center
of the duct.

2.4. Installation details of an experimental setup

A novel wet channel design has been presented for better cooling effectiveness, demonstrated in a room. This design also shows its
capability to implement a cross-flow IEC system for the AC lab room. The spatial considerations for the AC lab room are shown in

Fig. 2. Actual diagram of Novel wet channels.

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R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

Fig. 3. Side view of Cross-flow IEC system.

Fig. 4. Cross-flow IEC with novel wet channel.

Table No 4.
At MMMUT, Gorakhpur, the experimental setup of solar driven cross-flow IEC was tested in an air conditioning laboratory room as
shown in Fig. 8 (see Fig. 7). The complete setup is located on the window side. The window available for process air intake is 0.7 m
wide and 0.9 m high. The outside air’s temperature and humidity (28–40 ◦ C/<40%) vary according to climatic conditions. Process air
is supplied to the experiment setup IEC from outside the room, and cool air is supplied to the room through a dry channel. The mixed
air of the room is supplied as working air to the inlet wet channel on which water is distributed through spray pumps so that the room is
getting cooled.

3. Performance evaluation indexes

3.1. Energy output performance parameters
The performance evaluation of CFIEC focuses on WBE (wet bulb efficiency), wet bulb depression and Cooling capacity. To
investigate the performance of the experimental setup based on various parameters stated in ASHRAE Standard 143–2015 [35] were

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R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

Table 1
Construction details of an IEC Experimental Setup.

Sr. No Geometry Value

1. No. of Channel (dry and wet) 16

2. Al -Flat Plates, each in dry channels 6
3. Multi tubes in one wet channel 96
4. The thickness of an aluminium sheet 0.260 mm
5. Size of one tube used for a multi-tubular channel 2 mm
6. Area of one wet channel in process air 305 mm × 120 mm
7. Area of one dry channel in process air 305 mm × 60 mm
8. Area of one wet channel in working air 457 mm × 120 mm
9. Area of one dry channel in working air 457 mm × 60 mm
10. Area of the duct for wet channel inlet/outlet (Rectangle) 0.0324 mm2
11. Area of the duct for dry channel inlet/outlet (circular) 0.025 mm2
12. Spray Nozzle dimension 38 mm × 7 mm x 7 mm
13. Space Between dry and wet channel wall 20 mm
14. The affected area of cross-flow IEC for Process air 0.093m2
15. The affected area of cross-flow IEC for working air 0.12m2
16. Indirect evaporative cooler Size 1828 mm × 457.2 mm x 457.2 mm

Table 2
Solar Panel details for powered Experimental setup.

Sr. No Parameters Value

1. Power of one panel 40 W

2. No. of Panels used 3
3. Length of panel 673.1 mm
4. Width of panel 482.6 mm
5. The affected area of the panel 0.33 m2

Fig. 5. Actual Experimental Setup with solar panel.

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R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

Fig. 6. Measuring instruments.

Table 3
Specification of measuring variables.

Measuring Variables Measuring devices Range Uncertainty

Dry bulb Temperature HTC digital Hygrometer Thermometer − 15 to 66 ◦ C ±1 ◦ C

Relative Humidity HTC digital Hygrometer Thermometer 15–95% RH ±4% RH
Air velocity Anemometer 0.1–35 m/s ±5 m/s

Table 4
Spatial condition for experiment setup of IEC.

1. Location Air Conditioning lab room

2. Room dimension Length 5 m, Width: 3.5 m, height:3.4 m
3. Orientation of the room North
4. Room facing Experiment setup facing East
5. Sun Exposure Moderate sunlight during morning (through east facing window)
6. Ventilation Mechanical IEC ventilation for evaporative cooling accordingly ASHARE [35]
7. Floor area 12 square meters
8. Air Change per hour (ACH) 6 for small room [35]

Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of experimental setup.

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R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

Fig. 8. Installation of Experiment setup in room condition.

evaluated, The wet bulb efficiency of the evaporative system is determined by regarding wet bulb temperature. Wet bulb efficiency is
defined based on the temperature drop of the process air stream and inlet wet bulb depression from process air to the working air
stream. Through the initial condition of dry bulb temperature and relative humidity, the wet bulb temperature is calculated by using a
Psychrometric chart. The wet bulb efficiency is expressed as:
Tp,db,in − Tp,db,out
Wet bulb efficiency ηwb = (1)
Tp,db,in − Tw,wb,in

To determine volumetric flow rate of the intake stream in both the dry and wet channels, velocity, and cross-sectional area of the
duct at the entry of these channels were measured. The formulas of volume flow rates are as follows:
Vworking air,wet Vw = vw . Ad (2)

Vprocess air,dry Vp = vp . Ad (3)

The Cooling potential of a CFIEC system, which represents its cooling capacity, is evaluated based on the temperature difference of
process air and mass flow rate. It is expressed as
( )
Cooling Capacity CC = ṁp Cp,air Tp,db,in − Tp,db,out (4)

The coefficient of performance (COP), an essential parameter representing energy efficiency, is a ratio of the cooling capacity of the
CFIEC system to its power consumption (fan and spray water pump). It is expressed as:
Q
Coefficient of performance COP = (5)
P
The wet bulb depression in a CFIEC system, as recommended by ASHRAE [35], is the difference between inlet dry bulb temperature
(process air) and wet bulb temperature (working air). The wet bulb depression (WBD) is calculated by:
Wet Bulb depression WBD = Tp,db,in − Tw,wb,in (6)

The sensible cooling efficiency is defined as the ratio of the process air temperature drop to the difference between the working air
inlet wet bulb temperature and the inlet process air temperature. It is expressed as:
Tp,db,in − Tp,db,out
Sensible Cooling efficiency ηsen = (7)
Tw,db,in − Tp,db,in

3.2. Carbon emission analysis

The utilization of energy resources carries potential to global warming and ozone depletion with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
mainly CO2, having profound environmental effects. Hence, evaluating the associated costs of (GHG) emissions is critical for envi­
ronmental impact assessments [38,39]. The present system is operated with a Solar panel. Therefore, estimating (GHG) emissions
requires in-depth evaluation of electricity consumption by fan and pump through solar panels. Electricity production leads to releasing
CO2 emissions from the substation to the environment.
The electricity generator has utilized the system by incorporating life cycle estimates from the electricity generator. An estimated
CO2 is taken to be 0.930 kg CO2/kWh [40]. Therefore, the carbon reduction cost evaluation is based on computed CO2 emissions
caused by system consumption in a working period, which is given below

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R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

mco2 = xco2 Ẇ consume tworking kg (8)

Where mco2 is CO2 emission released in a year (kg CO2/year), xco2 The CO2 emission value for coal-fired electricity generation is 0.930
kg CO2/kWh. Ẇconsume is the consumed power of the cross-flow IEC using three solar panels (0.120 kW) and tworking is working hours of
the IEC system in a year (3888 h/year) from March to July. The maximum carbon reduction obtained is 0.4339 kg CO2/year through
cross-flow IEC driven by three solar panels rated at 40 W.

3.3. Uncertainty analysis

The Research involves an uncertainty analysis to assess the errors associated with indirectly calculated variables in the experi­
mental setup. The uncertainty calculation follows the methodology examined by Holman et al. [34]. In the analysis, the results (Z) are
a function of the independent variable p1, p2, p3 … …pn. Thus,
( )
Z = Z pi11 , pi22 , pi33 , ……………, pinn (9)

The uncertainty in the results, denoted as Uz, is determined by the uncertainties in the independent variable being i1, i2, i3 … … …
… …, in, then the results of uncertainties are given by,
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
( )2 ( )2 ( )2
∂Z ∂Z ∂Z
Uz = i1 + i2 + ………………….. + in (10)
∂P1 ∂P2 ∂Pn
Table 5 Represents the maximum and minimum uncertainties of the parameters that were evaluated. The COP calculation yields
the highest uncertainty.

4. Results and discussion

The novel multi-tubular wet channel IEC experimental setup is tested and assessment the performance for AC lab room condition.
The size of any evaporative cooling system is determined through ACH. The value of ACH is most important to calculate the required
air flow rate of IEC cooling system. In general, for room sizing, ACH is explained according to the recommendation provided by
ASHARE. In the experimental setup of CFIEC system, a recommended ACH of 6 is used [35].
The required air flow rate for experimental setup installation in AC lab room is 357 cubic meters per hour (m3/h). Since the cooling
system requires a small-scale airflow rate of 600–800 m3/h, it complies with ASHARE standards. This indicates that the selected cross
flow IEC system can effectively provide the necessary ventilation for the AC lab room.
The process air and working air flow rates are studied for dry and wet channels at 0.025 m3/s and 0.0324 m3/s. Each test is
evaluated by varying one variable only while keeping the constant (Reference value in Table 6.) of the process parameters constant.
The same experiment is done for dry and wet channels under the same operating conditions.
The experimental results will be assessed and examined to show the effects of different flow parameters on the Cross-flow IEC
system, which is evaluated by process airflow on temperature drop, working airflow temperature drop, cooling capacity, wet bulb
effectiveness and COP at a various inlet velocity of working air and temperature.
In this paper on novel multi-tubular channels in the CFIEC system, Fig. 9 shows temperature variation plots, and discussion is
systematically shown to emphasize the COP (coefficient of performance) and directly affect the IEC system cooling capacity. By
focusing on relevant parameters such as inlet and outlet temperature, air flow velocity, and humidity, the study aims to clearly un­
derstand cross-flow IEC and its impact on COP and cooling performance under different environmental conditions.
The graph shows the effect of process temperature difference (ΔT) on the cooling capacity and coefficient of performance in a cross-
flow IEC system. In CFIEC systems, cooling capacity increases as the ΔT between dry and novel wet channels increases. The graph
observation showed that as ΔT increases from 4.1 ◦ C to 8.2 ◦ C, the cooling capacity in the bar chart also increases from 134.12 W to
938.86 W. Similarly, the Cooling capacity, COP of cross-flow also increases from 0.98 to 6.9 with rise in temperature difference. The
COP demonstrates an upward trend, indicating that higher temperature difference leads to better energy efficiency in the cooling
process. The relationship between cooling capacity and COP is directly proportional. This positive result demonstrates that cross-flow
IEC provides more cooling, increased energy efficiency. While higher ΔT values result in more significant cooling and COP, there may
be some limitations depends on the velocity of process air/working air, wet bulb depression and relative humidity.

4.1. Effect of working air inlet velocity with temperature

This study aimed to examine the impact of different inlet velocities with the inlet temperature of working air in a wet channel on the
efficiency of a CFIEC system. This study process airflow velocity (1 m/s) remained constant throughout the investigation. The inlet

Table 5
The maximum and minimum uncertainty of evaluated parameters.

Parameters Max. Min.

Wet bulb efficiency % ±0.6 ±0.2

Cooling capacity(W) ±2.4 ±1.2
Coefficient of performance ±5.3 ±1.6
Sensible efficiency % ±3.2 ±1.3

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R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

Table 6
Process and working parameters for reference values.

Parameter Value

1 Process air temperature 26.5–38.2 ◦ C

2 Process air relative Humidity 40–50%
3 Process air velocity 1–3.5 m/s
4 Working air temperature 24–36 ◦ C
5 Working air relative humidity 42–52%
6 Working air velocity 1–3.5 m/s

Fig. 9. Temperature difference variation with COP and Cooling capacity.

velocity in the novel wet channel ranged from 1 m/s to 3.5 m/s, and the working air inlet temperature varied from 24 ◦ C to 36 ◦ C.
Fig. 10 illustrates that increasing the working inlet velocity from 1 m/s to 3.5 m/s resulted in an increase in the process air
temperature difference from 3.8 ◦ C to 8.2 ◦ C with increasing the inlet temperature of working air. This result found that higher ve­
locities enhance the cooling capacity of the wet channel by producing more significant temperature differentials. Fig. 11 Shows that
the impact of different working inlet velocities on wet bulb efficiency (WBE) for various values of Tw, in. The graph represents that wet
bulb efficiency improves with higher working velocities, reaching 90% at a velocity of 3.5 m/s. The enhanced efficiency can result
from increased contact between dry air and water, facilitating higher evaporation rates. The novel wet channel’s higher evaporation
rate, achieved through increased mass flow rate, contributes to lower temperatures in the dry channel of CFIEC.
Moreover, the results demonstrate that increasing the inlet working temperature negatively affects the system cooling capacity. For
instance, at an inlet working velocity of Vw,in = 1 m/s, the cooling capacity decreases by 49.07 W, as the process inlet air temperature
rises from 26.5 ◦ C to 38.2 ◦ C. This impact is also reflected in the cooling capacity when increasing velocity, as shown in Fig. 12 While
the cooling capacity increases with a higher inlet velocity of working air, it decreases when the inlet working temperature is raised
from 24 ◦ C to 36 ◦ C while maintaining a constant inlet velocity (1 m/s) of process air.
Fig. 13 illustrates the coefficient of performance (COP) for various inlet working velocities with inlet working temperature for
working air. The graph indicates that as the temperature rises (24◦ C to 36◦ C), Initially, COP for a minimum velocity of 1 m/s obtained
as 1.27 and for a maximum velocity of 3.5 m/s, the COP was 6.90. This finding highlights the increasing velocity decrease COP up to
4.97 and 0.91, respectively. The increase in inlet working air velocity Vw could lead to a more significant mass flow rate of working air

Fig. 10. Process air temperature difference with different working air inlet velocity and temperature.

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R.J. Tripathi and D. Kumar Journal of Building Engineering 78 (2023) 107674

Fig. 11. Variation of the wet bulb efficiency with different working inlet velocity and temperature.

Fig. 12. Variation in Cooling capacity with different working inlet velocity and temperature.

into the multi-tubular channel on which spray water is distributed, and the working air performs an increment in evaporation rate of
water and increases the wet bulb efficiency. Cooling capacity increases due to maximizing heat transfer between dry and wet channel.
COP of a system decreases due to negative pressure and due to difference of air distribution in a wet channel. The results indicate the

Fig. 13. Variation in COP with different working inlet velocity and temperature.

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importance of maintaining a lower inlet temperature to achieve higher COP.

4.2. Effect of process inlet temperature

The wet bulb efficiency enhances with the increase in the process inlet temperature, and COP decreases, as represented in Fig. 14.
As the process air inlet temperature increases from 26.5 ◦ C to 38.2 ◦ C, the wet bulb efficiency demonstrates an enhancing trend,
ranging from 59% to 70%. During this period, the COP of process air shows a decreasing trend, ranging from 1.27 to 0.91. The COP of
process air in dry channel decreases by 28.34%, and wet bulb efficiency increases by 18.64% with variation inlet process temperature
by 2 ◦ C increment. The increased process inlet temperature inside the dry channel reduces energy efficiency in the cooling system, as
lower COP indicates. The lower COP can be attributed to an increased temperature difference between process air and wet channel
medium, leading to higher energy consumption for cooling. Moreover, wet bulb efficiency indicates that higher process inlet tem­
peratures enhance the cooling medium’s efficiency. The increased wet bulb efficiency explains the heat transfer and evaporation
processes within the system, resulting in better cooling performance of the wet channel.
Fig. 15 Illustrates the variation in temperature difference in dry and wet channels of the CFIEC with increased process inlet
temperature from (26.5◦ C to 38.2◦ C). The process and working temperature difference decreased from 5.3 ◦ C to 3.8 ◦ C and 6◦ C to 4◦ C
respectively. Dry channel reduction in temperature difference explained that higher process inlet temperature found in a narrower
temperature gradient and wet channel cooling capacity is optimized at higher process inlet temperature, resulting in more minor
temperature differences. The observed graph trends in the dry and wet channels significantly impact the cooling system’s performance.
This graph shows that the cooling process becomes more efficient, enabling better cooling performance within the system for wet
channels with respect to dry channels. Initially, at 26.5 ◦ C, the wet channel exhibits a more significant temperature difference (5.3 ◦ C
from process air and 6 ◦ C from working air), indicating improved cooling efficiency of CFIEC. In addition, as the process inlet tem­
perature increases up to 38.2 ◦ C, the temperature difference in the wet channel decreases, approaching or surpassing close to the dry
channel as 3.8◦ C to 4◦ C. These results explained that indirect evaporative cooling as a novel wet channel becomes more efficient at
higher process inlet temperatures, potentially surpassing conventional cooling. Fig. 15 Depicts the initial cooling and heat transfer
efficiency improvement as process inlet temperature increases.
Fig. 16 Represents the wet bulb and sensible efficiency as a function of process inlet temperature changes from 26.5 ◦ C to 38.2 ◦ C.
Initially, the wet bulb efficiency increased from an initial value of 59% -70%. The results found that the cooling system’s ability to cool
the air through a novel wet channel improves with higher process inlet temperatures from 26.2 ◦ C to 38.2 ◦ C, increasing the wet bulb
efficiency up to 18.6%. The sensible efficiency gradually decreases from 2.12 to 1.40 as the process inlet temperature increases. This
graph depicts that the cooling system’s ability to remove sensible heat decreases with higher process inlet temperature. As the process
inlet temperature rises, the novel wet channel improves more on the evaporative cooling process, which focuses on removing latent
heat rather than sensible heat, as it decreases 34.9% from the initial to up to 38.2 ◦ C process inlet temperature. This graph represents
that the novel wet channel priorities the evaporative cooling process, resulting in lower sensible but higher wet bulb efficiency.

4.3. Effect of process inlet velocity

The effect of process inlet velocity (1 m/s to 3.5 m/s) in a wet channel of Indirect evaporative cooling for a fixed working inlet
velocity of 1 m/s significantly implies different performance parameters. The process inlet velocity directly influences the system’s wet
bulb efficiency, wet bulb temperature, the temperature difference between the process and working air and coefficient of performance
(COP).
Fig. 17 Represents the variation in process temperature drop and working temperature drop with increased process inlet velocity.
As the process inlet velocity increases from 1 m/s to 3.5 m/s, the process temperature drop shows an increasing trend and gradually
increases from 5.3 ◦ C to 8.2 ◦ C. The higher velocities enhance the heat transfer between the process and working air streams, resulting
in more significant temperature differences. A more significant temperature drop indicates improved cooling capacity for Process air

Fig. 14. Variation in Wet bulb efficiency and COP of system with process inlet temperature.

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Fig. 15. Variation in Process Inlet temperature difference and working temperature difference with process inlet temperature.

Fig. 16. Variation in Wet bulb efficiency and sensible efficiency with process inlet temperature.

and affects the heat exchange process with process inlet velocity. In addition, the working temperature drop values range from 6 ◦ C to
7.3 ◦ C, slightly lower than the process inlet temperature drop because process inlet velocity on working temperature drop is influenced
by channel design and cooling media wettability. The novel wet channel design and improved wettability affect the temperature drop
of working air not much more difference instead, improve wet bulb efficiency and Cooling potential of the system. Overall results
found that increasing process inlet velocity can enhance the cooling performance and efficiency of the indirect evaporative cooling
system, leading to greater temperature differentials and improved heat transfer.
Fig. 18. The graph illustrates a downward trend in process outlet wet bulb temperature and an upward trend in wet bulb efficiency.
As the process inlet velocity increases from 1 m/s to 3.5 m/s, the wet bulb efficiency ranges from 59% to 83%, and the outlet wet bulb
temperature is 13.5◦ C to 11.29◦ C of process air. Higher process inlet velocities promote better heat transfer and enhance wet channels’
effectiveness and dry channels’ cooling performance.
Fig. 19 Illustrates that the wet bulb efficiency represents cooling effectiveness of wet channel, and COP indicates the energy ef­
ficiency of the cooling dry channel system. The wet bulb efficiency values range from 59% to 83% for a wet channel, and COP values
range from 1.27 to 6.9 for process inlet velocity changes from (1 m/s to 3.5 m/s). The novel wet channel in indirect evaporative cooling
demonstrates superior performance in connection with WBE and process COP compared to the dry channel. The increased wet bulb
efficiency with higher process inlet velocities in a wet channel is due to enhanced evaporation. Increased inlet velocity represented
better heat transfer and evaporation, improving energy efficiency and higher COP values.

4.4. Effect of relative humidity

The impact of working relative humidity changing from 42% to 52% with a 2% enhancement was examined in the present
experimental investigation of the novel wet channel. The working relative humidity was increased by incorporating a cooling media in
the intake section of the working air. The investigation also considered an increase in the working inlet temperature from 24 ◦ C to
34 ◦ C, keeping the other flow variables as inlet velocity and temperature constant.
Fig. 20 represents the dry channel’s variation in process inlet temperature difference concerning the increasing working air inlet
temperature. The higher temperature drop was found at 8.2 ◦ C when the working air relative humidity was 42%, with the working
inlet temperature being 24 ◦ C. However, the process temperature drop decreased as the relative humidity increased to 52%. These

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Fig. 17. Variation in Process temperature drop and working temperature drop with process inlet velocity.

Fig. 18. Variation in Wet bulb efficiency and wet bulb temperature with process inlet velocity.

Fig. 19. Variation in Wet bulb efficiency and COP with process inlet velocity.

results indicate that the enhanced working relative humidity adversely affects the cooling performance of the novel wet channel in
indirect evaporative cooling because condensation start after saturated humidity 50%. The reduction in performance can be attributed
to the limited water vapour carrying capacity of the working air inlet with the cooling medium in the wet channel. This limitation
interrupts the evaporation process of working air and subsequently affects the cross-flow heat exchanger between dry and wet
channels. This trend is further obtained in Fig. 21, which presents the cooling capacity values corresponding to different inlet tem­
perature of working air at different relative humidity levels. As the working relative humidity increased from 42% to 52%, the cooling
capacity decreased from 938.9 W to 721.3 W for an increase in the working inlet temperature from 24 ◦ C to 34 ◦ C. Fig. 22 Provide
information on the wet bulb effectiveness concerning the working inlet temperature and relative humidity. The wet bulb efficiency
exhibited an increase from 83% to 89%. This improvement can be attributed to the high wet bulb temperature in the inlet section of the
wet channel resulting from the increased relative humidity up to 52%.

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Fig. 20. Process air temperature difference with different working inlet temperature and relative humidity.

Fig. 21. Variation in Wet bulb efficiency with different working inlet temperature and relative humidity.

4.5. Effect of wet bulb depression

The present study of experimental investigations explained the effect of wet bulb depression in novel wet channels. The wet bulb
depression refers to the difference between the dry bulb temperature at the inlet of the dry channel and the wet bulb temperature of
working air. The wet bulb depression is a vital parameter that affects the cooling performance and efficiency of the indirect evaporative
cooling system.

Fig. 22. Variation in Cooling Capacity with different working inlet temperature and relative humidity.

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Fig. 23 represents that variation in inlet dew point and wet bulb temperature for working air with wet bulb depression was analyzed
to understand the impact on the evaporative cooling process. As wet bulb depression increased from 6.6 to 9.9, both temperatures (dew
and wet bulb) showed an apparent decrease. The percentage decrease in working inlet dew point temperature ranged from 42.4% to
18.8%, while for working inlet wet bulb temperature ranged from 51.3% to 24.8%. This observation indicated that the evaporative
cooling process effectively reduced the air temperature when the wet bulb temperature was close to the dew point temperature. The
heat was absorbed from the air by evaporating water, resulting in a cooling effect. This graph shows that a higher wet bulb depression
leads to lower humidity levels and reduces moisture content in the incoming air stream. A higher wet bulb depression allows for more
efficient evaporative cooling, resulting in more significant cooling potential.
Fig. 24 illustrates the change in wet bulb efficiency and working inlet wet bulb temperature as wet-bulb depression increases. As the
wet bulb depression enhanced from 6.6 to 9.9, there were downward trends in wet bulb efficiency. The wet bulb efficiency decreased
gradually from 89% to 83%, and the working inlet wet bulb temperature decreased gradually from 31.6 to 16.6, respectively. Both
graphs explained that a higher wet bulb depression is associated with decreased system ability to efficiently cool the air and lower
incoming air temperature in the working air stream. The better performance of the experiment obtained was that the Wet bulb
depression was 8.3 and 86% wet bulb efficiency with 24.5 ◦ C wet bulb temperature.
Fig. 25 illustrates the change in COP and wet bulb efficiency as wet bulb depression increases. As the wet bulb depression improved
from 6.6 to 9.9, two trends were obtained: wet bulb efficiency went downward, and COP was shown upwards. The wet bulb efficiency
decreased gradually from 89% to 83% when COP increased steadily from 4.9 to 6.9. The process air temperatures and velocities have
explained the contrasting trends between wet bulb efficiency and COP. Wet bulb efficiency is primarily affected by the wet channel’s
cooling effectiveness, while the cooling system’s overall energy efficiency influences COP. The decrease in wet bulb efficiency with
increasing wet bulb depression indicates a reduction in wet channel cooling capacity and effectiveness. In addition, the increase in COP
explained that the cooling system’s energy efficiency is enhanced, possibly due to improved heat transfer and evaporation processes.
Fig. 26 illustrates that relationships between cooling capacity and wet bulb depression were investigated and impacted the per­
formance of the wet channel system. The cooling capacity increased gradually from 830.6 W to 1083.22 W, and working inlet wet bulb
temperatures decreased steadily from 31.6 ◦ C to 16.6 ◦ C. This graph explains that a higher wet bulb depression results in lower
temperatures of working air entering the wet channel. While enhancing the system’s cooling capacity, a higher wet bulb depression
allows for a higher temperature difference between the wet and dry channels, leading to a greater cooling capacity.

4.6. Thermal comfort assessment

The Psychrometric representation of room conditions using dry and novel wet channels with different inlet and outlet conditions is
depicted in Fig. 27. The outlet condition temperature difference is 4.8 ◦ C of the dry channel, which shows the thermal comfort zone for
an experimental lab AC room in a building. These points can readily be defined as thermal comfort zones using novel wet channels. The
experimentation was conducted under hot and dry conditions (relative humidity <40%). Because of working airflow parameters,
almost all investigated outlet conditions fall within the thermal comfort range. Implementing a novel wet channel for CFIEC in AC lab
room within the building presents a new approach to enhancing thermal comfort.
By incorporating this experimental setup, the building room can achieve efficient cooling without compromising humidity levels
for the lab room. This showed that the novel wet channel improves cooling effectiveness and thermal comfort while maintaining a
humidity range.

4.7. Comparatively study between present and previous work

Many researchers compared the cross-flow IEC in their work. Though there are similar works, multi-tubular wet channels are
obtained in the present novel, and their performance of cross-flow IEC is studied. Table 7. A comparative analysis of the performance of

Fig. 23. Variation in Wet bulb temperature and dew point temperature with wet bulb depression.

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Fig. 24. Variation in Wet bulb temperature and wet bulb efficiency with wet bulb depression.

Fig. 25. Variation in COP and wet bulb efficiency with wet bulb depression.

Fig. 26. Variation in Wet bulb temperature and Cooling capacity with wet bulb depression.

novel wet channel CFIEC system between the current study and previous Research. The present work mainly examined the impact of
working air and process air for temperature and velocity.
When compared the experimental results investigated by Stoitchkov et al. [30], it was noticed that the wet bulb efficiency is like the
findings. Similarly, in the study of IEC presented in Ref. [36], a comparable feature was observed in terms of cooling performance, as

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Fig. 27. Psychometric representation of room conditions using dry and wet channels.

the study results indicate that no statistically significant variance was observed in the working air temperature. However, their study
achieved lesser efficiency values than the current results due to differences in wet channel structure.
In work by Khalid et al. [37], implementing a cross-flow arrangement of heat transfer between dry and wet channels has provided
an advantageous increase in the heat transfer range within the affected area of cross-flow HX. The present study and previous studies
employed the novel wet channel of cross-flow arrangement technique for heat transfer between dry and wet channels. Cross-flow with
novel wet channels, the heat dissipated from process air dry channels can be easily released, built, and operated efficiently.

5. Conclusions
The present study investigated and implemented a novel multi-tubular wet channel for cross-flow IEC. The study focused on
developing and testing a wet channel using flow parameters effects. The cross-flow IEC system operated on evaporative cooling
principles, where the air streams were separated to prevent excess moisture transfer. The novel wet channel’s performance evaluations
were conducted by analysing various operational parameters. The performance assessment of novel wet channel using a flow
parameter (velocity, relative humidity, and temperature) for working air and process air. The main key findings of this investigation
are presented below:

• Temperature difference: Increasing the process inlet temperature from 26.5 ◦ C to 38.2 ◦ C decreases the temperature difference
between dry and wet channels, with dry channels experiencing a decrease from 5.3 ◦ C to 3.8 ◦ C, indicating enhanced cooling
efficiency and the wet channel maintaining a temperature difference between 3.8 ◦ C and 4 ◦ C, showing the improved effectiveness
of the novel wet channels.

Table 7
Comparative performance study of a novel wet channel in CFIEC.

Parameter Caliskan, h et al. Zhan et al. Alonso et al. [29] Stoitchkov et al. Khalid et al. Present Work
[36] [15] [30] [37]
Flow Type Cross Flow Cross Flow Cross Flow Cross Flow Cross Flow Cross Flow
Inlet process air 23.88 ◦ C 20 ◦ C–40 ◦ C 35 ◦ C–45 ◦ C 24 ◦ C–36 ◦ C 25–45 ◦ C 26.5–38.2 ◦ C
temperature
Inlet process wet bulb 8 ◦C 22 ◦ C 19.5◦ C–23.3 ◦ C 17.7 ◦ C–28.3 ◦ C 18.8 ◦ C 17.7–29.8 ◦ C
temperature
Inlet working air 20 ◦ C – 23.5 ◦ C–27.2 ◦ C 22 ◦ C–28 ◦ C – 24 ◦ C–36 ◦ C
temperature
Inlet working wet bulb 5.8 ◦ C – 16.8 ◦ C–18.6 ◦ C 16 ◦ C–21 ◦ C – 16.6 ◦ C–32.8 ◦ C
temperature
Process air flow rate/ 0.077 m3/s 0.13 m3/s 0.022 m3/s 3.3 m/s 0.5–1.1 m/s 1–3.5 m/s
velocity
Working channel material Plastic Plastic – Metal Al sheet Al tubes
Channel gap – 2.4 mm 3.0 mm 3.5 mm 5 mm 20 mm (Novel wet
channel)
Wet bulb efficiency 115% 116.4% 77–93% 79–88% 90–98% 59–90%
COP 2.3 – – – – 6.90
Cooling capacity 636 W 456.2 W – – 300 W 938.5 W

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• Cooling capacity: Increasing the process inlet velocity in a wet channel enhances the cooling capacity by 16.67%. However,
raising the inlet working temperature with velocity from 24 ◦ C to 36 ◦ C decreases cooling capacity by 33.37%. Increasing the
relative humidity of working air reduces the cooling capacity by 23.16%. The inlet velocity solely plays a vital role for both dry and
multi-tubular wet channels in achieving optimal thermal comfort cooling, necessitating its maximization.
• COP: Increasing the inlet working and process air temperature decreases COP value by 28.34%. To enhance energy efficiency,
maintaining a lower inlet temperature and achieving a higher Coefficient of performance is essential and requires an equal air
distribution to reduce pressure difference in both channels. When there is an increase in wet bulb depression, COP increases by 40%
• Wet bulb efficiency: Increases in working velocities result in improved wet bulb efficiency, reaching a maximum value of 90% at
3.5 m/s while increasing the working inlet temperature from 24 ◦ C to 36 ◦ C enhances wet bulb efficiency from 59% to 70%,
indicating enhanced cooling medium efficiency and lower temperature in dry channels. An increase in relative humidity enhances
wet bulb efficiency by 7.23%.
• Sensible efficiency: The sensible efficiency of the cooling system gradually decreases by 34.9% as the increases process inlet
temperature. At higher process inlet temperatures, cooling depends more on removing latent heat than sensible heat.
To enhance cooling effectiveness, wet bulb efficiency, lower inlet temperature through enhanced heat and mass transfer by multi-
tubular surface area, resulting in reduced energy consumption, and optimizing working velocities are significant. Additionally, the
novel wet channel improved humidity control and air quality in thermal comfort zone through natural evaporation processes, thus
minimizing environmental impact and decreasing dependency on conventional refrigerants.
The novel wet channel has a higher temperature difference and wet bulb effectiveness with cooling potential. These conclusions
assist in the design and operation of cross-flow Indirect evaporative cooling systems. By applying these outcomes in practical
implementation, the building can achieve sustainable cooling, reduce carbon emissions, and utilize a cross-flow IEC for eco-friendly
with cost-effective solutions.

6. Limitation and future research

As with the previous study, the present research had certain limitations of solar-driven CFIEC system. Solar-driven multi-tubular
cross-flow IEC is a technology used for thermal comfort and cooling systems, where mixed warm air is passed through a multi-tubular
wet channel to achieve cooling through evaporation.
Limitations:

• Humidity sensitivity: IEC systems are particularly effective in hot and dry climates at low relative humidity ranging from 35 to
55%. When relative humidity exceeds 80% in a humid climate, the air already contains a substantial amount of moisture, and
condensation initiates the channel wall temperature, making it more challenging to evaporate additional water into the wet
channel of IEC.
• Reduced Cooling capacity: In humid areas, high humidity levels hinder the evaporation process in IEC wet channel. Usually, IEC
is designed to provide localized room cooling and is more effective in hot and dry climates. The cooling capacity of traditional air
conditioning depends on the floor area and has a range of cooling capacity from 5.25 kW to 17.5 kW. At the same time, the size of
the evaporative system depends upon Air change reduction (ACH) from 6 to 20. Indirect evaporative coolers have a lower cooling
capacity compared to traditional air conditioners. In areas with high humidity, the cooling capacity of the Indirect evaporative
cooler may be limited.
• Maintenance and fouling: The multi-tubular wet channels are prone to fouling, scaling, and microbial growth, reducing heat and
mass transfer between dry and wet channels. Regular maintenance and cleaning are necessary to ensure the optimal performance of
the IEC system.
Recommendation for Future Research work:
With a multi-tubular channel, IEC offers several advantages but has areas for improvement. Here are recommendations for future
research related to the evaporative process, wet channel, and performance.
• Material improvement: Research and development efforts should focus on finding more durable, antifouling, and anti-microbial
materials for the wet channels. This could help to reduce maintenance needs and enhance the longevity of the IEC system. Other
PCM-incorporating materials used in heat exchange devices include hydrophilic coatings, nanomaterials for enhancing heat
transfer efficiency, and other PCM-related materials.
• Miniature and integration: Investigate ways to reduce the size and complexity of multi-tubular wet channel systems, making
them more suitable for various applications and easier to integrate into existing HVAC.
• Humidity Management: Developing methods to manage humidity levels within the cooling systems, such as IEC with nanofluids,
IEC with pre-cooling, and IEC with Desiccant Dehumidification, could improve its performance in humid environments. De­
humidifiers help reduce the air’s moisture content, making the environment more comfortable.
• Hybrid IEC systems: For better Performance of IEC, combining refrigeration systems such as IEC compression systems, IEC ab­
sorptions systems, IEC with heat pump and desiccant cooling will be efficient. Air conditioners use refrigeration mechanisms to cool
the air, independent of the humidity level. In such situations, hybrid evaporative air conditioners can supplement ordinary air
conditioners and are more energy efficient than traditional air conditioners. They consume less electricity and can be eco-friendly
cooling. When the conditions are favorable, using an IEC instead of solely relying on an air conditioning unit help to reduce energy
consumption and lower utility bills.

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Author statement
Ram Ji Tripathi: Experimentation, Methodology, data collection, Formal analysis, investigation, validation, visualization,
Writing-original draft, review & editing,
Devesh Kumar: Conceptualization, Supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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