Sensors 19 04715 PDF

sensors
Article
Machine Learning Techniques Applied to Multiband
Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radios
Yanqueleth Molina-Tenorio 1 , Alfonso Prieto-Guerrero 2, * , Rafael Aguilar-Gonzalez 2
and Silvia Ruiz-Boqué 3
1 Master of Sciences and Information Technologies, Metropolitan Autonomous University Iztapalapa,
Mexico City 09360, Mexico; yanqueleth@xanum.uam.mx
2 Electrical Engineering Department, Metropolitan Autonomous University Iztapalapa, Mexico City 09360,
Mexico; r.aguilar@xanum.uam.mx
3 Department of Signal and Theory Communications, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 08860 Barcelona,
Spain; silvia.ruiz@upc.edu
* Correspondence: apg@xanum.uam.mx

Received: 6 September 2019; Accepted: 28 October 2019; Published: 30 October 2019
Abstract: In this work, three specific machine learning techniques (neural networks, expectation
maximization and k-means) are applied to a multiband spectrum sensing technique for cognitive radios.
All of them have been used as a classifier using the approximation coefficients from a Multiresolution
Analysis in order to detect presence of one or multiple primary users in a wideband spectrum.
Methods were tested on simulated and real signals showing a good performance. The results
presented of these three methods are effective options for detecting primary user transmission on the
multiband spectrum. These methodologies work for 99% of cases under simulated signals of SNR
higher than 0 dB and are feasible in the case of real signals.
Keywords: cognitive radios; multiband spectrum sensing; machine learning; neural networks
1. Introduction
Spectrum scarcity has been an issue in past years, due to the increasing demand for wireless
communications services. Several instances have demonstrated that a solution is highly necessary
in order to provide spectrum spaces for future technologies. In this regard, among engineering and
regulatory proposed solutions, cognitive radio (CR) has been an outstanding option. CR is based
on software-defined radio (SDR) and dynamic spectrum access (DSA) technologies, both allowing
to improve drastically the spectrum occupancy [1,2]. Users that consider the utilization of CR are
known as secondary users (SU). They do not have assigned a spectrum space; however they have the
capacity to use available spectrum spaces adapting to the environment, which provides an affordable
communication service. This process should be done without provoking an interference to the licensed
users, called also primary users (PU) [3].
In order to accomplish its promises, CR has to perform mainly four tasks such as spectrum sensing,
spectrum sharing, spectrum decision, and spectrum mobility [4]. The primary task is spectrum sensing (SS),
this activity is fundamental to detect PU presence and to determine if a spectrum space is occupied or
empty. SS has been a widely studied topic, present in the literature with many different techniques,
being most of them based on single band SS [5]. However, future communications services require
high data rates, which can be reached only by considering non-contiguous spectrum bands. The last
means that single band SS algorithms should be improved to include multiple bands, this paradigm is
called multiband spectrum sensing (MSS).
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715; doi:10.3390/s19214715 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 2 of 22
According to the literature, a branch of MSS techniques corresponds to wide-band spectrum

sensing (WBSS) [6]. At the same time, WBSS is divided into sub-categories, for example: wavelet-based
spectrum sensing, compressive sensing, and angle-based spectrum sensing among others. Several
important contributions related to MSS are mentioned in [7–9]. All these methods and techniques are
considered in order to improve the performance of SS and CR.
Authors of this paper presented a previous work describing how to detect efficiently PU presence
by considering new alternative methods [10], based on hybrid linear and non-linear techniques. In this
contribution, a couple of MSS algorithms based on multiresolution analysis (MRA) and the Higuchi
fractal dimension (HFD) were proposed and discussed. However, there are several basic issues
which still represent a challenge, for example, the threshold setting for distinguishing PU presence or
absence [11] and the new paradigm to convert CR in an really smart entity [12]. In [10], the detection
threshold of PUs was manually placed, derived from the results obtained with simulated signals.
Nevertheless, considering the high variability of the spectrum occupancy, this option was not optimal.
Therefore, in this paper, a new proposal is analyzed, reconsidering the way in which the CR should act
to automatically place the optimal threshold while dynamically adapting it to follow this spectrum
occupancy. To do so three different machine learning (ML) algorithms are proposed, implemented
and compared, showing that they are useful and efficient techniques to detect occupied or empty
bandwidth spaces in a multiband spectrum sensing scenario.
Previous works have included ML techniques in their CR proposals. In [13], it is mentioned an
overview of the ML techniques that have been used for different CR tasks. SS and MAC protocols have
used reinforcement learning (RL) because is the optimal solution for Markov decision process and
game theory-based learning. For signal classification and feature detection non-parametric learning,
Dirichlet Process mixture model has been used, given that does not require prior knowledge about the
number of mixture components. Artificial neural networks (NN) do not require prior knowledge of
the distribution of the observed process. For the case of support vector machines (SVM) algorithm,
which has better performance for small training examples compared to artificial NN, it requires
prior knowledge of the distribution of the observed process and requires data labeling. For power
allocation and rate adaptation, it is considered the theory-based learning strategy. Finally, for the
reconfiguration of system parameters, the threshold learning is used, which is suitable for controlling
specific parameters under uncertainty conditions with the restriction of training data.
Interesting works for CR and ML techniques are available in the literature. For example, in [14] a
cooperative spectrum sensing (CSS) scheme based on ML techniques applied to an energy vector is
proposed, where each component is an energy level estimated at each CR device. Results show how
CSS techniques, considering ML, are capable of implicitly learning from the surrounding environment.
In [15], an ML-based multiband spectrum sensing policy has been proposed using the greedy method
to track the occupancy statistics of PUs and to estimate the detection performance of the SUs. The policy
considering the greedy method can select those sub-bands which provide spectrum opportunities with
high throughput for the secondary network. In [16], a technique for sensing the primary radio signal
in a cognitive environment using a learning algorithm based on artificial NN is analyzed. In [17], a
channel state predictor is implemented for multi-SU in a CR using NN. The Dirichlet process has been
used as a framework for non-parametric Bayesian learning in CRs in [18].
A contribution related to SS and ML appears in [19], where a scheme based on the algorithm
K-nearest neighbors is proposed. The method includes the training and classification phase, and
each user takes a decision that is processed in a fusion center. The results show advantages in the
detection of PU compared to traditional methods. In [20] the spectrum occupancy is analyzed by
several supervised and unsupervised ML techniques, concluding that SVM is the best classification
technique. Also, the SVM technique has shown good results in the allocation of resources such as
power and channel, in cognitive radio networks [21].
This work is organized as follows: in Section 2, the theoretical bases of the implemented ML
techniques are briefly presented. After, in Section 3, a summary of the methodology of our previous
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 3 of 22
3 of 22
work is described. Besides, in this same section, the new methodology considering the ML techniques
isisexplained.
explained. Section
Section 44 shows
shows the
the simulation
simulation environment
environment and
and results.
results. Finally,
Finally,Section
Section55mentions
mentionsthe
the
conclusion and a brief discussion.
conclusion and a brief discussion.
2. Theoretical
2. Theoretical Bases
Bases of
of the
the Implemented
Implemented ML
ML Techniques
Techniques
Machine learning
Machine learning provides
provides computers
computers withwith the
the ability
ability to to learn
learn without
without being
being explicitly
explicitly
programmed. ML methods are very effective when
programmed. when the
the data
data set
set is
is large,
large, diverse
diverse and
and fast-changing.
fast-changing.
These algorithms
These algorithms give
give aa deep
deep and
and predictive
predictive analysis
analysis of
of data
data [22]
[22] and
and can
can be
beclassified
classifiedinto
intotwo
twobig
big
groups: supervised (clustering techniques) and unsupervised learning (classification
groups: supervised (clustering techniques) and unsupervised learning (classification and regression and regression
techniques). This
techniques). This section
section describes
describes briefly
briefly the
the background
backgroundof of the
the techniques
techniquesassociated
associatedwith
withmachine
machine
learningthat
learning thatwill
willbe
beimplemented
implementedin inthe
theanalysis.
analysis.
2.1.
2.1. Neural
Neural Networks
Networks
Artificial
ArtificialNNNNarearecomputational
computationalmodels
modelsinspired
inspiredby bythe
thecentral
centralnervous
nervoussystem,
system,specifically
specificallythe
the
brain. NN have the capacity to perform pattern recognition. NN usually are presented
brain. NN have the capacity to perform pattern recognition. NN usually are presented as a system of as a system
of interconnected
interconnected “neurons”
“neurons” that
that cancan compute
compute values
values from
from inputs
inputs by by feeding
feeding information
information through
through the
the network [23]. The NN are supervised algorithms that require training with
network [23]. The NN are supervised algorithms that require training with labeled data. Theselabeled data. These
networks
networksarearebased
basedononempirical
empiricalrisk
riskminimization
minimizationandandthey
theyrequire
requireprior
priorknowledge
knowledgeof ofthe
theobserved
observed
process
processdistribution.
distribution.Figure
Figure1 1shows
shows a NN
a NNconsisting
consistingof an input
of an layer,
input one one
layer, or more hidden
or more layerslayers
hidden and
an output layer. A NN is used for both classification and prediction considering
and an output layer. A NN is used for both classification and prediction considering a back- a back-propagation
algorithm
propagationby algorithm
weight adjustment
by weight ofadjustment
each edge ofoflayers.
each edge of layers.
X1 Y1
W1 j
O1
X2
W2 j Yj
Wj k
Ok
Wn j
Xn Ym
Figure 1. Neural network concept.

Figure 1. Neural network concept.
2.2. K-Means
2.2. K-means
The K-means algorithm allows the classification of a data set. This algorithm requires prior
The K-means
knowledge algorithm
of the number K ofallows
groups the classification
to be of a data
classified. K-means set. This
defines algorithm
K number requires
of centroids, prior
finds a
knowledge of the number K of groups to be classified. K-means defines K number of
partition that minimizes the squared error between the empirical mean of the centroid of a cluster andcentroids, finds
a partition
the points inthat
the minimizes the squared
group. Iteratively error between
recalculates the empirical
the centroid meanuntil
of each cluster of the centroid
finding of a cluster
a partition that
reaches the convergence [24]. K-means usually converges to a local minimum, but in [25], it finding
and the points in the group. Iteratively recalculates the centroid of each cluster until has beena
partition
shown that
that whenreaches the convergence
the clusters [24]. K-means
are well separated, usually
it could skip converges to a localconverging
the local minimum minimum, to butthe
in
[25], it has
global one. been shown that when the clusters are well separated, it could skip the local minimum
converging to the global one.
2.3. Expectation-Maximization
2.3. Expectation-Maximization
The Expectation-Maximization (EM) algorithm consists of two major steps: an expectation step,
The by
followed Expectation-Maximization
a maximization step. The(EM) algorithm
expectation consists
is with of to
respect twothemajor steps:underlying
unknown an expectation step,
variables,
followed
using by a maximization
the current estimate of the step. The expectation
parameters is with
and conditioned upon respect to the unknown
the observations. underlying
The maximization
variables, using the current estimate of the parameters and conditioned upon the observations. The
maximization step provides a new estimation of the parameters. These two steps are iterated until
4 of 22
convergence.
Sensors 2019, 19, The
4715 EM algorithm was discovered and employed independently by several different 4 of 22
researchers. However, the authors of [26] brought their ideas together, proved convergence, and
coined the term “EM algorithm”. In this work, EM is used to delimit 2 events and can be described
step
as provides a new estimation of the parameters. These two steps are iterated until convergence.
follows.
The Given
EM algorithm
x1 ,..., xn wasnumberdiscovered and employed
of observations belonging independently
to K typesby of several
groups.different researchers.
K Gaussians with
However, the authors of [26] brought their ideas together, proved convergence, and coined the term
 2  are created randomly. In this work only two events ( K  2 ) are considered, resulting in
“EM algorithm”. In this work, EM is used to delimit 2 events and can be described as follows.
G1(1Given
 12 ) and
x1 , . .G xn2number
. ,2( 22 ) . For xi , P(b  xito
each point belonging
of observations ) Kistypescalculated. Where
of groups. b   A, Bwith
K Gaussians  are(µ,the
σ2 )
randomly. In this work only two events (K = 2) are considered, resulting in G1(µ1 , σ1 ) and
are createdevents:
considered
2
G2(µ2 , σ22 ). For each point xi , P(b|xi ) is calculated. Where b = {A, B} are the considered events:
P( xi  ) P(B)
P(B  xi )  (1)
P( xi  ) PP(B) P
(xi |B )P( x(B
i )
 ) P(A)
P(B|xi ) = (1)
P(xi |B)P(B) + P(xi |A)P(A)
1 ( x   )2
P( xi  )  1 exp(  (xi − 2µB ))2 (2)
P(xi |B) = √2 B exp(− 2 B2
2 i B
) (2)
2πσB 2 2σB
Recalculating 1,2 1,2 2
 for A and B :
Recalculating (µ1,2 , σ21,2 ) for A and B:
b x  ...  b x
1  b11x11 + . . . +n bnn xn (3)
µ1 = b1  ...  bn (3)
b1 + . . . + bn
b ( x   )2  ...  b ( x   )2
12 b1 (1x1 1− µbb)2 + . . . +n bnn(xn −n µn )2 (4)
σ21 = b1  ...  bn (4)
b1 + . . . + bn
with (µ2 ,σ22)..
2
Analogously
Analogouslywith 2 2
3.3.ML-based
ML-BasedMethodology
Methodology
First,
First,ititisispresented
presentedaashort
shortsummary
summaryofofthe thetechnique
techniquedeveloped
developedby bythe
theauthors
authorsinin[10].
[10].Basically,
Basically,
this
thisoriginal
originalmethodology
methodologyconsiders
considersthethemultiresolution
multiresolutionanalysis
analysis(a(awavelet-based
wavelet-baseddyadic dyadicfilter
filterbank)
bank)
and
andthe
theHiguchi
Higuchifractalfractaldimension
dimensionto
todetect
detecttransmissions
transmissionsof ofPUs.
PUs.The
Theflowchart
flowchartofofthe
theimplemented
implemented
methodology
methodologyof ofthis
thisprevious
previouswork
workisisdescribed
describedininFigure
Figure2 2where
whereXX( (f f) )represents
representsthe
thepower
powerspectral
spectral
densityin
density inaawide widefrequency
frequencyrange
rangeor
orthethereceived
receivedmultiband
multibandspectrum
spectrumby byaa SU.
SU.
Multi resolution Reconstructed signal from approximated coefficients

analysis
Frequency Frequency
Approximation edge locator edge
coefficients
Normalized
Approximation Interpolation
Dynamic
coefficients
windows
NAC
Higuchi fractal yes no Higuchi fractal
NAC > 0.7
dimension dimension
HFD
no Primary
HFD > 1.85 user
yes no primary
user
Figure 2. The second methodology described by a flow diagram, developed in [10].

Figure 2. The second methodology described by a flow diagram, developed in [10].
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 5 of 22
This original methodology is described by the following steps:
Step 1. The received multiband spectrum by a SU, X ( f ) , is decomposed via the MRA at
defined level 3 with a Haar wavelet, giving the respective approximation and details
coefficients.
Step 2. From the obtained approximation coefficients at level 4, the spectrum is reconstructed
eliminating in this way the broadband noise and only keeping the tendency (or smooth
shape X app ( f ) ) of the multiband spectrum X ( f ) .
Step 3. The frequency edges locator is constructed by detecting the values changes of the same
approximation coefficients passing through the threshold of 0.7, i.e., the
approximation coefficients going from down to up of the 0.7 or vice versa. These
changes will be the frequency edges necessary to construct the dynamic windows for
further analysis.
Step 4. The same approximation coefficients obtained in Step 1 are normalized e interpolated
(to have the same samples that the dynamic windows). With these normalized and
interpolated approximation coefficients (NAC), each conformed window is then
processed to detect noise or a possible PU transmission. If the NAC are, on average,
under a defined threshold of 0.7 then the values of the analyzed windows is probably
a PU transmission. If NAC is greater than 0.7 is practically sure that the transmission
corresponds to noise.
Step 5. If NAC is greater than 0.7 then the Higuchi fractal dimension is applied directly on the
analyzed section of the multiband spectrum X ( f ) . In the other case, the HFD is
applied to the reconstructed signal from Step 2 (i.e., X app ( f ) ).
Step 6. For each window, if the calculated HFD is lower than 1.85 (decision threshold) a PU
transmission is detected. In another case, no PU is detected (only noise).
The inclusion of ML techniques in the original methodology described above has the main goal to
improve the detection process of PUs. Basically, the two first steps and the last one of the previous
work remain the same, however, in this new approach the NAC are processed by ML techniques
improving the detection process before applying the HFD, modifying the original methodology in
Steps 3 and 4 (marked by a dashed red line). The threshold of 0.7 is modified with these ML techniques
and instead of being fixed to a constant value, is adapted dynamically enhancing the frequency edges.
Figure 3 shows the introduction of this new block, and the red dashed line points out the place for
ML techniques. All techniques, described in Section 2, are implemented in this block. As a result, the
frequency edges are improved and a Test window (TW) is used to determine the presence or absence
of PUs instead of NAC directly (Step 5 also marked by a dashed red line).
Next, the implementation of each ML techniques is described starting with the training process for
detection of PUs, and describing later how each technique is introduced in the original methodology.
1
Step 5. If NAC is greater than 0.7 then the Higuchi fractal dimension is applied directly on the
analyzed section of the multiband spectrum X  f  . In the other case, the HFD is
applied to the reconstructed signal from Step 2 (i.e. Xapp  f  ).
Step
Sensors 6.19, 4715
2019, Foreach window, if the calculated HFD is lower than 1.85 (decision threshold) a6 PU
of 22
transmission is detected. In another case, no PU is detected (only noise).
Multi resolution Reconstructed signal from approximated coefficients

analysis
Frequency
edge
Machine learning Test Frequency
Normalized techniques edge locator
approximation
coefficients Test
window
Dynamic 6 of 22
windows
Steps 3 and 4 (marked by a dashed red line). The threshold of 0.7 is modified with these ML
Higuchi fractal yes no Higuchi fractal
techniques and instead of being fixed toTWa=constant
1 value, is adapted dynamically enhancing the
dimension dimension
frequency edges.
Figure 3 shows the introduction of this new block, and the red dashed line points out the place
HFD
for ML techniques. All techniques, described in Section 2, are implemented in this block. As a result,
the frequency edges are improved and a Test window no (TW) is used to determine Primary
the presence or
HFD > 1.85 user
absence of PUs instead of NAC directly (Step 5 also marked by a dashed red line).
Next, the implementation of each ML
yes techniques is described starting with theno training
primary process
for detection of PUs, and describing later how each technique is introduced inuser the original
methodology.
Figure 3. Improving of the original methodology in [10] using ML techniques.
Figure 3. Improving of the original methodology in [10] using ML techniques.
3.1. Neural Network with Manual Threshold
3.1. Threshold Setting
Setting
The inclusion of ML techniques in the original methodology described above has the main goal
In this
In
to improve thisthe
work,
work, an NN
an NN
detection is used
is
processused as
ofas aaclassifier.
PUs. classifier. This
Basically,This classifier
classifier
the two usesand
uses
first steps thethe
the normalized
normalized
last one of approximation
approximation
the previous
coefficients
coefficients
work to
remaintothe determine
determine the presence
the presence
same, however, of PU.
in this of
new PU. To
Toapproach make
make a better a better
detection,
the NAC detection, the
the approximation
are processed by ML approximation
coefficients
techniques
coefficients
for the for
signals the
with signals
PU with
transmissionsPU transmissions
are rescaled are
in therescaled
interval in
of the
[0,
improving the detection process before applying the HFD, modifying the original methodology interval
1], where of0 [0, 1], where
represents in0
the
represents with
coefficient the coefficient
more power withand
more power andthe
1 represents 1 represents
coefficientthe coefficient
with with less
less power. power.
Figure Figure
4 shows the4
shows the implemented
implemented scheme for scheme
this MLfor this ML technique.
technique.
Artificial Neural Network
Training stage
Training
Normalized normalized Manual Test
rescaled Training
rescaled threshold
coefficients of coefficients
signal to
evaluate
Classification stage
Test window
Classification (in function of
of coefficients dynamic
windows)
Figure 4. The general scheme for the NN-based

Figure 4. NN-based technique
technique with
with aa manual
manual threshold
threshold setting.
setting.
First, the NN is trained based on a single frame from the whole wideband spectrum, i.e. X  f 
First, the NN is trained based on a single frame from the whole wideband spectrum, i.e., X( f )
and its MRA. The considered frame for training is chosen randomly but must contain one or more PU
and its MRA. The
transmission. considered
Figure 5a shows frame for training
an example is chosen
of the randomly
signal used butNN
for the must containwhile
training, one orFigure
more PU5b
transmission. Figure 5a shows an example of the signal used for the NN training, while
represents the normalized and rescaled approximation coefficients, obtained from the MRA that will Figure 5b
represents
be the normalized
used to train and
the NN. This rescaled
step approximation
provides coefficients,about
to the NN, information obtained from the
frequency bandMRA that will
appearance
be used to train the NN. This step provides to the NN, information about frequency band
with and without PUs activities. To separate both classes (PUs or SUs), it is necessary to set an appearance
with and
initial withoutbefore
threshold PUs activities. To separate
NN training. A manualboth classeswas
threshold (PUsinitially
or SUs),proposed,
it is necessary to set
but this an initial
means that
threshold before NN training. A manual threshold was initially proposed, but this means
the threshold setting will depend on the criteria of an external user, making the process extremely that the
threshold setting will depend on the criteria of an external user, making the process extremely
unpredictable. However, for a signal with a large difference among coefficients (low noise), the
threshold setting is not a big deal.
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 7 of 22
7 ofthe
unpredictable. However, for a signal with a large difference among coefficients (low noise), 22
threshold setting is not a big deal. 7 of 22

a)
a)
b)
b)
Figure 5. (a) Random signal used for the NN training, (b) Normalized and rescaled approximation
coefficients
Figure 5.5. (a)
Figure which
(a) are used
Random
Random toused
signal
signal trainfor
used thethe
for NN.
the NN
NNtraining,
training, (b)
(b)Normalized
Normalized and
andrescaled
rescaledapproximation
approximation
coefficients
coefficientswhich
whichare
areused
usedto
totrain
trainthe
theNN.
NN.
In Figure 6, the user set the threshold at 0.6, and the NN was trained. In this figure, according to
this manual
In threshold,
In Figure
Figure 6,
6, the the approximation
the user
user set
set the
the threshold
threshold coefficients
at
at0.6, andwere
0.6,and the classified
theNN
NN was and represented
wastrained.
trained. In
In this
this figure,with
figure, 1 for noise
according
according to
to
and
this 0 for
manual PUs, identifying
threshold, the correctly
approximation the PUs presence.
coefficients Thus,
were the trend
classified of
and coefficients
represented
this manual threshold, the approximation coefficients were classified and represented with 1 for noise is clear
with and
1 for helps,
noise
besides
and
and 00 for toPUs,
for separate
PUs, both classes,
identifying
identifying correctly
correctlyto determine
the
the PUs the frequency
PUs presence.
presence. Thus, edges
Thus, the
the trend
trendof of
a PU
of transmission.
coefficients
coefficients is
is clear
clearThis
andoccurs
and helps,
helps,
when
besides a change
to separate is present
both from
classes, toa coefficient
determine associated
the frequency to noise
edges and
of a PU
besides to separate both classes, to determine the frequency edges of a PU transmission. This occurs the immediately
transmission. next
This is a
occurs
coefficient
when a associated
change is to
present a PU
from (or
a vice versa),
coefficient as can
associated be
to shown
noise by
and the green
immediately
when a change is present from a coefficient associated to noise and the immediately next is a circles in
next Figure
is a 6. These
coefficient
values
associated (green
coefficient to a circles)
PU (or vice
associated will permit
to a versa),
PU tocan
(or as
vice construct
be shown
versa), asthe dynamic
by
can theshown
be greenwindows
circles
by thein (marked
Figure
green 6.asThese
circles W1,…,W5
values6.in
in Figure this
(green
These
case)
circles)that
willwill be
permit further
to processed
construct the individually
dynamic windows to determine
(marked asif the
W1, .
values (green circles) will permit to construct the dynamic windows (marked as W1,…,W5 in this . .
signal ,W5 segment
in this corresponds
case) that will or
be
not to
further a PU.
processed individually to determine if the signal segment corresponds
case) that will be further processed individually to determine if the signal segment corresponds or or not to a PU.
not to a PU.
Tendency of NN
Manual threshold 0.6
Tendency ofofNN
+ Coefficients noise
Manual threshold 0.6
o Coefficients of PU
+ Coefficients of noise
o Coefficients of PU
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
Figure 6. The result of training the NN with a manual threshold set at 0.6 over an entire frame.
frame. The
normalized and
andrescaled
rescaledapproximation coefficients
approximation havehave
coefficients been been
classified. Also, the
classified. borders
Also, the of dynamic
borders of
Figure 6. The result of training the NN with a manual threshold set at 0.6 over an entire frame. The
windows
dynamic are determined.
windows are determined.
normalized and rescaled approximation coefficients have been classified. Also, the borders of
dynamic windows are determined.
With the NN trained, now it is possible to apply this NN to other frames and obtain the
frequency
With edges
the NN from the normalized
trained, and rescaled
now it is possible approximation
to apply this NN to coefficients.
other framesThese frequency
and obtain the
edges permit to build the dynamic windows. According to Figure 3, prior to decide if applying
frequency edges from the normalized and rescaled approximation coefficients. These frequency the
edges permit to build the dynamic windows. According to Figure 3, prior to decide if applying the
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 8 of 22
8 of 22
With the NN trained, now it is possible to apply this NN to other frames and obtain the frequency
edges
HFD to from X(the normalized
f ) or Xapp ( f ) , itand rescaled approximation
is necessary coefficients.
to do the classification of These frequency establishing
the coefficients, edges permitthe
to
build the dynamic windows. According to Figure 3, prior to decide if applying the HFD to X( f ) or
“test signal” as the complete output resulting by the trained NN and the “test window” as the specific
Xapp ( f ), it is necessary to do the classification of the coefficients, establishing the “test signal” as the
segments of the test signal associated to dynamic-sized windows. Steps 3 to 5 of the original
complete output resulting by the trained NN and the “test window” as the specific segments of the
methodology have been modified as:
test signal associated to dynamic-sized windows. Steps 3 to 5 of the original methodology have been
modified as:
Step 3. A training frame is selected: the approximation coefficients are normalized and rescaled. These
Step 3.coefficients
A training areframe used is selected:
to train the approximation coefficients
NN with an initial are normalized
threshold and rescaled.
set by the user. After NN
These coefficients are used to train the NN with an initial threshold
training, the normalized and rescaled approximation coefficients from another set by the user. Afterrandom
NN
training,frames
analysis the normalized
are obtained andand
rescaled approximation
evaluated by the trained coefficients from another
NN, resulting random
in the test which
analysis frames are obtained and evaluated by the trained NN, resulting in
contains the classification of coefficients (0 for a possible PU transmission and 1 for noise).the test which
contains the classification of coefficients (0 for a possible PU transmission and 1 for noise).
Step 4. The frequency edges and dynamic windows are determined from the output of the NN. The
Step 4. The frequency edges and dynamic windows are determined from the output of the NN. The
edges are the result of the change from one state to another (from one to zero and vice versa).
edges are the result of the change from one state to another (from one to zero and vice versa).
Step 5. If the test in each dynamic window (spectrum signal segment) corresponds to 1, it is practically
Step 5. If the test in each dynamic window (spectrum signal segment) corresponds to 1, it is practically
X f . 
sure
surethat
thatthe
thetransmission
transmission corresponds tonoise,
noise,that
thatmeans
meansthe
theHFD
HFD willbebe applied
to to X f
corresponds to will applied ( )
. On
Onthe
the contrary
contrary case, the analyzed
case, the analyzedwindows
windowsare
arehighly
highlyprobably
probably a PU
a PU transmission
transmission andand
thethe
HFD will be applied to Xapp ( f) .
HFD will be applied to X f
app
.
The result
The result of
of this
this whole
whole process
process isis shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure7.7. First,
First, in Figure
Figure 7a a real random
random multiband
multiband
signal is
signal is presented,
presented, this
this signal is just an example to demonstrate
demonstrate the the functionality
functionality of
of the
the methodology.
methodology.
Figure 7b
Figure 7b shows
shows the
the classification
classification of
of the
the approximation
approximation coefficients
coefficients using
using the
the NN.
NN. Here,
Here, itit is
is possible
possible
to appreciate
to appreciatethethedifference
differencebetween
betweencoefficients
coefficients associated
associated with
with PUPUandand noise.
noise. Finally,
Finally, in Figure
in Figure 7c
7c the
the result
result of determination
of the the determination of the
of the availability
availability of aofbandwidth
a bandwidth space
space is indicated.
is indicated. In this
In this figure,
figure, it isit
is clear
clear howhowthethe trained
trained NN NN classifies
classifies thethe spectrum
spectrum signal
signal is occupied
is occupied or empty.
or empty.
a)
b)
c)
Figure 7. (a)
Figure 7. (a) Real
Real random
random multiband
multiband signal.
signal. (b)
(b) Classification
Classification of
of coefficients,
coefficients, the
the result
result of
of using
using the
the
trained NN mentioned in Figure 6. (c) Result of applying the methodology using NN as a
trained NN mentioned in Figure 6. (c) Result of applying the methodology using NN as a classifier. classifier.
3.2. Neural Network with an EM Threshold Setting

3.2. Neural Network with an EM Threshold Setting
The NN training threshold that was used in Section 3.1 depends on the criteria of the user. To
The NN training threshold that was used in subsection 3.1 depends on the criteria of the user.
improve it, an Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm is included to select automatically and
To improve it, an Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm is included to select automatically and
optimally the threshold. Figure 8 shows the new block diagram including EM.
optimally the threshold. Figure 8 shows the new block diagram including EM.
1
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 9 of 22
99 of
of 22
22
Artificial
Artificial Neural
Neural Network
Network
Training
Training stage
stage Expectation
Expectation
Training maximization
maximization Training
Training Training
Normalized
Normalized normalized Test
normalized Test
rescaled
rescaled rescaled Decision
rescaled Decision
coefficients
coefficients of
of coefficients threshold
coefficients threshold
signal
signal to
to
evaluate
evaluate
Classification
stage
Test
Test window
window
Classification
Classification (in
(in function
function of
of
of
of coefficients
coefficients dynamic
dynamic
windows)
windows)
Figure
Figure 8.
8. The
The general
general scheme
scheme for
for the
the NN-based
NN-based technique
technique with
with aa threshold
threshold setting
threshold setting using
setting using EM.
using EM.
EM.
Figure
Figure999shows
Figure showsthe
shows the normalized
the normalized and
normalized and rescaled
and rescaled approximation
rescaled approximation coefficients
approximation coefficients of
coefficients of aa generated
generated random
random
multiband
multiband spectrum used to train the NN. When applying EM to these coefficients, two specific limits
spectrum used to train the NN. When applying EM to these
these coefficients,
coefficients, two specific limits
are
are obtained.
obtained. The
The threshold
threshold isis then
then selected
selected randomly
randomly between
between these
these limits
limits (a
(a detailed
detailed explanation
explanation of
of
this
this decision
decision is
is explained
explained in subsection
in Section 4.1).4.1).
subsection 4.1).
a)
a)
b)
b)
Figure
Figure 9.
9. (a)
(a) Multiband
Multiband spectrum
spectrum generated
generated randomly.
randomly. (b)
(b) Approximated,
Approximated, normalized
normalized and
and rescaled
rescaled
approximation
coefficients which are
which are used
areused to
usedto train
totrain the
trainthe NN.
theNN.
NN.
InFigure
In
In Figure10
Figure 1010the
theapplication
the applicationof
application ofofthe
thetheEM
EMEMalgorithm
algorithm
algorithm is is
is exemplified.
exemplified.
exemplified. Here,Here,
Here, thethe
the firstfirst
first twotwo
two classesclasses
classes are
are
are randomly
randomly chosen
chosen withwith Gaussian
Gaussian distribution
distribution (marked
(marked inin green),
green),
randomly chosen with Gaussian distribution (marked in green), the normalized and rescaled the
the normalized
normalized and
and rescaled
approximation
approximation coefficients are
are plotted
plotted on on the
the XXX axis
axis (marked
axis (marked with
(marked with yellow
with yellow bullets).
yellow bullets). The
bullets). The result
result of of
applying EM to these coefficients are the two Gaussians in blue, where
applying EM to these coefficients are the two Gaussians in blue, where it is clearly seen that they it is clearly seen that they
correspond
correspond to to two
two groups
groups that
that can
can be separated.
be separated.
separated. The Thelimits
The limits L
limits L1 and L2
L11 and LL22are
areset
are setatat
set 1 µ
atL1LL1= 111+ 33
3σ111 and
and
L2 =
LL22  µ + 3σ when L1 < L2 since the probability of occurrence is 0.001 for each class and where
2  33 0.001
2 2when L1 L2 since the probability of occurrence is for each class and where
22 when L1  L2 since the probability of occurrence is 0.001 for each class and where
(0.211, 20.1143) and (0.872, 0.0446) are the mean and standard deviation (STD) of Gaussians 1 and 2,
(0.211,
(0.211, 0.1143) and
and (0.872,
0.1143)Finally, (0.872, 0.0446)
0.0446) are
are the
the mean
mean and
and standard
standard deviation
deviation (STD)
(STD) of Gaussians 11 and
and 2,
respectively. the threshold is chosen randomly between L1 and L2. Theof Gaussiansbetween
uncertainty 2,
respectively. Finally, the threshold is chosen randomly between L 1 and L 2 . The uncertainty between
respectively.
what the optimalFinally, the
value threshold
would be is is chosenin
clarified randomly When L1L1>and
Section 4.between L2 . The
L2 means uncertainty
that the SNR isbetween close to
what the optimal value would be is clarified in Section 4. When LL11  LL22 means that the SNR is close
0 dB. In this case, L1 = µ1 + nσ1 and L2 = µ2 + nσ2 are adjusted with n = 2, 1, 0 untilthe
what the optimal value would be is clarified in Section 4. When means that L1SNR< L2iswhere close
to 0 dB. In
to 0probability this
dB. In this of case,
case, L 1    n
L1  11 for and
n1each L2   
2  22 be
andn Lwould n  are
 n0.022, adjusted
22 are0.158,
adjusted with n  2,1,0
with n  2,1,0 until L1  L2 where
until L 1  L 2 where
the occurrence 1 0.499.
the
the probability of occurrence for each n would be 0.022,0.158,0.499 ..
probability of occurrence for each n would be 0.022,0.158,0.499
Limit L1
Limit L2
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Figure 10. The power of the approximation coefficients in axis X and the result to classify them in two
classes.
EM threshold
Limit L1
In the case of theLimit
analyzed
L2 example (Figure 9), the threshold is set to 0.654 (Figure 10). Applying
this threshold to a training signal allows the classification of coefficients and the determination of
frequency edges that facilitate the building of the respective dynamic windows as it is shown in
Figure 11. This improvement only modifies Step 3:
Step 3. A training frame is selected: the approximation coefficients are normalized and rescaled.
These coefficients are used to train the NN where coefficients will be classified and two limits
( L1 and L2 ) estimated by the EM algorithm. Then, a random value between L1 and L2 is
selected as threshold.
10. Thepower
Figure 10.
Figure powerofofthe
the approximation coefficients in axis X and
the the result to classify them in
After The
NN training, approximation
the normalizedcoefficients in axis
and rescaled X and result
approximation to classify
coefficientsthem in two
from another
two classes.
classes.
random analysis frames are obtained and evaluated by the trained NN, resulting in the test
which contains the classification of coefficients (0 for a PUistransmission and 1 for10).noise).
InInthe
the caseof
case ofthe
theanalyzed
analyzed example(Figure
example (Figure 9),the
9), thethreshold
threshold set to
is set to 0.654
0.654 (Figure
(Figure 10). Applying
Applying
this threshold to a training signal allows the classification of coefficients and the
this threshold to a training signal allows the classification of coefficients and the determination ofdetermination of
The result
frequency edges of applying
edges that this
that facilitate technique
facilitate the is
the building shown
building ofof the in Figure
the respective 12. Here,
respective dynamic a multiband
dynamic windows
windows as random
as itit is signal
is shown
shown in is
in
frequency
used to
Figure 11. determine
11. This its states
This improvement of
improvement only occupancy
only modifies based
modifies Step on
Step 3:
3: the mentioned trained NN clearly detecting the
Figure
presence of PUs.
( L1 and L2 ) estimated by the EM algorithm. Then, a random value between L1 and L2 is
selected as threshold.
After NN training, the normalized and rescaled approximation coefficients from another
EM threshold
Limit L1
which contains the
Limit L2 classification of coefficients (0 for a PU transmission and 1 for noise).
Tendency of NN
The result of applying this
o Coefficients of technique
PU is shown in Figure 12. Here, a multiband random signal is
used to determine its states of occupancy based on the mentioned trained NN clearly detecting the
presence of PUs.
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
11. The result of training

Figure 11. training the NN
NN with
with the
the EM-based
EM-based threshold
threshold set
set to
to 0.654.
0.654. Determination
Determination of
frequency edges and
and construction
construction of
of the
the dynamic
dynamic windows.
windows.
EM threshold
Limit L1
( L1 and Limit
L2 ) estimated
L2 by the EM algorithm. Then, a random value between L1 and L2
is selected Tendency of NN
as threshold.
After NNo Coefficients
training, ofthe
PU normalized and rescaled approximation coefficients from another
which contains the classification of coefficients (0 for a PU transmission and 1 for noise).
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
The result of applying this technique is shown in Figure 12. Here, a multiband random signal is
usedFigure
to determine its states
11. The result of occupancy
of training based
the NN with theon the mentioned
EM-based thresholdtrained NN Determination
set to 0.654. clearly detecting
of the
presence of PUs.
frequency edges and construction of the dynamic windows.
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 11 of 22
11 of
11 of 22
22
a)
a)
b)
b)
c)
c)
Figure 12.
Figure
Figure 12. (a)
12. (a) Multiband
(a) Multiband spectrum
Multiband spectrum generated
spectrum generated randomly.
generated randomly. (b)
randomly. (b) Classification
(b) Classification of
Classification of the
of the approximation
the approximation
approximation
coefficients, the
coefficients, the result
result of
of using
using the
the trained
trained NN
trained NN mentioned
NN mentioned in
mentioned in Figure
in Figure11.
Figure 11. (c)
11. (c) Result
Result of
of applying
applying the
the
complete methodology using a NN as a classifier.
classifier.
complete methodology using a NN as a classifier.
3.3. Methodology Using

3.3. Methodology
3.3. Using aaa K-means
K-Means
K-means Classifier
Classifier
Anotherunsupervised
Another
Another unsupervisedmethod
unsupervised method used
used inin this
this work
work as
as aa classifier of the
classifier of the approximation
coefficients
coefficients
from a random
from aa random
from multiband
random multiband spectrum
multiband spectrum
spectrum isis the
is the K-means
the K-means technique.
K-means technique.
technique. InIn order
In order to
order to determine
to determine the
the multiband
determine the multiband
multiband
availability of
availability of
availability the
of the spectrum
the spectrum signal,
spectrum signal, the
signal, the approximation
the approximation coefficients,
coefficients, normalized
approximation coefficients, and
normalized and
normalized rescaled,
rescaled, are
and rescaled, are first
are first
first
classified
classified with
with K-means.
K-means. The
The flowchart
flowchart of
of this
this process
process is
isshown
shown in
in
classified with K-means. The flowchart of this process is shown in Figure 13. Figure
Figure 13.
13.
K-means
K-means
Reconstructed
Reconstructed
signal from
from Clusters selection
Clusters selection stage
stage
signal
approximation
approximation Power > -90 dBm
Power > -90 dBm no
no
coefficients
coefficients yes
yes
Decision of
Decision of
Test
Test
Bandwidth number of
number of
Bandwidth
analysis clusters
clusters
analysis
Normalized
Normalized Test window
Test window
rescaled
rescaled Classification
Classification (in function
(in function of
of
coefficients of
coefficients of
of coefficients
of coefficients dynamic
dynamic
signal to
signal to
windows)
windows)
evaluate
evaluate
Figure 13.
Figure 13. The
The general
The scheme
general
general for the
scheme
scheme for the approximation
forapproximation coefficients
the approximation classification
coefficients
coefficients based on
classification
classification based on the K-means
based
the K-means
on the
technique.
K-means
technique.technique.
In
In this
In this technique,
this technique, the
technique, the objective
the objective is
objective is
is to
to classify
to classify the
classify the approximation
the approximation coefficients
approximation coefficients into
coefficients into 222 groups,
into groups, one
groups, one
one
inferring
inferring the
the PU
PU transmission
transmission and
and one
one corresponding
corresponding to
to the
the noise,
noise,
inferring the PU transmission and one corresponding to the noise, when the multiband spectrum when
when the
the multiband
multiband spectrum
spectrum
contains
contains PUs
contains PUs
PUs transmissions.
transmissions. On
transmissions. On the the other
the other hand,
other hand, they
hand, they must
they must
must bebe classified
be classified
classified inin
in aaa single
single
single groupgroup
group when when the
when the
the
same radio-electric
same radio-electric
same radio-electric spacespace contains
space contains only
contains only noise.
only noise. However,
noise. However, one
However, one of
one of the
of the disadvantages
the disadvantages
disadvantages foundfound
found in in K-means
in K-means
K-means is
that
is it it
is that
that is necessary
it is
is necessary
necessary totoindicate
to indicate
indicate thethenumber
the numberofof
number ofclusters
clustersthat
clusters thatare
that areexpected,
are expected,which
expected, whichintroduces
which introducesaaa difficulty
introduces difficulty
difficulty
since the
since the
since frames
the frames that
frames that are
that are evaluated
are evaluated
evaluated by by the
by the algorithm
the algorithm are
algorithm are random.
are random.
random. Then, Then, to
Then, to indicate
to indicate
indicate howhow
how many many clusters
many clusters
clusters
the
the K-means
K-means algorithm
algorithm needs,
needs, it
it is
isnecessary
necessary aa prior
prioranalysis
analysis
the K-means algorithm needs, it is necessary a prior analysis of the behavior of Xapp of
of the
the behavior
behavior ofofX Xapp (( ff)). . As
As it
it is
is shown
shown
app( f ) . As it is shown
in Figure 13, the possible presence of a PU in the signal Xapp ( f ) is first evaluated setting a simple
in Figure
in Figure 13, 13, the
the possible
possible presence
presence of of aa PU
PU inin the
the signal
signal X Xapp ( f ) is first evaluated setting a simple
app( f ) is first evaluated setting a simple
12 of 22
Sensors
energy 2019, 19, 4715at
detector −90 dBm. If there is no detection, the number of clusters is set to 1. On the12other
of 22
hand, if some transmission exceeds the threshold, we have three possible cases which are solved with
a smalldetector
energy analysis at
of −90
bandwidth:
dBm. If there is no detection, the number of clusters is set to 1. On the other
hand, if some transmission exceeds the threshold, we have three possible cases which are solved with
Case
a small 1: impulsive
analysis noise in the signal. Owing to the small bandwidth of this anomaly, i.e. less than
of bandwidth:
7 samples * 0.1 [MHz], the number of clusters chosen is still 1.
Case 1: impulsive noise in the signal. Owing to the small bandwidth of this anomaly, i.e., less than 7
Casesamples
2: possible
* 0.1PU transmissions
[MHz], the numberin the signal. chosen
of clusters With the is understanding
still 1. that a transmission has
at least 7 samples * 0.1 [MHz] then the number of clusters will be 2.
Case 2: possible PU transmissions in the signal. With the understanding that a transmission has at
Caseleast 7 samplesnoise
3: impulsive * 0.1 and
[MHz] then the
possible PU number of clusters
transmissions will bein2.the frame. In this case, when
coexisting
Case 3: impulsive
locatingnoise
that and
therepossible PU transmissions
is a possible transmissioncoexisting
with at leastin the frame. In* this
7 samples case, when
0.1 [MHz], that
locating that there is a possible transmission
means the chosen number of clusters will be 2. with at least 7 samples * 0.1 [MHz], that means
the chosen number of clusters will be 2.
The methodology is modified in Steps 3 and 4, regarding the proposed steps in subsection 3.1 as
The methodology is modified in Steps 3 and 4, regarding the proposed steps in Section 3.1
follows:
as follows:
Step 3. 3.AApriori
Step priorianalysis
analysisdirectly
directly on
on the
the approximation coefficientstotoselect
approximation coefficients select the
the number
number of of clusters
clusters is is
done:
done: If the reconstructed signal ( X app( f ) ) does not exceed −90 dBm, the cluster number willwill
If the reconstructed signal ( X ( f ) ) does not exceed -90 dBm, the cluster number
app
bebe1 1(only
(onlynoise).
noise).Else,
Else,the
the bandwidth
bandwidth of of the
thesignals
signalsthat
thatexceeded
exceeded this
this threshold
threshold is studied
is studied (3 (3
cases
casesmentioned
mentionedbefore).
before). To
To confirm that ititisisnot
confirm that notimpulsive
impulsivenoise
noise(2(2 clusters).
clusters).
Then,
Then,the thenormalized
normalizedand andrescaled approximationcoefficients
rescaled approximation coefficientsfrom
from another
another random
random analysis
analysis
frames
framesare areobtained
obtained and
and evaluated
evaluated byby the
the K-means
K-meansalgorithm,
algorithm,resulting
resulting in in
thethe
testtest which
which
contains
containsthe theclassification
classification of
of coefficients (0 for
coefficients (0 foraaPU PUtransmission
transmissionand and 1 for
1 for noise).
noise).
Step
Step 4. 4.The
Thefrequency
frequency edges
edges and
anddynamic
dynamicwindows
windowsareare
determined
determinedfromfrom
the output of the of
the output classifier. The
the classifier.
edges
The are the
edges are result of theof
the result change from one
the change stateone
from to another
state to(from one to
another zero one
(from and vice versa).
to zero and vice
versa).
The result of applying K-means to coefficients is shown in Figure 14. In Figure 14a we can observe
The resultwindows
how dynamic of applying
andK-means to coefficients
the frequency edges areis shown
chosen.inInFigure
Figure14.14a,
In Figure 14a we can
the clustering observe
is given in
howgroups
two dynamic windows
where and theof
the presence frequency edges
PUs exists. are chosen.
In Figure 14b, itInisFigure
shown14a,thethe clustering
power is givenin
of coefficients in
two groups where the presence of PUs exists. In Figure 14b, it is shown the power of coefficients
Y-axis, where 1 corresponds to low power (bullets in red color) and 0 to a higher power (bullets in color in
Y-axis,K-means
blue). where 1classifies
corresponds to low
correctly thepower
given (bullets in red color)
the approximation and 0 to anormalized
coefficients, higher power and(bullets in
rescaled,
color
of blue). multiband
a random K-means classifies
spectrum. correctly the given the approximation coefficients, normalized and
rescaled, of a random multiband spectrum.
a) b)
W1 W2 W3 W4 W5
Figure14.
Figure 14.(a)
(a)Classification
Classificationof of coefficients
coefficients withwith K-means
K-means and respective
and their their respective frequency
frequency edges.
edges. (b) (b)
Power
Power of coefficients in Y-axis the result of use K-means as a classifier.
of coefficients in Y-axis the result of use K-means as a classifier.
The result of applying K-means to the multiband spectrum monitoring technique using the
technique as a classifier is shown in Figure 15, where Figure 15a corresponds to a randomly generated
13 of
13 of 22
22
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 13 of 22

The result
The result ofof applying
applying K-means
K-means toto the
the multiband
multiband spectrum
spectrum monitoring
monitoring technique
technique using
using the
the
technique as
technique as aa classifier
classifier is
is shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 15,
15, where
where Figure
Figure 15a
15a corresponds
corresponds toto aa randomly
randomly generated
generated
multiband spectrum, while Figure 15b shows the occupation
multiband spectrum, while Figure 15b shows the occupation along
occupation along the
along the frequency,
the frequency, result of applying
frequency, result of applying
the complete
the complete methodology.
methodology.
methodology.
a)
a)
b)
b)
Figure 15.
Figure 15. (a)
(a) The
The random
randommultiband
random multibandspectrum
multiband spectrumwhich
spectrum whichcorresponds
which corresponds
corresponds to
toto coefficients
coefficients
coefficients plotted
plotted
plotted in Figure
in Figure
in Figure 14.
14.
14. (b)
(b) (b) The
TheThe result
result
result of applying
of applying
of applying the
the the complete
complete
complete methodology.
methodology.
methodology.
Results
4. Results
4.
In this section,
In this
this section, the
section, thesimulation
the simulationenvironment
simulation environmenttoto
environment toanalyze
analyzeand
analyze andcompare
and compare
compare the
the pros
pros
the and
and
pros cons
cons
and in
in in
cons the
thethe use
useuse
of
of
the the three
three ML ML techniques
techniques is is completely
completely described.
described. Performance
Performance is also is also
checked checked
using
of the three ML techniques is completely described. Performance is also checked using signals using
signals signals
captured
captured
from from
a real
captured aa real
real environment.
environment.
from environment.
4.1. Simulated Signals

4.1. Simulated
Simulated Signals
4.1. Signals
The
The methodology
methodologydescribed
described in Section 3 with
in Section
Section the ML techniques, was applied
was to a globaltosimulation
The methodology described in 33 with
with the
the ML techniques,
ML techniques, was applied
applied to aa global
global
of 500,000
simulation frames
of for
500,000 SNR values
frames for in
SNR the interval
values in [−10,
the 20] dB,
interval as it
[−10, is shown
20] dB, in
as Figure
it is 16.
shown In
in each frame,
Figure 16.
simulation of 500,000 frames for SNR values in the interval [−10, 20] dB, as it is shown in Figure 16.
the
In number,
each frame,typethe(OFDM
number,or NRZ
type associated
(OFDM orwith
NRZ CDMA) and position
associated with (frequency
CDMA) and edges) of(frequency
position simulated
In each frame, the number, type (OFDM or NRZ associated with CDMA) and position (frequency
symbols
edges) ofofwere generated
simulated randomly.
symbols Each frame
were generated
generated consists Each
randomly. of 1024 samples
frame spaced
consists by 0.1
of 1024
1024 MHz (i.e.,
samples an
spaced
edges) simulated symbols were randomly. Each frame consists of samples spaced
entire
by 0.1 band
0.1 MHz consist
MHz (i.e.(i.e. an of 102.4
an entire MHz).
entire band
band consistSimulation
consist of parameters
of 102.4
102.4 MHz). are
MHz). Simulationsummarized
Simulation parameters in Table
parameters are 1. The
are summarizedanalyzed
summarized in in
by
blocks
Table correspond
1. The analyzedto studies
blocks ofcorrespond
noise, symbols,
to and frequency
studies of noise, edges. These
symbols, and studies
frequency serve to analyze
edges. These
Table 1. The analyzed blocks correspond to studies of noise, symbols, and frequency edges. These
the behavior
studies serveof to symbols,
analyze the noise
the and the
behavior ofaccuracy
symbols,of detected
noise and thefrequency
the accuracyedges.
of detected
detected frequency
frequency edges.
edges.
studies serve to analyze behavior of symbols, noise and accuracy of
Methodology
Methodology
Multiband
Multiband
spectrum
spectrum
Generator
Generator sensing
sensing
SNR
SNR of 500,000
of 500,000 Percentage
Percentage
technique
technique
[-10, 20]
[-10, 20] random
random of success
of success
Classification
Classification
frames
frames based on
based on ML
ML
techniques
techniques Occupation of
Occupation of
signal
signal
Study of
Study of noise
noise
and symbols
and symbols
Study of
Study of edges
edges
Figure 16.
Figure Scheme of
16. Scheme of the
the global
global simulation.
simulation.
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 14 of 22
14 of 22
Table 1. Simulation parameters.
Table 1. Simulation parameters.
ML Technique
NN-Manual Threshold ML Technique
NN-EM Threshold K-Means
Software NN – Manual threshold
MATLAB NN 2014b– EM threshold K-means
Software
Value for SNR MATLAB 2014b
−6 a 20 dB spaced by 2 dB
Value for per
Number of frames SNR each SNR value −6 a 20500,000
dB spaced by 2 dB
Number of frames per each SNR value 500,000
Number of symbols per each frame Randomly between [0, 2]
Number of symbols per each frame Randomly between [0, 2]
Bandwidth 102.4 MHz
Bandwidth 102.4 MHz
Samples per frame 1024
Samples per frame 1024
From Section 3.2,

From 3.2, aarandom
randomthreshold
thresholdisischosen
chosenbetween
between the values
the values L1 L1
of of and
andL2,L2,
after applying
after applyingthe
EM EM
the algorithm. The chosen
algorithm. The chosenthreshold is the result
threshold is the of the study
result of theshown
studyinshown
Figure in17.Figure
Here, a17.
simulation
Here, a
of 10,000 randomly
simulation of 10,000 generated
randomly frames was performed
generated frames was for each SNR value.
performed for In thisSNR
each simulation,
value. the two
In this
levels L1 andthe
simulation, L2two
were chosen
levels L1 asandtheL2maximum
were chosen or theas minimum
the maximum threshold
or thevalue, respectively,
minimum thresholdnecessary
value,
to the NN training.
respectively, In Figure
necessary to the 17,
NNthe averageInand
training. STD17,
Figure of the average
frequency edges
and STDdetection for each edges
of the frequency of the
limits of this
detection threshold,
for each of the is shown.
limits Here,
of this choosing
threshold, any of these
is shown. Here,limits doesany
choosing notof
represent a bigdoes
these limits change
not
in the estimation
represent of frequency
a big change edges, which
in the estimation means that
of frequency if any
edges, random
which meansvalue is ifchosen
that between
any random one
value
of chosen
is these two limits,one
between it will
of not
these represent a big
two limits, it difference. In practice,
will not represent it is
a big extremelyIncomplicated
difference. practice, it to
is
determine complicated
extremely the optimumto value for thisthe
determine threshold,
optimum because
value the for premise of multiband
this threshold, because spectrum sensing
the premise of
technique isspectrum
multiband based onsensing
the ignorance
techniqueof the characteristics
is based of the received
on the ignorance signal (frequency
of the characteristics edges,
of the SNR,
received
presence
signal of UP, bandwidth,
(frequency edges, SNR, etc.)presence
For SNRof < −2
UP,dB the proposed
bandwidth, etc.)methodologies
For SNR < −2dodB notthe
have a good
proposed
performance since
methodologies the have
do not signals are embedded
a good performance in noise.
since the signals are embedded in noise.
Figure
Figure 17. The mean and
and STD
STDofofthe
thefrequency
frequencyedges
edges location
location estimation
estimation using
using thethe threshold
threshold asand
as L1 L1
L2 considered
and as the
L2 considered asmaximum and and
the maximum minimum values,
minimum respectively,
values, for the
respectively, forNN
the training.
NN training.
In Figure
In Figure 18a,
18a, it
it is
is highlighted
highlighted aa random
random multiband
multiband spectrum
spectrum that
that represents
represents aa challenging
challenging case
case
because of the contained power noise. In Figure 18b, we can observe that the three methodologies
because of the contained power noise. In Figure 18b, we can observe that the three methodologies
have an
have an excellent
excellent performance
performance in in aa quite
quite noisy
noisy environment.
environment.
The frequency edges for the original methodology and the different proposals for the example
of Figure 18, are shown in Table 2. The edges where the transmissions of the PUs were placed in the
simulation have been also included. It is clearly observed that the proposals presented in this paper
prove to be more accurate than the original methodology.
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 15 of 22
15 of 22
a)
15 of 22
a)
b)
b)
(a) Multiband
Figure 18. (a) Multiband spectrum generated randomly. (b) (b) Original methodology
methodology and proposed
methodologies applied
methodologies appliedtotodetermine
determinethe
theoccupation
occupationbyby PUs.
PUs. Where
Where allthem
all of of them detect
detect correctly
correctly UPs
UPs transmissions.
transmissions.
Table 2. Frequency edges detection with the different techniques of the example shown in Figure 18.
The Figure
frequency
18. (a)edges for the
Multiband original
spectrum methodology
generated randomly. and the different
(b) Original proposals
methodology for the example
and proposed
of Figuremethodologies
18, are shown in Table
applied 2. The the
to determine edges where the
Frequency
occupation by transmissions
PUs.Edges Detected
Where of[MHz]
all of them the PUs
detect were UPs
correctly placed in the
simulation have Simulation
been also included.0.1It is 14.2
transmissions. clearly19.4
observed
40.7 that the
60.7 proposals
73.7 presented
93.7 in this paper
102.4
Original
The methodology
frequency edges for the 0.1 14.2
original 18.4 40.5
methodology 60.2
and the 73.4proposals
different 93.2 for the
102.4
example
of Figure 18, are shown
NN-Manual in Table 2.0.1
threshold The edges
14.4 where
19.2 the transmissions
40.8 60.8 of the PUs
73.6 were placed
93.6 102.4 in the
Table 2. Frequency edges detection with the different techniques of the example shown in Figure 18.
simulation have been also included. It is clearly observed that the proposals presented in this paper
NN-EM threshold 0.1 14.4 19.2 40.8 60.8 73.6 93.6 102.4
Frequency Edges Detected [MHz]
K-meansSimulation 0.1 14.4 19.2 19.4
0.1 14.2 40.840.7 60.8
60.7 73.7 73.693.7 93.6
102.4 102.4
Table 2. Frequency
Original methodology 0.1 14.2 18.4 40.5 60.2 73.4 93.2 102.4in Figure 18.
edges detection with the different techniques of the example shown
Figure 19 shows NNthe

- Manual
meanthreshold
and STD 0.1 14.4
of the 19.2 Edges
frequency
Frequency 40.8edges
60.8 detection
Detected73.6
[MHz]93.6 as102.4
a function of the SNR
NN -
for each proposed ML technique EM threshold
Simulation 0.1 14.4
described0.1in 14.2 19.2 40.8
19.4 3.40.7
Section 60.8 73.6
60.7 73.7 the
Apparently, 93.793.6
102.4
mean 102.4
of each of them tends
K-means
Original methodology 0.1 0.1 14.4 19.2
14.2 18.4 40.8
40.5 60.8
60.2 73.6
73.4 93.293.6
102.4
to have the same behavior; however, the variance for each SNR differs in some of the cases. Table 3 102.4
NN - Manual threshold 0.1 14.4 19.2 40.8 60.8 73.6 93.6 102.4
shows the values of mean and STD, where0.1
NN - EM threshold
it is14.4
possible to appreciate how for higher SNR values all
19.2 40.8 60.8 73.6 93.6 102.4
ML techniques tend to similar values,
K-means being K-means the
0.1 14.4 19.2 40.8 most
60.8stable
73.6 method.
93.6 102.4
Figure 19. Mean and STD for each method. It is noteworthy that K-means shows a constant behavior,
Figure
Figure 19. Mean
Mean
19. with
compared and
the and
STDSTD
others. forforeach
eachmethod.
method. It
It isisnoteworthy
noteworthythat K-means
that shows
K-means a constant
shows behavior,
a constant behavior,
compared with the others.
compared with the others.
Figure 19 shows the mean and STD of the frequency edges detection as a function of the SNR for
each proposed ML technique described in Section 3. Apparently, the mean of each of them tends to
have the same behavior; however, the variance for each SNR differs in some of the cases. Table 3
shows the values of mean and STD, where it is possible to appreciate how for higher SNR values all
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 16 of 22
ML techniques tend to similar values, being K-means the most stable method.
Table 3. Mean and STD of frequency edges detection per SNR.

Table 3.
SNR SNR
Technique
Technique
−2 −20 02 42 46 68 810 10
12 12
14 1416 1618 1820 20
Mean
Mean 1.49 1.49
2.00 2.00
1.07 1.07
1.99 1.99
1.10 1.10
1.18 1.18
2.99 2.99
1.16 1.16
1.18 1.18
1.16 1.16
1.66 1.66
1.33 1.33
NN-Manual threshold
NN-Manual threshold
STDSTD
3.03 10.86 10.86
1.47 1.68 1.53 1.53
1.67 1.67
2.38 2.38
1.64 1.64
1.67 1.67
1.64 1.64
2.29 2.29
1.90 1.90
3.03 1.47 1.68
Mean 1.22 1.18 1.15 1.12 1.11 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09
K-means Mean 1.22 1.18 1.15 1.12 1.11 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.09 1.09 1.09 1.09
K-means STD 1.81 1.68 1.61 1.57 1.55 1.53 1.52 1.52 1.51 1.51 1.51 1.51
STD 1.81 1.68 1.61 1.57 1.55 1.53 1.52 1.52 1.51 1.51 1.51 1.51
Mean 2.14 1.30 1.29 1.26 1.17 1.25 1.48 1.35 1.32 1.27 1.13 1.36
NN-EM threshold Mean 2.14 1.30 1.29 1.26 1.17 1.25 1.48 1.35 1.32 1.27 1.13 1.36
NN-EM threshold STD 13.34 1.92 1.91 1.81 1.64 1.79 2.15 1.95 1.89 1.82 1.58 1.96
STD 13.34 1.92 1.91 1.81 1.64 1.79 2.15 1.95 1.89 1.82 1.58 1.96
The percentage
The percentage of
of success
success (PS)
(PS) for
for each
each methodology
methodology is
is plotted
plotted in
in Figure
Figure 20.
20. Some
Some important
important
points can
points can be
be remarked:
remarked:
• TheThe
performance
performanceof of
NN NNwith manual
with manualthreshold,
threshold,NN NNwith
withEMEMthreshold and K-means
threshold and K-means for
SNR >= >0=have
SNR quite
0 have acceptable
quite results,
acceptable results,obtaining
obtainingsuccess
successrate
ratepractically
practicallyaround
around 100%
100% of the
correct detection.
correct detection.
• An An improvement
improvement waswas observed
observed for NN
for the the NN
that that has been
has been trained
trained with with EMinjust
EM just SNRin =
SNR = −2
−2 dB.
dB.
Figure 20. PS
PS of
of each
each of the proposed methodologies.
The proposals presented in this paper show a better performance than the original
original methodology
methodology
(see Figure 20). Not only in PS, also, in the precision to detect the frequency edges (see Table
Table 3).
3).
4.2. Signals
4.2. Signals Obtained
Obtained from
from the
the Environment
Environment
The real
The real signals
signals mentioned
mentioned in
in Section
Section 4.3
4.3 of
of [10]
[10] were
were again
again used
used to
to test
test the
the performance
performance ofof
different proposed methodologies. These signals were obtained from a whole band
different proposed methodologies. These signals were obtained from a whole band varying from 0.6 varying from
0.6 GHz
GHz to 2.6
to 2.6 GHz.GHz.
TheThe percentage
percentage of of occupation
occupation inin thiswideband
this widebandisishighlighted
highlightedininFigure
Figure 21.
21. Table
Table 44
presents the specific bands measured and for which services are they assigned.
presents the specific bands measured and for which services are they assigned.
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 17 of 22
17 of 22
Figure
Figure 21. Percentage
21. Percentage ofofoccupation
occupation for
for aaweek
weekininthethe
frequency interval
frequency [0.6–2.6]
interval GHz presented
[0.6–2.6] in
GHz presented
[10].
in [10].
Table
Table 4. 4. Monitoredfrequency
Monitored frequency bands
bandspresented
presentedin in
[10].
[10].
Frequency Band Type of Communication
Frequency Band Type of Communication
[698–806] MHz Mobile and landline.
[698–806] MHz
[806–902] MHz Mobile
Mobile andand landline.mobile.
aeronautical
[1.7–2]MHz
[806–902] GHz Mobile and
Mobile and aeronautical fixed.
mobile.
[2.3–2.5] GHz Radiolocation, amateur, mobile and fixed.
[1.7–2] GHz Mobile and fixed.
Aerial vehicles, radiolocation and, radio
[2.6–2.8] GHz
[2.3–2.5] GHz Radiolocation, amateur,
navigation.mobile and fixed.
[2.6–2.8] GHz Aerial vehicles, radiolocation and, radio navigation.
4.3. Results from the Real Signals
The
4.3. Results realthe
from signals
Realobtained
Signals from the environment are totally unknown, being this kind of scenarios
a challenge regarding the right estimation of the set of frequency edges and power transmission of
The
PUs.real signals obtained
Nevertheless, fromsignal
after some the environment
processing, itare totally unknown,
is possible to infer thebeing this kind
presence of scenarios
of PUs. The
methodology
a challenge described
regarding earlyestimation
the right in this paper
of and in the
the set of previous
frequency work presented
edges in [10],
and power it is examined
transmission of PUs.
with the ML techniques considering the different bands of Table 4. In the next, it
Nevertheless, after some signal processing, it is possible to infer the presence of PUs. The methodology is shown a
challenging signal for each band. The results of PU detection are plotted in Figures 22
described early in this paper and in the previous work presented in [10], it is examined with the ML to 26.
The frequencies examined from 698 MHz to 806 MHz appear in Figure 22a. This signal presents
techniques considering the different bands of Table 4. In the next, it is shown a challenging signal for
a non-constant power transmission of PUs around 760–780 MHz. In practical terms, this kind of
each band. The results of PU detection are plotted in Figures 22–26. 18 of 22
activity determines totally occupied this bandwidth. Thus, ML techniques and the original
methodology detect frequency space as occupied as can be seen in Figure 22b.
a)
b)
22. (a)
Figure 22.
Figure (a)AAreal signal
real obtained
signal fromfrom
obtained the frequency band [698–806]
the frequency MHz. (b)
band [698–806] The (b)
MHz. result
Theof applying
result of
the four proposed methodologies to the real signal in terms of spectrum occupancy.
applying the four proposed methodologies to the real signal in terms of spectrum occupancy.
The signals observed in the frequencies of 806 MHz to 910 MHz are shown in Figure 23. In this
figure, most of the transmission signals are detected by all techniques. NN with manual threshold
provides the best results. This technique detects a signal with low power that apparently corresponds
to a PU. In contrary case, the original methodology does not detect changes on power and the
bandwidth size detected is lower.
The signals observed in the frequencies of 806 MHz to 910 MHz are shown in Figure 23. In this
figure, most of the transmission signals are detected by all techniques. NN with manual threshold
provides the best results. This technique detects a signal with low power that apparently corresponds
to a PU.
Sensors 2019,In
19,contrary
4715 case, the original methodology does not detect changes on power and 18 ofthe
22
bandwidth size detected is lower.
a)
b)
19 of 22
a)
23. (a)
Figure 23.
Figure (a)AAreal signal
real obtained
signal obtainedfromfrom
the frequency band [806–902]
the frequency MHz. (b)
band [806–902] The (b)
MHz. result
Theof applying
result of
the four methodologies to the realtosignal in terms 19 of 22
applying the four methodologies the real signalofinspectrum occupancy.
terms of spectrum occupancy.
a)
The frequencies measured from 1.7 GHz to 2 GHz are presented in Figure 24a. Here, in general,
the occupied and empty bands are detected correctly by the ML techniques as can be seen in Figure
24b. However,
b) in the range from 1.925 GHz to 2 GHz there are several transmissions. The NN with
manual threshold techniques detects these changes in the occupation of the band. The frequency
edges are not detected with high precision, but this technique is more sensitive to these changes.
b)
Figure 24. (a) A real signal obtained from the frequency band [1.7–2] GHz. (b) The result of applying
the four methodologies to the real signal in terms of spectrum occupancy.
Figure 25a shows the frequencies observed between 2.3 GHz and 2.5 GHz. In this case, the three
techniques provide affordable results classifying the occupation of the signal as can be seen in Figure
Figure
Figure 24. (a) A
24. (a) A real
real signal
signal obtained
obtained from
from the
the frequency
frequency band
band [1.7–2]
[1.7–2] GHz. (b) The
GHz. (b) The result
result of
of applying
applying
25b. In
thethis
foursignal, all techniques
methodologies show
to the real good
signal performance
in terms in front
of spectrum of PU transmission.
occupancy.
a)
Figure 25a shows the frequencies observed between 2.3 GHz and 2.5 GHz. In this case, the three
techniques provide affordable results classifying the occupation of the signal as can be seen in Figure
25b. In this signal, all techniques show good performance in front of PU transmission.
a)
b)
b)
Figure
Figure 25. (a) A
25. (a) A real
real signal
signal obtained
obtained from
from the
the frequency
frequency band
band [2.3–2.5]
[2.3–2.5] GHz. (b) The
GHz. (b) The result
result of
of applying
applying
In the case of the frequency range from 2.6 GHz to 2.8 GHz shown in Figure 26, all techniques
provide good results detecting PUs. However, being K-means the one that shows the best detection
Figure 25. (a) A real signal obtained from the frequency band [2.3–2.5] GHz. (b) The result of applying
of frequency edges.
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 19 of 22
20 of 22
a)
b)
Figure 26.
Figure (a)A
26. (a) Areal
realsignal
signal obtained
obtained from
from the
the frequency
frequency band
band [2.6–2.8]
[2.6–2.8] GHz.
GHz. (b)
(b) The
The result
result of
of applying
applying
the four
the four methodologies
methodologies toto the
the real
real signal
signal in
in terms
terms of
of spectrum
spectrum occupancy.
occupancy.
The frequencies examined from 698 MHz to 806 MHz appear in Figure 22a. This signal presents a
5. Conclusions
non-constant power transmission of PUs around 760–780 MHz. In practical terms, this kind of activity
In this totally
determines work, occupied
the frequency edges detection
this bandwidth. Thus,phase, mentioned
ML techniques andinthetheoriginal
methodology proposed
methodology in
detect
[10], was improved
frequency based onasML
space as occupied cantechniques. First, a22b.
be seen in Figure NN with a manual threshold in the training
phaseThewas implemented, allowing a more accurate
signals observed in the frequencies of 806 MHz to 910 MHz classification of theareapproximation
shown in Figure coefficients.
23. In this
Similarly, applying EM to NN contributes to increase the effectiveness
figure, most of the transmission signals are detected by all techniques. NN with manual threshold of the training phase. Besides
this technique
provides the bestavoids
results.theThis
intervention
techniqueof another
detects user with
a signal to setlow
a manual
power that threshold of thecorresponds
apparently NN training. to
That is, we passed from a supervised technique to a fully automated algorithm.
a PU. In contrary case, the original methodology does not detect changes on power and the bandwidth
From theisresults
size detected lower. of the phase of detection of frequency edges and PS to detect a PU presence
correctly, we can
The frequencies conclude
measured thatfrom
K-means is the
1.7 GHz to best
2 GHz ML aretechnique
presentedanalyzed
in Figurein24a.
thisHere,
work.inItgeneral,
is also
important to remark that an improvement in the detection, with signals
the occupied and empty bands are detected correctly by the ML techniques as can be seen in Figure 24b. in a noisy environment, is
observed.
However, in Additionally,
the range from this1.925
method GHzdoes
to 2 not
GHzrequire
there are a great computational
several transmissions. complexity,
The NN with comparing
manual
with an NN that requires a more advanced hardware power.
threshold techniques detects these changes in the occupation of the band. The frequency edges are not
Throughout
detected with high the differentbut
precision, simulations, it hasisbeen
this technique moreperceived
sensitive tothat the changes.
these precision does not depend
only Figure
on the 25ausedshows
ML technique nor on the
the frequencies chosenbetween
observed method 2.3 of spectrum
GHz andsensing, 2.5 GHz.it also depends
In this on
case, the
the number of samples of the signal to be evaluated. Indeed, given that processed
three techniques provide affordable results classifying the occupation of the signal as can be seen in elements are not
directly the In
Figure 25b. samples of theallspectrum
this signal, techniques signal ( f ) but
showXgood its approximation
performance in front coefficients (obtained from
of PU transmission.
the multiresolution
In the case of the analysis),
frequency thatrange
means the 2.6
from number
GHz to of 2.8
points
GHz ofshown
the signalin Figure is reduced
X( f ) 26, by 2 L
all techniques
provideLgood
where results
is the leveldetecting PUs. However,
of decomposition in thebeing
MRA. K-means
Hence, theitone that shows the
is noteworthy best
that thedetection
proposed of
frequency edges.were tested on signals recovered from the work environment that only has 461
methodologies
samples, which means that only 57 approximation coefficients will be obtained. Even though this
5. Conclusions
number of samples is quite small for a multiband environment, the results of the methodology
implemented
In this work,in thisthe work
frequencyare quite
edgesgood. As part
detection phase,of mentioned
future work, in the methodology
complete methodology
proposed
considering
in [10], was improved based on ML techniques. First, a NN with manual threshold in theplatform.
the ML techniques are thought to be implemented in a software defined radio training
Also,
phaseto getimplemented,
was an accuracy description
allowing a of proposed
more accurate algorithms where
classification of parameters as evacuation
the approximation time
coefficients.
can be measured,
Similarly, applying a cooperative cognitive radio
EM to NN contributes network
to increase theiseffectiveness
going to be developed [27].phase. Besides
of the training
this technique avoids the intervention of another user to set a manual threshold of the NN training.
Abbreviations
That is, we passed from a supervised technique to a fully automated algorithm.
CR From the results
Cognitive radioof the phase of detection of frequency edges and PS to detect a PU presence
correctly, we can conclude
SDR Software-defined radiothat K-means is the best ML technique analyzed in this work. It is also
important to remark
DSA Dynamic spectrum access that an improvement in the detection, with signals in a noisy environment, is
observed.
SU Additionally,
Secondary users this method does not require a great computational complexity, comparing
with
PU an NN that users
Primary requires a more advanced hardware power.
SS Spectrum sensing
Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 20 of 22
Throughout the different simulations, it has been perceived that the precision does not depend
only on the used ML technique nor on the chosen method of spectrum sensing, it also depends on
the number of samples of the signal to be evaluated. Indeed, given that processed elements are not
directly the samples of the spectrum signal X( f ) but its approximation coefficients (obtained from the
multiresolution analysis), that means the number of points of the signal X( f ) is reduced by 2L where L
is the level of decomposition in the MRA. Hence, it is noteworthy that the proposed methodologies
were tested on signals recovered from the work environment that only has 461 samples, which means
that only 57 approximation coefficients will be obtained. Even though this number of samples is quite
small for a multiband environment, the results of the methodology implemented in this work are
quite good. As part of future work, the complete methodology considering the ML techniques are
thought to be implemented in a software defined radio platform. Also, to get an accuracy description
of proposed algorithms where parameters as evacuation time can be measured, a cooperative cognitive
radio network is going to be developed [27].
Author Contributions: A.P.-G., R.A.-G., and S.R.-B. conceived the original idea of how to use different machine
learning technics purposes and designed the proposed methodologies. Y.M.-T. improved these proposals adding
some ideas of how to obtain the data or how to do the simulations. Besides, Y.M.-T. performed all the experiments
and simulations of this work. All authors wrote the article.
Funding: This research received funding of the Mexican National Council of Science and Technology (CONACYT),
Grant (no. 490180). Also, this work was supported by the Program for Professional Development Teacher
(PRODEP).
Acknowledgments: Authors are grateful to CONACYT, PRODEP and the Department of Electrical Engineering of
UAM-I for providing the necessary support for this work. This work has been co-funded by the Spanish ministry
of science through the project RTI2018-099880-B-C32 and with ERFD funds.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.
Abbreviations
CR Cognitive radio
SDR Software-defined radio
DSA Dynamic spectrum access
SU Secondary users
PU Primary users
SS Spectrum sensing
MSS Multiband spectrum sensing
WBSS Wide-band spectrum sensing
MRA Multiresolution analysis
HFD Higuchi fractal dimension
ML Machine learning
RL Reinforcement learning
NN Artificial neural networks
SVM Support vector machine
CSS Cooperative spectrum sensing
EM Expectation maximization
NAC Normalized and interpolated approximated coefficients
TW Test window
STD Standard deviation
PS Percentage of success
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© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Sensors 2019, 19, 4715; doi:10.3390/s19214715 www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors

According to the literature, a branch of MSS techniques corresponds to wide-band spectrum

Figure 1. Neural network concept.

Multi resolution Reconstructed signal from approximated coefficients

Figure 2. The second methodology described by a flow diagram, developed in [10].

This original methodology is described by the following steps:

Multi resolution Reconstructed signal from approximated coefficients

Artificial Neural Network

Figure 4. The general scheme for the NN-based

threshold setting is not a big deal. 7 of 22

3.2. Neural Network with an EM Threshold Setting

Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 10 of 22

11. The result of training

3.3. Methodology Using

Sensors 2019, 19, 4715 13 of 22

4.1. Simulated Signals

From Section 3.2,

Figure 19 shows NNthe

Table 3. Mean and STD of frequency edges detection per SNR.

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