or, in expanded form, using ,

(11 – )n1 + 12 n2 + 13 n3 = 0 (3.6-3a)

12n1 + (22 – )n2 + 23n3 = 0 (3.6-3b)
13n1 + 23 n2 + (33 – )n3 = 0 (3.6-3c)
In the three linear homogeneous equations expressed by Eq 3.6-3, the
tensor
components ij are assumed known; the unknowns are the three
components
of the principal normal ni, and the corresponding principal stress . To
complete the system of equations for these four unknowns, we use the
normalizing condition on the direction cosines,
ni ni = 1 (3.6-4)
For non-trivial solutions of Eq 3.6.2 (the solution nj = 0 is not
compatible
with Eq 3.6-4), the determinant of coefficients on nj must vanish. That
is,
(3.6-5)
which upon expansion yields a cubic in (called the characteristic
equation
of the stress tensor),
(3.6-6)
whose roots (1), (2), (3) are the principal stress values of ij. The
coefficients
, , and are known as the first, second, and third invariants, respectively,
of ij and may be expressed in terms of its components by
(3.6-7a)
(3.6-7b)
(3.6-7c)
Because the stress tensor ij is a symmetric tensor having real
components,
the three stress invariants are real, and likewise, the principal stresses
being
roots of Eq 3.6-6 are also real. To show this, we recall from the theory of
equations
that for a cubic with real coefficients at least one root is real, call it (1),
and let the associated principal direction be designated by . Introduce a
second set of Cartesian axes so that is in the direction of . In
ij ji 
ij ij 0
3 I 2 II III 0 _ _ _
I_ II_ III_
I ii tr
II1 
2
1
2
2 ii jj ij ji
tr tr 2
III _ ijk _ 1i 2 j 3k det
ni
(1)
P xxx1 2 3 x1 n i
1