Chapter Four:: Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate

data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid
results.
Data collection methods for impact evaluation vary along a continuum. At the
one end of this continuum are quantitative methods and at the other end of the
continuum are Qualitative methods for data collection
When we have entered the field of research or fieldwork and we have selected
our initial sample to collect the information outside of a laboratory or workplace
setting. The approaches and methods used in field research vary across
disciplines. For example, teachers who conduct field research may simply
observe students interacting themselves, and with their teachers, whereas
social scientists conducting field research may interview or observe people in
their natural environments to learn their languages, folklore, and social
structures. Field research involves a range of well-defined, although variable,
methods: informal interviews, direct observation, participation in the life of the
group, collective discussions, analyses of personal documents produced within
the group, self-analysis, results from activities undertaken off- or on-line, and
life-histories.
Any activity aimed at collecting primary (original or otherwise unavailable) data,
using methods such as face-to-face interviewing, telephone and postal surveys,
and direct observation. Although the method generally is characterized as
qualitative research, it may (and often does) include quantitative dimensions.
But these stages constitute actions that we take for accomplishing the
objectives of the research and to answer the questions of the study. The simple
fact of being in the research field there are no moments that we could say here
a stage is finish, and now another step follows that stage. At entering the field or
research context, we have to take a pilot data sample.
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION METHODS
The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and
structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into
predetermined response categories. They produce results that are easy to
summarize, compare, and generalize.
Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory
and/or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest. Depending
on the research question, participants may be randomly assigned to different
treatments. If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant
and situational characteristics in order to statistically control for their influence
on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the
research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ
probability sampling to select participants.
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include:
Experiments/clinical trials.
Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of
patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
Interviews
In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard set of questions and
nothing more.(Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Face -to -face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher
to establish rapport with potential participants and therefor gain their
cooperation. These interviews yield highest response rates in survey research.
They also allow the researcher to clarify ambiguous answers and when
appropriate, seek follow-up information. Disadvantages include impractical
when large samples are involved time consuming and expensive.(Leedy and
Ormrod, 2001)
Telephone interviews are less time consuming and less expensive and the
researcher has ready access to anyone on the planet that hasa
telephone.Disadvantages are that the response rate is not as high as the face-
to- face interview but considerably higher than the mailed questionnaire. The
sample may be biased to the extent that people without phones are part of the
population about whom the researcher wants to draw inferences.
Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing (CAPI): is a form of personal
interviewing, but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings
along a laptop or hand-held computer to enter the information directly into the
database. This method saves time involved in processing the data, as well as
saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds of questionnaires.
However, this type of data collection method can be expensive to set up and
requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills.
Questionnaires
Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves
the researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding to
the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact
that their responses are anonymous. But they also have drawbacks. Majority of
the people who receive questionnaires don't return them and those who do
might not be representative of the originally selected sample.(Leedy and
Ormrod, 2001)
Web based questionnaires: A new and inevitably growing methodology is the
use of Internet based research. This would mean receiving an e-mail on which
you would click on an address that would take you to a secure web-site to fill in
a questionnaire. This type of research is often quicker and less detailed. Some
disadvantages of this method include the exclusion of people who do not have a
computer or are unable to access a computer. Also the validity of such surveys
are in question as people might be in a hurry to complete it and so might not
give accurate responses.
(http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/power/ch2/methods/methods.htm)
Questionnaires often make use of Checklist and rating scales. These devices
help simplify and quantify people's behaviors and attitudes. A checklist is a list
of behaviors, characteristics, or other entities that the researcher is looking for.
Either the researcher or survey participant simply checks whether each item on
the list is observed, present or true or vice versa. A rating scale is more useful
when a behavior needs to be evaluated on a continuum. They are also known
as Likert scales. (Leedy and Ormrod, 2001)
Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation
by providing information useful to understand the processes behind observed
results and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-being.
Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve the quality of survey-
based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis;
strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying
quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are characterized by the
following attributes:
 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e.,

researchers may change the data collection strategy by adding, refining,
or dropping techniques or informants)
 they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be

interviewed several times to follow up on a particular issue, clarify
concepts or check the reliability of data
 they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e.,

researchers rely on multiple data collection methods to check the
authenticity of their results)
 generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population,

rather each case study produces a single piece of evidence that can be
used to seek general patterns among different studies of the same issue
Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study
takes a great deal of time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful
data thoroughly, accurately, and systematically, using field notes, sketches,
audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means. The data collection
methods must observe the ethical principles of research.
The qualitative methods most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in
three broad categories:
 indepth interview
 observation methods
 document review
The following link provides more information on the above three methods. .
http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/impact/methods/qualitative.htm#indepth
Education
Education is one of the most powerful instruments for reducing poverty and
inequality and lays a foundation for sustained economic growth. The World
Bank compiles data on education inputs, participation, efficiency, and
outcomes. Data on education are compiled by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Institute for Statistics from
official responses to surveys and from reports provided by education authorities
in each country.
School enrollment, primary (% gross)

106%2010
SOURCE
School enrollment, secondary (% gross)

70%2010
SOURCE
Primary completion rate, male (% of relevant age group)

91%2010
SOURCE
Primary completion rate, female (% of relevant age group)

89%2010
SOURCE
Featured indicators
Children out of school, primary, female

Children out of school, primary, male
Expenditure per student, primary (% of GDP per capita)
Expenditure per student, secondary (% of GDP per capita)
Expenditure per student, tertiary (% of GDP per capita)
Gross intake rate in grade 1, female (% of relevant age
group)
Gross intake rate in grade 1, male (% of relevant age
group)
Labor force, total
Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)
Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15-24)
Literacy rate, youth male (% of males ages 15-24)
Literacy rate, youth total (% of people ages 15-24)
Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births)
Persistence to last grade of primary, female (% of cohort)
Persistence to last grade of primary, male (% of cohort)
Populationages 0-14 (% of total)
Populationages 15-64 (% of total)
Prevalence of HIV, total (% of population ages 15-49)
Primary completion rate, female (% of relevant age group)
Primary completion rate, male (% of relevant age group)
Primary completion rate, total (% of relevant age group)
Progression to secondary school, female (%)
Progression to secondary school, male (%)
Public spending on education, total (% of GDP)
Public spending on education, total (% of government
expenditure)
Pupil-teacher ratio, primary
Ratio of female to male primary enrollment (%)
Ratio of female to male secondary enrollment (%)
Ratio of female to male tertiary enrollment (%)
Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education
(%)
Repeaters, primary, female (% of female enrollment)
Repeaters, primary, male (% of male enrollment)
Schoolenrollment, preprimary (% gross)
Schoolenrollment, primary (% gross)
Schoolenrollment, primary (% net)
Schoolenrollment, secondary (% gross)
Schoolenrollment, secondary (% net)
Schoolenrollment, tertiary (% gross)
Trained teachers in primary education (% of total teachers)
Unemployment, female (% of female labor force)
Unemployment, male (% of male labor force)
Unemployment, total (% of total labor force)
Different ways of collecting evaluation data are useful for different purposes,
and each has advantages and disadvantages. Various factors will influence
your choice of a data collection method: the questions you want to investigate,
resources available to you, your timeline, and more.
(http://dmc.umn.edu/evaluation/data.shtml
Qualitative data collection methods is very important for impact evaluation as it
provides useful information in order to understand the processes previously
observed, the results; and assess changes in people’s perceptions of their well-
being. Additionally, qualitative methods are widely used to improve the quality of
survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation
hypothesis; strengthening the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or
clarifying quantitative evaluation findings. These methods are characterized by
the following attributes:
Data Preparation
Data Preparation involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for
accuracy; entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and
developing and documenting a database structure that integrates the various
measures.
Logging the Data
In any research project you may have data coming from a number of different
sources at different times:
 •mail surveys returns
 •coded interview data
 •pretest or posttest data
 •observational data
In all but the simplest of studies, you need to set up a procedure for logging the
information and keeping track of it until you are ready to do a comprehensive
data analysis. Different researchers differ in how they prefer to keep track of
incoming data. In most cases, you will want to set up a database that enables
you to assess at any time what data is already in and what is still outstanding.
You could do this with any standard computerized database program (e.g.,
Microsoft Access, Claris Filmmaker), although this requires familiarity with such
programs. Or, you can accomplish these using standard statistical programs
(e.g., SPSS, SAS, Minitab, Data desk) and running simple descriptive analyses
to get reports on data status. It is also critical that the data analyst retain the
original data records for a reasonable period of time -- returned surveys, field
notes, test protocols, and so on. Most professional researchers will retain such
records for at least 5-7 years. For important or expensive studies, the original
data might be stored in a data archive. The data analyst should always be able
to trace a result from a data analysis back to the original forms on which the
data was collected. A database for logging incoming data is a critical
component in good research record-keeping.
Checking the Data for Accuracy
As soon as data is received you should screen it for accuracy. In some
circumstances doing this right away will allow you to go back to the sample to
clarify any problems or errors. There are several questions you should ask as
part of this initial data screening:
 •Are the responses legible/readable?
 •Are all important questions answered?
 •Are the responses complete?
 Is all relevant contextual information included (e.g., data, time, place,

researcher)?
In most social research, quality of measurement is a major issue. Assuring that
the data collection process does not contribute inaccuracies will help assure the
overall quality of subsequent analyses.
DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT INFORMATION SHEET
Developing a Database Structure
The database structure is the manner in which you intend to store the data for
the study so that it can be accessed in subsequent data analyses. You might
use the same structure you used for logging in the data or, in large complex
studies; you might have one structure for logging data and another for storing it.
As mentioned above, there are generally two options for storing data on
computer -- database programs and statistical programs. Usually database
programs are the more complex of the two to learn and operate, but they allow
the analyst greater flexibility in manipulating the data.
In every research project, you should generate a printed codebook that
describes the data and indicates where and how it can be accessed. Minimally
the codebook should include the following items for each variable:
 variable name
 variable description
 variable format (number, data, text)
 instrument/method of collection
 date collected
 respondent or group
 variable location (in database)
 notes
The codebook is an indispensable tool for the analysis team. Together with the
database, it should provide comprehensive documentation that enables other
researchers who might subsequently want to analyze the data to do so without
any additional information.
Entering the Data into the Computer
There are a wide variety of ways to enter the data into the computer for
analysis. Probably the easiest is to just type the data in directly. In order to
assure a high level of data accuracy, the analyst should use a procedure called
double entry. In this procedure you enter the data once. Then, you use a special
program that allows you to enter the data a second time and checks each
second entry against the first. If there is a discrepancy, the program notifies the
user and allows the user to determine the correct entry. This double entry
procedure significantly reduces entry errors. However, these double entry
programs are not widely available and require some training. An alternative is to
enter the data once and set up a procedure for checking the data for accuracy.
For instance, you might spot check records on a random basis. Once the data
have been entered, you will use various programs to summarize the data that
allow you to check that all the data are within acceptable limits and boundaries.
For instance, such summaries will enable you to easily spot whether there are
persons whose age is 601 or who have a 7 entered where you expect a 1-to-5
response.
 Survey Research
Survey research is one of the most important areas of measurement in applied
social research. The broad area of survey research encompasses any
measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents. A
"survey" can be anything forms a short paper-and-pencil feedback form to an
intensive one-on-one in-depth interview.
These are roughly divided into two broad areas: Questionnaires and Interviews.
The researcher has to select the survey method that is best for your situation.
Once the researcher(s) selected the survey method, he/she has to construct the
survey itself. Here, we there are a number of issues including: the different
types of questions; decisions; decisions about questions wording; decisions
about response format; and, question placement and sequence in your
instrument. It will also be considered some of the special issues involved in
administering a personal interview. Finally, it is considered some of the
advantages and disadvantages of survey methods.
Findings
Relative rates of mention of issues
CC = Cross Cutting Issue; EI = Emerging Issues & Supplementary
Programmes;
ME = Macroeconomic Stability and Structural Reforms; NP = Non-PRSP;
PS = Priority Sector
Types of Surveys
Surveys can be divided into two broad categories: the questionnaire and the
interview. Questionnaires are usually paper-and-pencil instruments that the
respondent completes. Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on
the respondent says. Sometimes, it's hard to tell the difference between a
questionnaire and an interview. For instance, some people think that
questionnaires always ask short closed-ended questions while interviews
always ask broad open-ended ones. But you will see questionnaires with open-
ended questions (although they do tend to be shorter than in interviews) and
there will often be a series of closed-ended questions asked in an interview.
Survey research has changed dramatically in the last ten years. It has been
automated telephone surveys that use random dialing methods. There are
computerized kiosks in public places that allow people to ask for input. A whole
new variation of group interview has evolved as focus group methodology.
Increasingly, survey research is tightly integrated with the delivery of service.
Your hotel room has a survey on the desk. Your waiter presents a short
customer satisfaction survey with your check. You get a call for an interview
several days after your last call to a computer company for technical assistance.
You're asked to complete a short survey when you visit a web site. Here, it is
described the major types of questionnaires and interviews, keeping in mind
that technology is leading to rapid evolution of methods. It will be discussed the
relative advantages and disadvantages of these different survey types in
advantages and disadvantages of survey methods.
Questionnaires
When most people think of questionnaires, they think of the mail survey. All of
us have, at one time or another received a questionnaire in the mail. There are
many advantages to mail surveys. They are relatively inexpensive to administer.
The researcher(s) can send the exact same instrument to a wide number of
people. They allow the respondent to fill it out at their own convenience. But
there are some disadvantages as well. Response rates from mail surveys are
often very low. And, mail questionnaires are not the best vehicles for asking for
detailed written responses.
A second type is the group administered questionnaire. A sample of
respondents is brought together and asked to respond to a structured sequence
of questions. Traditionally, questionnaires were administered in group settings
for convenience. The researcher could give the questionnaire to those who
were present and be fairly sure that there would be a high response rate. If the
respondents were unclear about the meaning of a question they could ask for
clarification. And, there were often organizational settings where it was relatively
easy to assemble the group (in a company or business, for instance).
What's the difference between an administered group questionnaire and a
group interview or focus group? In the group administered questionnaire, each
respondent is handed an instrument and asked to complete it while in the room.
Each respondent completes an instrument. In the group interview or focus
group, the interviewer facilitates the session. People work as a group, listening
to each other's comments and answering the questions. Someone takes notes
for the entire group -- people don't complete an interview individually.
A less familiar type of questionnaire is the household drop-off survey. In this
approach, a researcher goes to the respondent's home or business and hands
the respondent the instrument. In some cases, the respondent is asked to mail
it back or the interview returns to pick it up. This approach attempts to blend the
advantages of the mail survey and the group administered questionnaire. Like
the mail survey, the respondent can work on the instrument in private, when it's
convenient. Like the group administered questionnaire, the interviewer makes
personal contact with the respondent -- they don't just send an impersonal
survey instrument. And, the respondent can ask questions about the study and
get clarification on what is to be done. Generally, this would be expected to
increase the percent of people who are willing to respond.
Survey: Popular opinions about language learning and teaching
1. Languages are learned mainly through imitation (2006).
strongly agree …../…../…../…../…../….. strongly disagree
2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors.
3. Highly intelligent people are good language learners.
4. The most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation.
5. The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater
the likelihood of success in learning.
6. Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to
interference from the first language.
7. The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading.
8. It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language.
9. Once learners know roughly 1000 words and the basic structure of a
language, they can participate in conversation with native speakers.
10. Teachers should present familiar rules one at a time and learners should
practice examples of each one before going on to another.
11. Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones.
12. Learner’s errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to
prevent the formation of bad habits.
13. Teachers should use materials that expose students to only those language
structures they have already been taught.
14. When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair
activities), they copy each other’s mistakes.
15. Students learn what they are taught.
16. Teachers should respond to students by correctly rephrasing what they
have said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error.
17. Students can learn both language and academic content (for example,
science and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is
taught in their second language.
Instructor Survey Beliefs about Foreign Language Learning Step 1: Read the
following statements about language learning. Step 2: Circle the answer that
most closely resembles your belief. Step 3: Answer, as best you can, the final
question. Step 4: Hand in your completed survey when finished.
1. Languages are learned mainly through imitation
Strongly Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors.
Strongly Disagree DisagreeAgree Strongly Agree
3. Highly intelligent people are good language learners.
4. the most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation.
the likelihood of success in learning.
interference from the first language.
7. The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading.
8.It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language.
language, they can participate in conversation with native speakers.
practice examples of each one before going on to another.
11. Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones.
prevent the formation of bad habits.
structures they have already been taught.
activities), they copy each other’s mistakes.
15. Students learn what they are taught.
have said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error.
taught in their second language.
Strongly Agree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
18. Do you have any other belief(s) about second language learning that have
not been suggested within this survey?
Strongly Agree Disagree Agree Strongly Agree
Data Interpretation questions are very widely used to assessing candidates for
graduate and management level jobs. Many people who have been out of the
education system for a while or who don’t use interpret graphs, pie charts,
scatter diagrams and tables of data on a day-to-day basis may feel overawed
by these types of question. The important thing to remember is that you don’t
need to have studied mathematics to a high level to succeed. These questions
are primarily tests of interpretation and the math needed is invariably
straightforward.
You will usually be allowed to use a calculator for these types of question and
investing in one which can handle fractions and percentages is a good idea.
You should also try to work through a few numerical computation practice
papers to get back into swing of these types of calculation.
Results Fig. Pre: Pre-Test Results Instructors Student Group 1 Students Group
2
3.0/ 3.1/ 2.9
3.2
3.3
Fig.1: Instructor & Student Results/ Popular opinions about language learning
and teaching
Item #.
Statement
Instructors
School 1.
School 2.
School 3.
1.
Languages are learned mainly through imitation
2.7
3.4
2.9
3.5
2.
Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors
3.0
3.0
2.3
3.0
3.
Highly intelligent people are good language learners
2.5
2.8
2.8
2.4
4.
The most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation
3.5
2.8
2.9
3.0
5.
The earlier a second language is introduced in school programs, the greater the
likelihood of success in learning
3.8
3.1
2.7
3.5
6.
Most of the mistakes that second language learners make are due to
interference from the first language
2.8
3.0
2.8
3.3
7.
The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading
2.7
3.2
2.8
2.7
8.
It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language
2.8
3.7
3.6
3.9
9.
Once learners know roughly 1000 words and the basic structure of a language,
they can participate in conversation with native speaker
2.8
2.6
2.6
3.1
10
Teachers should present familiar rules one at a time and learners should
practice examples of each one before going on to another
3.0
2.7
3.0
2.8
11.
Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones
3.3
3.0
3.2
3.3
12.
Learner’s errors should be corrected as soon as they are made in order to
prevent the formation of bad habits
3.5
3.3
2.7
3.4
13.
Teachers should use materials that expose students to only those language
structures they have already been taught
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.4
14.
When learners are allowed to interact freely (for example, in group or pair
activities), they copy each other’s mistak
2.8
3.4
2.9
2.9
15.
Students learn what they are taught
2.2
3.5
2.9
2.9
16.
Teachers should respond to students by correctly rephrasing what they have
said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error
2.8
3.4
3.2
3.3
17.
Students can learn both language and academic content (for example, science
and history) simultaneously in classes where the subject matter is taught in their
second language
3.0
3.2
2.4
2.9
Fig 1-a: Student Mean Scores/ Popular opinions about language learning and
teaching
Item #.
Statement
School 1.
School 2.
School 3.
1.
3.4
2.9
3.5
2.
3.0
2.3
3.0
3.
2.8
2.8
2.4
4.
motivation
2.8
2.9
3.0
104
5.
3.1
2.7
3.5
6.
3.0
2.8
3.3
7.
3.2
2.8
2.7
8.
the second language
3.7
3.6
3.9
9.
2.6
2.6
3.1
10
2.7
3.0
2.8
11.
3.0
3.2
3.3
12.
3.3
2.7
3.4
13.
2.0
2.0
2.4
14.
3.4
2.9
2.9
15.
3.5
2.9
2.9
16.
3.4
3.2
3.3
17.
second languag
3.2
2.4
2.9
Figure 2-a: Instructor mean Scores/ Popular opinions about language learning
and teaching.
Item #.
Statement
Instructors
1.
2.7
2.
3.0
3.
2.5
4.
motivation
3.5
5.
3.8
6.
2.8
7.
2.7
8.
the second language
2.8
9.
2.8
10
3.0
11.
3.3
12.
3.5
13.
2.5
14.
2.8
15.
2.2
16.
2.8
17.
second languag
3.0
Fig 2-b: Native speaker data Native Speakers (N=6) Instructors Years employed
Type of Education Type of Visa in S. Korea degree ( B.A, MA etc.)
Instructor 1
7
MA History + TESOL
F2
Instructor 2
5
B.A. Economics
F2
Instructor 3
6
B.A. Sociology
F2
Instructor 4
6
B.A. (Eng) Lit+ TESOL
E2
106
Instructor 5
9
B.A. Geography
E2
Instructor 6
8
MA Ed. MA(Eng)Lit
E1
Fig.2-c: Interview Questions
Question 1
Were you told what to teach or how to teach by your institute?
Question 2
Do you believe you are helping Korean students learn English as a second
language? If so, what feedback, if any, do you receive?
Question 3
How does your knowledge of second language acquisition complement your
school’s second language curriculum?
Question 4
Do you have any specific examples from your past where you felt your
instruction or lesson plan was correct for the class level but, when you
attempted to teach the lesson, it just didn’t work out or, subsequently, it became
difficult or awkward to follow your plan?
Fig. 3-a: Mean and Standard Deviation Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
Mean
2.9
3.1
2.8
3.1
SD
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
Fig. 3-b: All item Mean/Instructor and Students Instructors Students
Mean
2.9
3.0
Fig. 3-c: P values/instructors & schools Instructors and School 1 Instructors and
School 2 Instructors and School 3
P value
0.38
0.31
0.35
Fig. 3-d: P values between schools School 1 & School 2 School 1 & School 3
School 2 & School 3
P value
0.051
0.97
0.05
Fig. 4-a: GR1: Behaviorist/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
2. Languages are learned mainly through imitation
2.7
3.4
2.9
3.5
3.5
3.3
2.7
3.4
Fig. 4-b: GR2: Bilingualism/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School
3
the likelihood of success in learning
3.8
3.1
2.7
3.5
2.8
3.0
2.8
3.3
taught in their second language
3.0
3.2
2.4
2.9
Fig. 4-c: GR3: Grammar/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
3.00
2.7
3.0
2.8
11. Teachers should teach simple language structures before complex ones
3.3
3.0
3.2
3.3
Fig. 4-d: GR4: Teaching method and pedagogy/ mean scores Instructors
School 1 School 2 School 3
7. The best way to learn new vocabulary is through reading
2.7
3.2
2.8
2.7
8. It is essential for learners to be able to pronounce all the individual sounds in
the second language
2.8
3.7
3.6
3.9
2.5
2.0
2.0
2.4
15. Students learn what they are taught
2.2
3.5
2.9
2.9
have said rather than by explicitly pointing out the error
2.8
3.4
3.2
3.3
Fig. 4-e: GR5: Socio-cultural/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2
School 3
2. Parents usually correct young children when they make grammatical errors
3.0
3.0
2.3
3.0
activities), they copy each other’s mistakes
2.8
3.4
2.9
2.9
Fig. 4-f: GR6: Motivation/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
4. The most important predictor of success in second language acquisition is
motivation….
3.5
2.8
2.9
3.0
Fig. 4-g: GR7: Intelligence/ mean scores Instructors School 1 School 2 School 3
3. Highly intelligent people are good language learners
2.5
2.8
2.8
2.4
language, they can participate in conversation with native speakers
2.8
2.6
2.6
3.1
Fig. h: Statements of Agreement and Disagreement Agreement Disagreement
GR 1
1s
School 1, School 3
Instructors, School 2
12
Instructors, School 1, School 3
School 2,
GR 2
5
School 2
6s
School 1, School 3
17 s
School 2, School 3
GR 3
10 s
School 1, School 3
11
Instructors, School 1, School 2, School 3
GR 4
7
School 1
8
School 1, School 2, School 3
Instructors,
13
15
School 1
16
School 1, School 2, School 3
Instructors
GR 5
2
School 2
14
School 1
GR 6
4
School 2
GR 7
3
9
School 3
Total Agreement: Statement 11 Agreement 3-1: Statements 2, 5, 8, 12, 16.
Split: 2-2: Statements: 1, 4, 6, 10, 17. Disagreement: Statements 3-1: 7, 9, 14,
15. Total Disagreement: Statements: 3, 13
Interviews
Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires. In the
personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the respondent. Unlike
with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow-up
questions. And, interviews are generally easier for the respondent, especially if
what are sought are opinions or impressions. Interviews can be very time
consuming and they are resource intensive. The interviewer is considered a
part of the measurement instrument and interviewers have to be well trained in
how to respond to any contingency.
Almost everyone is familiar with the telephone interview. Telephone interviews
enable a researcher to gather information rapidly. Most of the major public
opinion polls that are reported were based on telephone interviews. Like
personal interviews, they allow for some personal contact between the
interviewer and the respondent. And, they allow the interviewer to ask follow-up
questions. But they also have some major disadvantages. Many people don't
have publicly-listed telephone numbers. Some don't have telephones. People
often don't like the intrusion of a call to their homes. And, telephone interviews
have to be relatively short or people will feel imposed upon.
Selecting the Survey Method
Selecting the type of survey you are going to use is one of the most critical
decisions in many social research contexts. The researcher will see that there
are very few simple rules that will make the decision for him/her – he/she has to
use his/her judgment to balance the advantages and disadvantages of different
survey types. Here are a number of questions researchers might ask that can
help guide their decision.
Population Issues
The first sets of considerations have to do with the population and its
accessibility.
 Can the population be enumerated?

For some populations, the researcher has a complete listing of the units that will
be sampled. For others, such a list is difficult or impossible to compile. For
instance, there are complete listings of registered voters or person with active
drivers’ licenses. But no one keeps a complete list of homeless people. If you
are doing a study that requires input from homeless persons, you are very likely
going to need to go and find the respondents personally. In such contexts, you
can pretty much rule out the idea of mail surveys or telephone interviews.
 Is the population literate?

Questionnaires require that your respondents can read. While this might seem
initially like a reasonable assumption for many adult populations, it is known
from recent research that the instance of adult illiteracy is alarmingly high in
Latin American countries. And, even if your respondents can read to some
degree, your questionnaire may contain difficult or technical vocabulary. Clearly,
there are some populations that you would expect to be illiterate. Young
children would not be good targets for questionnaires.
 Are there language issues?

We live in a multilingual world. Virtually every society has members who speak
other than the predominant language. Some countries (like Canada) are
officially multilingual. And, our increasingly global economy requires
researcher(s) to do research that spans countries and language groups. Can
you produce multiple versions of your questionnaire? For mail instruments, can
you know in advance the language your respondent speaks, or do you send
multiple translations of your instrument? Can you be confident that important
connotations in your instrument are not culturally specific? Could some of the
important nuances get lost in the process of translating your questions?
 Will the population cooperate?

People who do research on immigration issues have a difficult methodological
problem. They often need to speak with undocumented immigrants or people
who may be able to identify others who are. Why would we expect those
respondents to cooperate? Although the researcher may mean no harm, the
respondents are at considerable risk legally if information they divulge should
get into the hand of the authorities. The same can be said for any target group
that is engaging in illegal or unpopular activities.
 What are the geographic restrictions?

Is the population of interest dispersed over too broad a geographic range for the
researcher to study feasibly with a personal interview? It may be possible for
the researcher to send a mail instrument to a nationwide sample. He/she may
be able to conduct phone interviews with them. But it will almost certainly be
less feasible to do research that requires interviewers to visit directly with
respondents if they are widely dispersed.
Sampling Issues
The sample is the actual group you will have to contact in some way. There are
several important sampling issues you need to consider when doing survey
research.
 What data is available?

What information do you have about your sample? Do you know their current
addresses? Their current phone numbers? Are your contact lists up to date?
 Can respondents be found?

Can your respondents be located? Some people are very busy. Some travel a
lot. Some work the night shift. Even if researchers have accurate phones or
addresses, they may not be able to locate or make contact with their sample.
 Who is the respondent?

Who is the respondent in the study? Let's say a researcher draw a sample of
households in a small city. A household is not a respondent. Does he/she want
to interview a specific individual? Does he/she want to talk only to the "head of
household" (and how is that person defined)? Is he willing to talk to any member
of the household? Does he/she state that he/she will speak to the first adult
member of the household who opens the door? What if that person is unwilling
to be interviewed but someone else in the house is willing? How does the
researcher deal with multi-family households? Similar problems arise when the
researcher sample groups, agencies, or companies. Can he/she survey any
member of the organization? Or, does he/she only want to speak to the Director
of Human Resources? What if the person he/she would like to interview is
unwilling or unable to participate? Does he/she use another member of the
organization?
 Can all members of population be sampled?

If a researcher has an incomplete list of the population (i.e., sampling frame)
he/she may not be able to sample every member of the population. Lists of
various groups are extremely hard to keep up to date. People move or change
their names. Even though they are on your sampling frame listing, the
researcher may not be able to get to them. And, it's possible they are not even
on the list.
 Are response rates likely to be a problem?

Even if the researcher is able to solve all of the other population and sampling
problems, he/she still has to deal with the issue of response rates. Some
members of the sample will simply refuse to respond. Others have the best of
intentions, but can't seem to find the time to send in your questionnaire by the
due date. Still others misplace the instrument or forget about the appointment
for an interview. Low response rates are among the most difficult of problems in
survey research. They can ruin an otherwise well-designed survey effort.
Question Issues
Sometimes the nature of what the researcher want to ask respondents will
determine the type of survey you select.
 What types of questions can be asked?

Is he/she going to be asking personal questions? Is he/she going to need to get
lots of detail in the responses? Can he/she anticipate the most frequent or
important types of responses and develop reasonable closed-ended questions?
 How complex will the questions be?

Sometimes the researcher is dealing with a complex subject or topic. The
questions he/she want to ask are going to have multiple parts. He7she may
need to branch to sub-questions.
 Will screen questions be needed?

A screening question may be needed to determine whether the respondent is
qualified to answer the question of interest. For instance, the researcher
wouldn't want to ask someone their opinions about a specific computer program
without first "screening" them to find out whether they have any experience
using the program. Sometimes you have to screen on several variables (e.g.,
age, gender, experience). The more complicated the screening, the less likely it
is that the researcher can rely on paper-and-pencil instruments without
confusing the respondent.
 Can question sequence be controlled?

Is the survey one where the researcher can construct in advance a reasonable
sequence of questions? Or, is he/she doing an initial exploratory study where
the researcher may need to ask lots of follow-up questions that he/she can't
easily anticipate?
 Will lengthy questions be asked?

If the subject matter is complicated, the researcher may need to give the
respondent some detailed background for a question. Can you reasonably
expect your respondent to sit still long enough in a phone interview to ask your
question?
 Will long response scales be used?

If the researcher is asking people about the different computer equipment they
use, he/she may have to have a lengthy response list (CD-ROM drive, floppy
drive, mouse, touch pad, modem, network connection, external speakers, etc.).
Clearly, it may be difficult to ask about each of these in a short phone interview.
Content Issues
The content of the study can also pose challenges for the different survey types
a researcher might use.
 Can the respondents be expected to know about the issue?

If the respondent does not keep up with the news (e.g., by reading the
newspaper, watching television news, or talking with others), they may not even
know about the news issue the researcher want to ask them about. Or, if
He/she want to do a study of family finances and you are talking to the spouse
who doesn't pay the bills on a regular basis, they may not have the information
to answer your questions.
 Will respondent need to consult records?

Even if the respondent understands what he/she is asking about, the researcher
may need to allow them to consult their records in order to get an accurate
answer. For instance, if the researcher asks them how much money they spent
on food in the past month, they may need to look up their personal check and
credit card records. In this case, you don't want to be involved in an interview
where they would have to go look things up while they keep you waiting (they
wouldn't be comfortable with that).
Bias Issues
People come to the research endeavor with their own sets of biases and
prejudices. Sometimes, these biases will be less of a problem with certain types
of survey approaches.
 Can social desirability be avoided?

Respondents generally want to "look good" in the eyes of others. None likes to
look like one doesn't know an answer. People don't want to say anything that
would be embarrassing. If the researcher asks people about information that
may put them in this kind of position, they may not tell you the truth, or they may
"spin" the response so that it makes them look better. This may be more of a
problem in an interview situation where they are face-to face or on the phone
with a live interviewer.
 Can interviewer distortion and subversion be controlled?

Interviewers may distort an interview as well. They may not ask questions that
make them uncomfortable. They may not listen carefully to respondents on
topics for which they have strong opinions. They may make the judgment that
they already know what the respondent would say to a question based on their
prior responses, even though that may not be true.
 Can false respondents be avoided?

With mail surveys it may be difficult to know who actually responded. Did the
head of household complete the survey or someone else? Did the CEO actually
give the responses or instead pass the task off to a subordinate? Is the person
the interviewer is speaking with on the phone actually who they say they are? At
least with personal interviews, researchers have a reasonable chance of
knowing who they are speaking with. In mail surveys or phone interviews, this
may not be the case.
Administrative Issues
Last, but certainly not least, a researcher has to consider the feasibility of the
survey method for your study.
 costs
Cost is often the major determining factor in selecting survey type. You might
prefer to do personal interviews, but can't justify the high cost of training and
paying for the interviewers. A researcher may prefer to send out an extensive
mailing but can't afford the postage to do so.
 facilities
Does the researcher have the facilities (or access to them) to process and
manage his/her study? In phone interviews, does he/she has well-equipped
phone surveying facilities? For focus groups, does he/she have a comfortable
and accessible room to host the group? Does he/she have the equipment
needed to record and transcribe responses?
 time
Some types of surveys take longer than others. Does the researcher need
responses immediately (as in an overnight public opinion poll)? Have you
budgeted enough time for the study to send out mail surveys and follow-up
reminders, and to get the responses back by mail? Has he/she allowed for
enough time to get enough personal interviews to justify that approach?
 personnel
Different types of surveys make different demands of personnel. Interviews
require interviewers who are motivated and well-trained. Group administered
surveys require people who are trained in group facilitation. Some studies may
be in a technical area that requires some degree of expertise in the interviewer.
Clearly, there are lots of issues to consider when a researcher is selecting
which type of survey he/she wishes to use in his/her study. And there is no clear
and easy way to make this decision in many contexts. There may not be one
approach which is clearly the best. The researcher may have to make tradeoffs
of advantages and disadvantages. There is judgment involved. Two expert
researchers may, for the very same problem or issue, select entirely different
survey methods. But, if they select a method that isn't appropriate or doesn't fit
the context, he/she can doom a study before he/she even begin designing the
instruments or questions themselves.
Constructing the Survey
Constructing a survey instrument is an art in itself. There are numerous small
decisions that must be made -- about content, wording, format, placement --
that can have important consequences for your entire study. While there's no
one perfect way to accomplish this job, we do have lots of advice to offer that
might increase your chances of developing a better final product.
First of all you'll learn about the two major types of surveys that exist, the
questionnaire and the interview and the different varieties of each. Then you'll
see how to write questions for surveys. There are three areas involved in writing
a question:
 determining the question content, scope and purpose
 choosing the response format that you use for collecting information from
the respondent
 figuring out how to word the question to get at the issue of interest
Finally, once you have your questions written, there is the issue of how best to
place them in your survey.
You'll see that although there are many aspects of survey construction that are
just common sense, if you are not careful you can make critical errors that have
dramatic effects on your results.
Types of Questions
Survey questions can be divided into two broad types: structured and
unstructured. From an instrument design point of view, the structured questions
pose the greater difficulties. From a content perspective, it may actually be
more difficult to write good unstructured questions. Here, it is discussed the
variety of structured questions a researcher can consider for his/her survey.
Dichotomous Questions
When a question has two possible responses, we consider it dichotomous.
Surveys often use dichotomous questions that ask for a Yes/No, True/False or
Agree/Disagree response. There are a variety of ways to lay these questions
out on a questionnaire:
Questions Based on Level of Measurement
Researchers can also classify questions in terms of their level of measurement.
For instance, it might measure occupation using a nominal question. Here, the
number next to each response has no meaning except as a placeholder for that
response. The choice of a "2" for a lawyer and a "1" for a truck driver is arbitrary
-- from the numbering system used we can't infer that a lawyer is "twice"
something that a truck driver is.
Researchers might ask respondents to rank order their preferences for
presidential candidates using an ordinal question:
The researcher in this case, wants the respondent to put a 1, 2, 3 or 4 next to
the candidate, where 1 is the respondent's first choice. Note that this could get
confusing. We might want to state the prompt more explicitly so the respondent
knows we want a number from one to 4 (the respondent might check their
favorite candidate, or assign higher numbers to candidates they prefer more
instead of understanding that we want rank ordering).
Researchers can also construct survey questions that attempt to measure on an
interval level. One of the most common of these types is the traditional 1-to-5
rating (or 1-to-7, or 1-to-9, etc.). This is sometimes referred to as a Likert
response scale. Here, it is seen how researchers might ask an opinion question
on a 1-to-5 bipolar scale (it's called bipolar because there is a neutral point and
the two ends of the scale are at opposite positions of the opinion):
Another interval question uses an approach called the semantic differential.
Here, an object is assessed by the respondent on a set of bipolar adjective
pairs (using 5-point rating scale):
Finally, researchers can also get at interval measures by using what is called a
cumulative or Guttmann scale. Here, the respondent checks each item with
which they agree. The items themselves are constructed so that they are
cumulative -- if you agree to one, you probably agree to all of the ones above it
in the list:
Filter or Contingency Questions
Sometimes a researcher has to ask the respondent one question in order to
determine if they are qualified or experienced enough to answer a subsequent
one. This requires using a filter or contingency question. For instance, you may
want to ask one question if the respondent has ever smoked marijuana and a
different question if they have not. In this case, the researcher would have to
construct a filter question to determine whether they've ever smoked marijuana:
 Filter questions can get very complex. Sometimes, a researcher has to

have multiple filter questions in order to direct your respondents to the
correct subsequent questions. There are a few conventions a researcher
should keep in mind when using filters:
try to avoid having more than three levels (two jumps) for any question
 Too many jumps will confuse the respondent and may discourage them
from continuing with the survey.
 if only two levels, use graphic to jump (e.g., arrow and box)
The example above shows how a researcher can make effective use of an
arrow and box to help direct the respondent to the correct subsequent question.
 if possible, jump to a new page

If the researcher can't fit the response to a filter on a single page, it's probably
best to be able to say something like "If YES, please turn to page 4" rather that
"If YES, please go to Question 38" because the respondent will generally have
an easier time finding a page than a specific question.
Question Content
For each question in a survey, a researcher should ask himself/herself how well
it addresses the content he/she is trying to get at. Here are some content-
related questions he/she can ask about the survey questions.
Is the Question Necessary/Useful?
Examine each question to see if you need to ask it at all and if you need to ask
it at the level of detail you currently have.
 Does the researcher need the age of each child or just the number of
children under 16?
 Does the researcher need to ask income or can you estimate?
 Are Several Questions Needed?

This is the classic problem of the double-barreled question. A researcher should
think about splitting each of the following questions into two separate ones.
He/she can often spot these kinds of problems by looking for the conjunction
"and" in his/her question.
 What are his/her feelings towards African-Americans and Hispanic-

Americans?
 What does he/she think of proposed changes in benefits and hours?

Another reason a researcher might need more than one question is that the
question he/she asks does not cover all possibilities. For instance, if he/she
asks about earnings, the respondent might not mention all income (e.g.,
dividends, gifts). Or, if the researcher asks the respondents if they're in favor of
public TV, they might not understand that he/she is asking generally. They may
not be in favor of public TV for themselves (they never watch it), but might favor
it very much for their children (who watch Sesame Street regularly). The
researcher might be better off asking two questions, one for their own viewing
and one for other members of their household.
Sometimes a researcher needs to ask additional questions because his/her
question does not give him/her enough contexts to interpret the answer. For
instance, if he/she asks about attitudes towards Catholics, can the researchers
interpret this without finding out about their attitudes towards religion in general,
or other religious groups?
At times, a researcher needs to ask additional questions because his/her
question does not determine the intensity of the respondent's attitude or belief.
For example, if they say they support public TV, the researcher probably should
also ask them whether they ever watch it or if they would be willing to have their
tax dollars spent on it. It's one thing for a respondent to tell him/her they support
something. But the intensity of that response is greater if they are willing to back
their sentiment of support with their behavior.
Do Respondents Have the Needed Information?
Look at each question in your survey to see whether the respondent is likely to
have the necessary information to be able to answer the question. For example,
let's say you want to ask the question:
Do you think Dean Rusk acted correctly in the Bay of Pigs crisis?
The respondent won't be able to answer this question if they have no idea who
Dean Rusk was or what the Bay of Pigs crisis was. In surveys of television
viewing, you cannot expect that the respondent can answer questions about
shows they have never watched. You should ask a filter question first (e.g.,
Have you ever watched the show ER?) before asking them their opinions about
it.
Does the Question need to be more specific?

Sometimes researchers ask their questions too generally and the information
they obtain is more difficult to interpret. For example, let's say he/she wants to
find out respondent's opinions about a specific book. He/she could ask them
How well did you like the book?
On some scale ranging from "Not At All" to "Extremely Well." But what would
their response mean? What does it mean to say that he/she liked a book very
well? Instead, the researcher might ask questions designed to be more specific
like:
Did you recommend the book to others?
Or
Did you look for other books by that author?
Is Question Sufficiently General?
The researcher can err in the other direction as well by being too specific. For
instance, if he/she asks someone to list the televisions program they liked best
in the past week, he could get a very different answer than if he asked them
which show they've enjoyed most over the past year. Perhaps a show they don't
usually like had a great episode in the past week, or their show was preempted
by another program.
Is Question Biased or Loaded?
One danger in question-writing is that the researcher´s own biases and blind-
spots may affect the wording. For instance, the researcher might generally be in
favor of tax cuts. If you ask a question like:
What do you see as the benefits of a tax cut?
You’re only asking about one side of the issue. You might get a very different
picture of the respondents' positions if you also asked about the disadvantages
of tax cuts. The same thing could occur if you are in favor of public welfare and
you ask:
What do you see as the disadvantages of eliminating welfare?
Without also asking about the potential benefits.
Will Respondent Answer Truthfully?
For each question on the survey, the researcher asks himself/herself whether
the respondent will have any difficulty answering the question truthfully. If there
is some reason why they may not, consider rewording the question. For
instance, some people are sensitive about answering questions about their
exact age or income. In this case, you might give them response brackets to
choose from (e.g., between 30 and 40 years old, between $50,000 and
$100,000 annual income). Sometimes even bracketed responses won't be
enough. Some people do not like to share how much money they give to
charitable causes (they may be afraid of being solicited even more).
No matter how you word the question, they would not be likely to tell you their
contribution rate. But sometimes a researcher can do this by posing the
question in terms of a hypothetical projective respondent (a little bit like a
projective test). In this case, the researcher might get reasonable estimates if
he/she asks the respondent how much money "people you know" typically give
in a year to charitable causes. Finally, a researcher can sometimes dispense
with asking a question at all if he/she can obtain the answer unobtrusively. If the
researcher is interested in finding out what magazines the respondent reads,
he/she might instead tell them he/she is collecting magazines for a recycling
drive and ask if they have any old ones to donate.
Response Format
The response format is how you collect the answer from the respondent. Let's
start with a simple distinction between what we'll call unstructured response
formats and structured response formats. [On this page, I'll use standard web-
based form fields to show you how various response formats might look on the
web. If you want to see how these are generated, select the View Source option
on your web browser.]
Structured Response Formats
Structured formats help the respondent to respond more easily and help the
researcher to accumulate and summarize responses more efficiently. But, they
can also constrain the respondent and limit the researcher's ability to
understand what the respondent really means. There are many different
structured response formats, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. We'll
review the major ones here.
Fill-In-The-Blank. One of the simplest response formats is a blank line. A blank
line can be used for a number of different response types. For instance:
Please enter your gender:
_____ Male
_____ Female
Here, the respondent would probably put a check mark or an X next to the
response. This is also an example of a dichotomous response, because it only
has two possible values. Other common dichotomous responses are True/False
and Yes/No. Here's another common use of a fill-in-the-blank response format:
In this example, the respondent writes a number in each blank. Notice that here,
we expect the respondent to place a number on every blank, whereas in the
previous example, we expect to respondent to choose only one. Then, of
course, there's the classic:
NAME: ________________________
And here's the same fill-in-the-blank response item in web format:
NAME:
Of course, there's always the classic fill-in-the-blank test item:
One of President Lincoln's most famous speeches, the Address, only lasted a
few minutes when delivered.
Check The Answer. The respondent places a check next to the response(s).
The simplest form would be the example given above where we ask the person
to indicate their gender. Sometimes, we supply a box that the person can fill in
with an 'X' (which is sort of a variation on the check mark. Here's a web version
of the checkbox:
Please check if you have the following item on the computer you use most:
Modem
printer
CD-ROM drive
joystick
scanner
Notice that in this example, it is possible for you to check more than one
response. By convention, we usually use the checkmark format when we want
to allow the respondent to select multiple items.
We sometimes refer to this as a multi-option variable. You have to be careful
when you analyze data from a multi-option variable. Because the respondent
can select any of the options, you have to treat this type of variable in your
analysis as though each option is a separate variable. For instance, for each
option we would normally enter either a '0' if the respondent did not check it or a
'1' if the respondent did check it. For the example above, if the respondent had
only a modem and CD-ROM drive, we would enter the sequence 1, 0, 1, 0, 0.
There is a very important reason why you should code this variable as either 0
or 1 when you enter the data. If you do, and you want to determine what
percent of your sample has a modem, all you have to do is compute the
average of the 0's and 1's for the modem variable. For instance, if you have 10
respondents and only 3 have a modem, the average would be 3/10 = .30 or
30%, which is the percent who checked that item.
The example above is also a good example of a checklist item. Whenever you
use a checklist, you want to be sure that you ask the following questions:
 Are all of the alternatives covered?
 Is the list of reasonable length?
 Is the wording impartial?
 Is the form of the response easy, uniform?

Sometimes you may not be sure that you have covered all of the possible
responses in a checklist. If that is the case, you should probably allow the
respondent to write in any other options that may apply.
Circle The Answer. Sometimes the respondent is asked to circle an item to
indicate their response. Usually we are asking them to circle a number. For
instance, we might have the following:
In computer contexts, it's not feasible to have respondents circle a response. In
this case, we tend to use an option button:
Capital punishment is the best way to deal with convicted murderers.
StronglyDisagree
Disagree
Neutral
Agree
StronglyAgree
Notice that you can only check one option at a time. The rule of thumb is that
you ask someone to circle an item or click on a button when you only want them
to be able to select one of the options. In contrast to the multi-option variable
described above, we refer to this type of item as a single-option variable -- even
though the respondent has multiple choices, they can only select one of them.
We would analyze this as a single variable that can take the integer values from
1 to 5.
Unstructured Response Formats
While there is a wide variety of a structured response format, there are relatively
few unstructured ones. What is an unstructured response format? Generally, its
written text. If the respondent (or interviewer) writes down text as the response,
you've got an unstructured response format. These can vary from short
comment boxes to the transcript of an interview.
In almost every short questionnaire, there's one or more short text field with
questions. One of the most frequent goes something like this:
Please add any other comments:
Actually, there's really not much more to text-based response formats of this
type than writing the prompt and allowing enough space for a reasonable
response.
Transcripts are an entirely different matter. There, the transcriber has to decide
whether to transcribe every word or only record major ideas, thoughts, quotes,
etc. In detailed transcriptions, you may also need to distinguish different
speakers (e.g., the interviewer and respondent) and have a standard
convention for indicating comments about what's going on in the interview,
including non-conversational events that take place and thoughts of the
interviewer.
Question Wording
One of the major difficulty in writing good survey questions is getting the
wording right. Even slight wording differences can confuse the respondent or
lead to incorrect interpretations of the question. Here, I outline some questions
you can ask about how you worded each of your survey questions.
Can the Question be misunderstood?
The survey author has to always be on the lookout for questions that could be
misunderstood or confusing. For instance, if you ask a person for their
nationality, it might not be clear what you want (Do you want someone from
Malaysia to say Malaysian, Asian, or Pacific Islander?). Or, if you ask for marital
status, do you want someone to say simply that they are either married or no
married? Or, do you want more detail (like divorced, widow/widower, etc.)?
Some terms are just too vague to be useful. For instance, if you ask a question
about the "mass media," what do you mean? The newspapers? Radio?
Television?
Here's one of my favorites. Let's say you want to know the following:
What kind of headache remedy do you use?
Do you want to know what brand name medicine they take? Do you want to
know about "home" remedies? Are you asking whether they prefer a pill,
capsule or caplet?
What Assumptions Does the Question Make?
Sometimes we don't stop to consider how a question will appear from the
respondent's point-of-view. We don't think about the assumptions behind our
questions. For instance, if you ask what social class someone's in, you assume
that they know what social class is and that they think of themselves as being in
one. In this kind of case, you may need to use a filter question first to determine
whether either of these assumptions is true.
Is the time frame specified?

Whenever you use the words "will", "could", "might", or "may" in a question, you
might suspect that the question asks a time-related question. Be sure that, if it
does, you have specified the time frame precisely. For instance, you might ask:
Do you think Congress will cut taxes?
Or something like
Do you think Congress could successfully resist tax cuts?
Neither of these questions specifies a time frame.
How personal is the wording?
With a change of just a few words, a question can go from being relatively
impersonal to probing into your private perspectives. Consider the following
three questions, each of which asks about the respondent's satisfaction with
working conditions:
 Are working conditions satisfactory or not satisfactory in the plant where

you work?
 Do you feel that working conditions satisfactory or not satisfactory in the

plant where you work?
 Are you personally satisfied with working conditions in the plant where
you work?
The first question is stated from a fairly detached, objective viewpoint. The
second asks how you "feel." The last asks whether you are "personally
satisfied." Be sure the questions in your survey are at an appropriate level for
your context. And, be sure there is consistency in this across questions in your
survey.
Is the wording too direct?
There are times when asking a question too directly may be too threatening or
disturbing for respondents. For instance, consider a study where you want to
discuss battlefield experiences with former soldiers who experienced trauma.
Examine the following three question options:
 How did you feel about being in the war?
 How well did the equipment hold up in the field?
 How well were new recruits trained?

The first question may be too direct. For this population it may elicit powerful
negative emotions based on their recollections. The second question is a less
direct one. It asks about equipment in the field, but, for this population, may also
lead the discussion toward more difficult issues to discuss directly. The last
question is probably the least direct and least threatening. Bashing the new
recruits is standard protocol in almost any social context. The question is likely
to get the respondent talking, recounting anecdotes, without eliciting much
stress. Of course, all of this may simply be begging the question. If you are
doing a study where the respondents may experience high levels of stress
because of the questions you ask, you should reconsider the ethics of doing the
study.
Other Wording Issues
The nuances of language guarantee that the task of the question writer will be
endlessly complex. Without trying to generate an exhaustive list, here are a few
other questions to keep in mind:
 Does the question contain difficult or unclear terminology?
 Does the question make each alternative explicit?
 Is the wording objectionable?
 Is the wording loaded or slanted?

Question Placement
Decisions about Placement
One of the most difficult tasks facing the survey designer involves the ordering
of questions. Which topics should be introduced early in the survey and which
later? If you leave your most important questions until the end, you may find
that your respondents are too tired to give them the kind of attention you would
like. If you introduce them too early, they may not yet be ready to address the
topic, especially if it is a difficult or disturbing one. There are no easy answers to
these problems - you have to use your judgment. Whenever you think about
question placement, consider the following questions:
 Is the answer influenced by prior questions?
 Does question come too early or too late to arouse interest?
 Does the question receive sufficient attention?

The Opening Questions
Just as in other aspects of life, first impressions are important in survey work.
The first few questions you ask will determine the tone for the survey, and can
help put your respondent at ease. With that in mind, the opening few questions
should, in general, is easy to answer. You might start with some simple
descriptive questions that will get the respondent rolling. You should never
begin your survey with sensitive or threatening questions.
Sensitive Questions
In much of our social research, we have to ask respondents about difficult or
uncomfortable subjects. Before asking such questions, you should attempt to
develop some trust or rapport with the respondent. Often, preceding the
sensitive questions with some easier warm-up ones will help. But, you have to
make sure that the sensitive material does not come up abruptly or appear
unconnected with the rest of the survey. It is often helpful to have a transition
sentence between sections of your instrument to give the respondent some idea
of the kinds of questions that are coming. For instance, you might lead into a
section on personal material with the transition:
In this next section of the survey, we'd like to ask you about your personal
relationships. Remember, we do not want you to answer any questions if you
are uncomfortable doing so.
A Checklist of Considerations
There are lots of conventions or rules-of-thumb in the survey design business.
Here's a checklist of some of the most important items. You can use this
checklist to review your instrument:
 start with easy, nonthreatening questions
 put more difficult, threatening questions near end
 never start a mail survey with an open-ended question
 for historical demographics, follow chronological order
 ask about one topic at a time
 when switching topics, use a transition
 reduce response set (the tendency of respondent to just keep checking
the same response)
 for filter or contingency questions, make a flowchart
The Golden Rule
You are imposing in the life of your respondent. You are asking for their time,
their attention, their trust, and often, for personal information. Therefore, you
should always keep in mind the "golden rule" of survey research (and, I hope,
for the rest of your life as well!):
Do unto your respondents as you would have them do unto you!
To put this in more practical terms, you should keep the following in mind:
 Thank the respondent at the beginning for allowing you to conduct your
study
 Keep your survey as short as possible -- only include what is absolutely
necessary
 Be sensitive to the needs of the respondent
 Be alert for any sign that the respondent is uncomfortable
 Thank the respondent at the end for participating
 Assure the respondent that you will send a copy of the final results
Interviews
Interviews are among the most challenging and rewarding forms of
measurement. They require a personal sensitivity and adaptability as well as
the ability to stay within the bounds of the designed protocol. Here, I describe
the preparation you need to do for an interview study and the process of
conducting the interview itself.
Preparation
The Role of the Interviewer
The interviewer is really the "jack-of-all-trades" in survey research. The
interviewer's role is complex and multifaceted. It includes the following tasks:
 Locate and enlist cooperation of respondents
The interviewer has to find the respondent. In door-to-door surveys, this means
being able to locate specific addresses. Often, the interviewer has to work at the
least desirable times (like immediately after dinner or on weekends) because
that's when respondents are most readily available.
 Motivate respondents to do good job
If the interviewer does not take the work seriously, why would the respondent?
The interviewer has to be motivated and has to be able to communicate that
motivation to the respondent. Often, this means that the interviewer has to be
convinced of the importance of the research.
 Clarify any confusion/concerns
Interviewers have to be able to think on their feet. Respondents may raise
objections or concerns that were not anticipated. The interviewer has to be able
to respond candidly and informatively.
 Observe quality of responses
Whether the interview is personal or over the phone, the interviewer is in the
best position to judge the quality of the information that is being received. Even
a verbatim transcript will not adequately convey how seriously the respondent
took the task, or any gestures or body language that was evident.
 Conduct a good interview
Last, and certainly not least, the interviewer has to conduct a good interview!
Every interview has a life of its own. Some respondents are motivated and
attentive, others are distracted or disinterested. The interviewer also has good
or bad days. Assuring a consistently high-quality interview is a challenge that
requires constant effort.
Training the Interviewers
One of the most important aspects of any interview study is the training of the
interviewers themselves. In many ways the interviewers are your measures,
and the quality of the results is totally in their hands. Even in small studies
involving only a single researcher-interviewer, it is important to organize in detail
and rehearse the interviewing process before beginning the formal study.
Here are some of the major topics that should be included in interviewer
training:
 Describe the entire study
Interviewers need to know more than simply how to conduct the interview itself.
They should learn about the background for the study, previous work that has
been done, and why the study is important.
 State who is sponsor of research
Interviewers need to know who they are working for. They -- and their
respondents -- have a right to know not just what agency or company is
conducting the research, but also, which is paying for the research.
 Teach enough about survey research
While you seldom have the time to teach a full course on survey research
methods, the interviewers need to know enough that they respect the survey
method and are motivated. Sometimes it may not be apparent why a question
or set of questions was asked in a particular way. The interviewers will need to
understand the rationale for how the instrument was constructed.
 Explain the sampling logic and process
Naive interviewers may not understand why sampling is so important. They may
wonder why you go through all the difficulties of selecting the sample so
carefully. You will have to explain that sampling is the basis for the conclusions
that will be reached and for the degree to which your study will be useful.
 Explain interviewer bias
Interviewers need to know the many ways that they can inadvertently bias the
results. And, they need to understand why it is important that they not bias the
study. This is especially a problem when you are investigating political or moral
issues on which people have strongly held convictions. While the interviewer
may think they are doing well for society by slanting results in favor of what they
believe, they need to recognize that doing so could jeopardize the entire study
in the eyes of others.
 "Walk through" the interview
When you first introduce the interview, it's a good idea to walk through the entire
protocol so the interviewers can get an idea of the various parts or phases and
how they interrelate.
 Explain respondent selection procedures, including
 reading maps
It's astonishing how many adults don't know how to follow directions on a map.
In personal interviews, the interviewer may need to locate respondents who are
spread over a wide geographic area. And, they often have to navigate by night
(respondents tend to be most available in evening hours) in neighborhoods
they're not familiar with. Teaching basic map reading skills and confirming that
the interviewers can follow maps is essential.
 identifying households
In many studies it is impossible in advance to say whether every sample
household meets the sampling requirements for the study. In your study, you
may want to interview only people who live in single family homes. It may be
impossible to distinguish townhouses and apartment buildings in your sampling
frame. The interviewer must know how to identify the appropriate target
household.
 identify respondents
Just as with households, many studies require respondents who meet specific
criteria. For instance, your study may require that you speak with a male head-
of-household between the ages of 30 and 40 who has children under 18 living in
the same household. It may be impossible to obtain statistics in advance to
target such respondents. The interviewer may have to ask a series of filtering
questions before determining whether the respondent meets the sampling
needs.
 Rehearse interview
You should probably have several rehearsal sessions with the interviewer team.
You might even videotape rehearsal interviews to discuss how the trainees
responded in difficult situations. The interviewers should be very familiar with
the entire interview before ever facing a respondent.
 Explain supervision
In most interview studies, the interviewers will work under the direction of a
supervisor. In some contexts, the supervisor may be a faculty advisor; in others,
they may be the "boss." In order to assure the quality of the responses, the
supervisor may have to observe a subsample of interviews, listen in on phone
interviews, or conduct follow-up assessments of interviews with the
respondents. This can be very threatening to the interviewers. You need to
develop an atmosphere where everyone on the research team -- interviewers
and supervisors -- feels like they're working together towards a common end.
 Explain scheduling
The interviewers have to understand the demands being made on their
schedules and why these are important to the study. In some studies it will be
imperative to conduct the entire set of interviews within a certain time period. In
most studies, it's important to have the interviewers available when it's
convenient for the respondents, not necessarily the interviewer.
The Interviewer's Kit
It's important that interviewers have all of the materials they need to do a
professional job. Usually, you will want to assemble an interviewer kit that can
be easily carried and includes all of the important materials such as:
 a "professional-looking" 3-ring notebook (this might even have the logo of
the company or organization conducting the interviews)
 maps
 sufficient copies of the survey instrument
 official identification (preferable a picture ID)
 a cover letter from the Principal Investigator or Sponsor
 a phone number the respondent can call to verify the interviewer's
authenticity
The Interview
So all the preparation is complete, if the training done, the interviewers are
ready to precede, and their "kits" are in hand. It's finally time to do an actual
interview. Each interview is unique, like a small work of art (and sometimes the
art may not be very good). Each interview has its own ebb and flow -- its own
pace. To the outsider, an interview looks like a fairly standard, simple, prosaic
effort. But to the interviewer, it can be filled with special nuances and
interpretations that aren't often immediately apparent. Every interview includes
some common components. There's the opening, where the interviewer gains
entry and establishes the rapport and tone for what follows. There's the middle
game, the heart of the process that consists of the protocol of questions and the
improvisations of the probe. And finally, there's the endgame, the wrap-up,
where the interviewer and respondent establish a sense of closure. Whether it's
a two-minute phone interview or a personal interview that spans hours, the
interview is a bit of theater, a mini-drama that involves real lives in real time.
Opening Remarks
In many ways, the interviewer has the same initial problem that a salesperson
has. You have to get the respondent's attention initially for a long enough
periods that you can sell them on the idea of participating in the study. Many of
the remarks here assume an interview that is being conducted at a respondent's
residence. But the analogies to other interview contexts should be
straightforward.
 Gaining entry
The first thing the interviewer must do is gain entry. Several factors can
enhance the prospects. Probably the most important factor is your initial
appearance. The interviewer needs to dress professionally and in a manner that
will be comfortable to the respondent. In some contexts a business suit and
briefcase may be appropriate. In others, it may intimidate. The way the
interviewer appears initially to the respondent has to communicate some simple
messages -- that you're trustworthy, honest, and non-threatening. Cultivating a
manner of professional confidence, the sense that the respondent has nothing
to worry about because you know what you're doing -- is a difficult skill to teach
and an indispensable skill for achieving initial entry.
 Doorstep technique
You're standing on the doorstep and someone has opened the door, even if
only halfway. You need to smile. You need to be brief. State why you are there
and suggest what you would like the respondent to do. Don't ask -- suggest
what you want. Instead of saying "May I come in to do an interview?” you might
try a more imperative approach like “I’d like to take a few minutes of your time to
interview you for a very important study."
 Introduction
If you've gotten this far without having the door slammed in your face, chances
are you will be able to get an interview. Without waiting for the respondent to
ask questions, you should move to introducing yourself. You should have this
part of the process memorized so you can deliver the essential information in
20-30 seconds at most. State your name and the name of the organization you
represent. Show your identification badge and the letter that introduces you.
You want to have as legitimate an appearance as possible. If you have a three-
ring binder or clipboard with the logo of your organization, you should have it
out and visible. You should assume that the respondent will be interested in
participating in your important study -- assume that you will be doing an
interview here.
Explaining the study
At this point, you've been invited to come in (After all, you're standing there in
the cold, holding an assortment of materials, clearly displaying your credentials,
and offering the respondent the chance to participate in an interview -- to many
respondents, it's a rare and exciting event. They hardly ever get asked their
views about anything, and yet they know that important decisions are made all
the time based on input from others.). Or, the respondent has continued to
listen long enough that you need to move onto explaining the study. There are
three rules to this critical explanation: 1) Keep it short; 2) Keep it short; and 3)
Keep it short! The respondent doesn't have to or want to know all of the neat
nuances of this study, how it came about, how you convinced your thesis
committee to buy into it, and so on. You should have a one or two sentence
description of the study memorized. No big words. No jargon. No detail. There
will be more than enough time for that later (and you should bring some written
materials you can leave at the end for that purpose). This is the "25 words or
less" description. What you should spend some time on is assuring the
respondent that you are interviewing them confidentially, and that their
participation is voluntary.
Asking the Questions
You've gotten in. The respondent has asked you to sit down and make yourself
comfortable. It may be that the respondent was in the middle of doing
something when you arrived and you may need to allow them a few minutes to
finish the phone call or send the kids off to do homework. Now, you're ready to
begin the interview itself.
 Use questionnaire carefully, but informally
The questionnaire is your friend. It was developed with a lot of care and
thoughtfulness. While you have to be ready to adapt to the needs of the setting,
your first instinct should always be to trust the instrument that was designed.
But you also need to establish a rapport with the respondent. If you have your
face in the instrument and you read the questions, you'll appear unprofessional
and disinterested. Even though you may be nervous, you need to recognize that
your respondent is most likely even more nervous. If you memorize the first few
questions, you can refer to the instrument only occasionally, using eye contact
and a confident manner to set the tone for the interview and help the
respondent get comfortable.
 Ask questions exactly as written
Sometimes an interviewer will think that they could improve on the tone of a
question by altering a few words to make it simpler or more "friendly." DON'T.
You should ask the questions as they are on the instrument. If you had a
problem with a question, the time to raise it was during the training and
rehearsals, not during the actual interview. It is important that the interview be
as standardized as possible across respondents (this is true except in certain
types of exploratory or interpretive research where the explicit goal is to avoid
any standardizing). You may think the change you made was inconsequential
when, in fact, it may change the entire meaning of the question or response.
 Follow the order given
Once you know an interview well, you may see a respondent bring up a topic
that you know will come up later in the interview. You may be tempted to jump
to that section of the interview while you're on the topic. DON'T. You are more
likely to lose your place. You may omit questions that build a foundation for later
questions.
 Ask every question
Sometimes you'll be tempted to omit a question because you thought you
already heard what the respondent will say. Don't assume that. For example,
let's say you were conducting an interview with college age women about the
topic of date rape. In an earlier question, the respondent mentioned that she
knew of a woman on her dormitory floor who had been raped on a date within
the past year. A few questions later, you are supposed to ask "Do you know of
anyone personally who was raped on a date?" You figure you already know that
the answer is yes, so you decide to skip the question. Instead, you might say
something like "I know you may have already mentioned this, but do you know
of anyone personally who was raped on a date?" At this point, the respondent
may say something like "Well, in addition to the woman who lived down the hall
in my dorm, I know of a friend from high school who experienced date rape." If
you hadn't asked the question, you would never have discovered this detail.
 Don't finish sentences
I don't know about you, but I'm one of those people who just hate to be left
hanging. I like to keep a conversation moving. Once I know where a sentence
seems to be heading, I'm aching to get to the next sentence. I finish people's
sentences all the time. If you're like me, you should practice the art of patience
(and silence) before doing any interviewing. As you'll see below, silence is one
of the most effective devices for encouraging a respondent to talk. If you finish
their sentence for them, you imply that what they had to say is transparent or
obvious, or that you don't want to give them the time to express themselves in
their own language.
Obtaining Adequate Responses - The Probe
OK, you've asked a question. The respondent gives a brief, cursory answer.
How do you elicit a more thoughtful, thorough response? You probe.
 Silent probe
The most effective way to encourage someone to elaborate is to do nothing at
all - just pause and wait. This is referred to as the "silent" probe. It works (at
least in certain cultures) because the respondent is uncomfortable with pauses
or silence. It suggests to the respondent that you are waiting, listening for what
they will say next.
 Overt encouragement
At times, you can encourage the respondent directly. Try to do so in a way that
does not imply approval or disapproval of what they said (that could bias their
subsequent results). Overt encouragement could be as simple as saying "Uh-
huh" or "OK" after the respondent completes a thought.
 Elaboration
You can encourage more information by asking for elaboration. For instance, it
is appropriate to ask questions like "Would you like to elaborate on that?" or "Is
there anything else you would like to add?"
 Ask for clarification
Sometimes, you can elicit greater detail by asking the respondent to clarify
something that was said earlier. You might say, "A minute ago you were talking
about the experience you had in high school. Could you tell me more about
that?"
 Repetition
This is the old psychotherapist trick. You say something without really saying
anything new. For instance, the respondent just described a traumatic
experience they had in childhood. You might say "What I'm hearing you say is
that you found that experience very traumatic." Then, you should pause. The
respondent is likely to say something like "Well, yes, and it affected the rest of
my family as well. In fact, my younger sister..."
 Recording the Response
Although we have the capability to record a respondent in audio and/or video,
most interview methodologists don't think it's a good idea. Respondents are
often uncomfortable when they know their remarks will be recorded word-for-
word. They may strain to only say things in a socially acceptable way. Although
you would get a more detailed and accurate record, it is likely to be distorted by
the very process of obtaining it. This may be more of a problem in some
situations than in others. It is increasingly common to be told that your
conversation may be recorded during a phone interview. And most focus group
methodologies use unobtrusive recording equipment to capture what's being
said. But, in general, personal interviews are still best when recorded by the
interviewer using pen and paper. Here, I assume the paper-and-pencil
approach.
 Record responses immediately
The interviewer should record responses as they are being stated. This conveys
the idea that you are interested enough in what the respondent is saying to
write it down. You don't have to write down every single word -- you're not
taking stenography. But you may want to record certain key phrases or quotes
verbatim. You need to develop a system for distinguishing what the respondent
says verbatim from what you are characterizing (how about quotations, for
instance!).
 Include all probes
You need to indicate every single probe that you use. Develop shorthand for
different standard probes. Use a clear form for writing them in (e.g., place
probes in the left margin).
 Use abbreviations where possible
Abbreviations will help you to capture more of the discussion. Develop a
standardized system (e.g., R=respondent; DK=don't know). If you create an
abbreviation on the fly, have a way of indicating its origin. For instance, if you
decide to abbreviate Spouse with an 'S', you might make a notation in the right
margin saying "S=Spouse."
Concluding the Interview
When you've gone through the entire interview, you need to bring the interview
to closure. Some important things to remember:
 Thank the respondent
Don't forget to do this. Even if the respondent was troublesome or
uninformative, it is important for you to be polite and thank them for their time.
 Tell them when you expect to send results
I hate it when people conduct interviews and then don't send results and
summaries to the people who they get the information from. You owe it to your
respondent to show them what you learned. Now, they may not want your entire
300-page dissertation. It's common practice to prepare a short, readable,
jargon-free summary of interviews that you can send to the respondents.
 Don't be brusque or hasty
Allow for a few minutes of winding down conversation. The respondent may
want to know a little bit about you or how much you like doing this kind of work.
They may be interested in how the results will be used. Use these kinds of
interests as a way to wrap up the conversation. As you're putting away your
materials and packing up to go, engage the respondent. You don't want the
respondent to feel as though you completed the interview and then rushed out
on them -- they may wonder what they said that was wrong. On the other hand,
you have to be careful here. Some respondents may want to keep on talking
long after the interview is over. You have to find a way to politely cut off the
conversation and make your exit.
 Immediately after leaving -- write down any notes about how the
interview went
Sometimes you will have observations about the interview that you didn't want
to write down while you were with the respondent. You may have noticed them
get upset at a question, or you may have detected hostility in a response.
Immediately after the interview you should go over your notes and make any
other comments and observations -- but be sure to distinguish these from the
notes made during the interview (you might use a different color pen, for
instance).
Plus & Minus of Survey Methods
It's hard to compare the advantages and disadvantages of the major different
survey types. Even though each type has some general advantages and
disadvantages, there are exceptions to almost every rule. Here's my general
assessment. Perhaps you would differ in your ratings here or there, but I think
you'll generally agree.
Issue Questionnaire Interview

Group Mail Drop-Off Personal
Phone
Are Visual Presentations Possible? Yes Yes Yes Yes

No
Are Long Response Categories Possible? Yes Yes Yes ???

No
Is Privacy A Feature? No Yes No Yes

???
Is the Method Flexible? No No No Yes

Yes
Are Open-ended Questions Feasible? No No No Yes

Yes
Is Reading & Writing Needed? ??? Yes Yes No

No
Can You Judge Quality of Response? Yes No ??? Yes

???
Are High Response Rates Likely? Yes No Yes Yes

No
Can You Explain Study in Person? Yes No Yes Yes

???
Is It Low Cost? Yes Yes No No

No
Are Staff & Facilities Needs Low? Yes Yes No No

No
Does It Give Access to Dispersed Samples? No Yes No No

No
Does Respondent Have Time to Formulate Answers? No Yes Yes No

No
Is There Personal Contact? Yes No Yes Yes

No
Is A Long Survey Feasible? No No No Yes

No
Is There Quick Turnaround? No Yes No No

Yes
Transcripts of the foreign instructor interviews. Transcripts of the interviews

Researcher: Hi, thank you for doing this interview. You have the questions in
front of you so I will just read them to you and then you can answer. Is that ok?
Teacher Alpha: Ok Researcher Q1. Were you told what to teach or how to
teach by your institute? Alpha: Not really told by anyone but other teachers
here. I never really spoke to my boss, other than saying ‘hi’ for about 4 months,
I think – at a Christmas dinner. Generally, there is a textbook given to us but we
are used to making up extra stuff when we want to. Researcher: You have been
teaching here for how many years? Alpha: This is 5 semesters, so 2.5 years.
We changed the textbook last year. We use Side-by-Side 1 now. Researcher
Q2. Do you believe you are helping Korean students learn English as a second
language? What feedback do you receive that informs you so. Alpha: That is a
good question! They say things like ‘good teacher’ at the end of semester
sometimes or, if I change a mark they say ‘you are good teacher’ but you know
that I am sure they do not understand a lot what we give them. Researcher:
What do you mean? Alpha: Well they memorize for all my tests, I think. I do
have good students too but generally I see them two minutes before the test
cramming away. Researcher: After the test, do the students ever say anything
to you?
Alpha: They always say it was hard but you know I tell them exactly what to
study for the test. A lot of students still fail. I don’t ever understand that.
Researcher Q3. How does your knowledge of second language acquisition
compliment your school’s second language curriculum? Alpha: I don’t have any
knowledge other than following the book. I am not stupid and I didn’t like the
question but I have been teaching a long time in the country and even the
administration doesn’t seem to care – they hired me with my B.A.. Researcher
Q4. Do you have any specific examples from your past where you felt your
difficult or awkward to follow your plan? Alpha: No.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>
Teacher Beta: ok, thanks. Researcher Q1. Were you told what to teach or how
to teach by your institute? Beta: Not really. I think I was hired because I know
what I am doing. Researcher: So, the administration never said ‘do this’ or
‘teach this’? Beta: At my interview, after I was hired, they said I could do what I
wanted as long as I had a mid-term, a final exam, and checked attendance.
That was all. Researcher Q2. Do you believe you are helping Korean students
learn English as a second language? What feedback do you receive that
informs you so.
Beta: The students here really respect their teachers so they only say nice
things to me – like ‘good job’ after class with their thumbs up. May of them write
to me on their test papers, saying things like ‘I love you teacher’ and ‘A+ please’
‘because you are good teacher’…stuff like that. Nobody around here takes it
seriously.
I try to; to answer your question, give them a lesson every class – I use pictures
a lot because they like them – and try to get them to talk about situations when I
can. Researcher: Do they all try to speak? Beta: Some classes do others don’t.
Some classes are different from others. Researcher: What do you mean? Beta:
Well, this semester I had 9 classes and 8 of them had 35 or more students, 3
had 47 to 50. I mean I do what I can but it is pointless sometimes. Researcher:
Why? Beta: Because by the time I finish taking attendance I have about 25
minutes to teach them. It is too loud, it takes them time to settle down. Even
then I think half of them are playing with their handphones! Researcher Q3.
How does your knowledge of second language acquisition compliment your
school’s second language curriculum? Beta: I only have an education degree,
so I use that knowledge when I can. The curriculum is me so I try to step them
through verbs and pronouns and some vocabulary. That is about it. Researcher
Q4. Do you have any specific examples from your past where you felt your
difficult or awkward to follow your plan? Beta: Sure, my first year here I worked
out an entire syllabus for my classes – I had three different ones. But like I said I
worked my lesson plans around verbs, you know like present continuous and
future, you know… Researcher: Yeah.
Beta: Anyways, I get in there and start teaching for a few weeks and I realized
that they never leveled tested any of the students. I am teaching kids of a
million different levels at the same time.
Researcher: Really. Beta: Actually it was a class of about 30 students and I
thought they were all just shy for a while, but when I really pushed them for a
answer I could tell they didn’t understand anything, some of them anyways.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>
Teacher Cappa: Yes Researcher Q1. Were you told what to teach or how to
teach by your institute? Cappa: We all used the same textbook. Researcher:
Which one? Cappa: It was made by the school, called E-ways. Researcher: Did
the school tell you how to teach it? Cappa: Haha! They told us to use follow the
book but we could add to it if we wanted to. Researcher: Do you? Cappa: yeah,
all the time. The book reads like a ‘decliner’ of verbs and animated illustrations
– it is terrible, the kids hate it. Researcher: So what do you do? Cappa: I just, I
should say we, make our own textbook basically. I mean all the students are of
a very low level of English, so we give them the basics of the language –
pronouns and verbs with standard compliments. I tried using idioms once but
they didn’t understand them. I use them at the language institute sometimes.
Researcher Q2. Do you believe you are helping Korean students learn English
as a second language? What feedback do you receive that informs you so.
Cappa: I speak a little Korean so I know when they say good things about me. I
am helping them get the basics like I said. But they have to put in the work to do
it. My classes are fairly docile groups. I do not think they like to learn English.
My wife says they are under a lot of pressure to learn but not in my classes.
Researcher: What do you mean? Cappa: I mean they do not care about
learning the language, all they want is a mark for their tuition or bursary or
something. If they did any of the homework I assigned, I could tell but not here.
You can ask all these other teachers. Researcher: How many are there working
here. Cappa: About 35. They will tell you the same thing. Researcher Q3. How
does your knowledge of second language acquisition compliment your school’s
second language curriculum? Cappa: I speak English and I went to school in
the US. That is all I need. Sometimes I work on pronunciation with them and
read out loud for them. They usually try in the classroom but after it is over I
doubt if any of them open an English book. Researcher Q4. Do you have any
specific examples from your past where you felt your instruction or lesson plan
was correct for the class level but, when you attempted to teach the lesson, it
just didn’t work out or, subsequently, it became difficult or awkward to follow
your plan? Cappa: No. We don’t have levels here. Everyone is the same level.
>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
>>>
Mailed Questionnaires
1. Major advantages: one can reach large numbers of people from wide
geographic areas, respondents have time to reflect on their answers or check
information prior to responding, and relatively low cost of administration
2. Major disadvantages: lower response rate and the need to take special care
with designing questions that will be self-administered
3. Simple formats that allow users simply to check responses on the
questionnaire work the best (brevity will be helpful)
4. Letter of transmittal on letterhead, content of letter, and its presentation will
have an influence on the response rate.
5. Within the body of the letter, it is important to state the purpose of the
research, the importance of study, the importance of respondents, a reasonable
but specific time limit, an assurance of confidentiality, an offer to share results,
and a thank you
6. Concise wording should make it possible to keep this letter to one page
7. Designing Good Questions
a. Use questions that are interesting because of their relationship to what they
are supposed to be measuring
b. Good questionnaires provide a script for the entire process that the
researchers are to follow, word questions so that they mean the same thing to
everyone, and inform participants about the kinds of answers that are
appropriate
c. Provide definitions for any terminology that might be confusing- use complete
sentences, and offer a limited set of answers
Observational Research Methods
1. Observational research has a long tradition across a large number of
disciplines
2. Observational methods are concerned with naturally occurring behaviors
observed in natural contexts or in contexts that are contrived to be realistic
3. Two approaches to the direct observation of behavior:
a. Quantitative approach - structured observation methods
b. Qualitative approach - unstructured observation.
4. Observational research requires the systematic, direct observation of
behavior.
5. Many analysts consider it superior to other methods of data collection
because the data are lathered directly without intermediary instruments such as
tests or questionnaires.
6. The systematic observation of behavior in educational and psychological
research can yield a wealth of valuable information, but it is a complicated and
labor-intensive process, the process of defining and developing coding
schemes, then training observers to acceptable levels of agreement, can be
time consuming
7. But structured observation offers a degree of certainty and reliability that
unstructured narrative reports cannot achieve
8. Both structured and unstructured observational methods can yield thick, rich
descriptions that achieve the depth that other research methodologies lack.
9. Purposes of Observational Research in Educational Technology
a. Employed productively to support many purposes (e.g., to understand how
people interact with technology in various stages of design and implementation,
to improve the materials design as well as their utilization within particular
settings, such as in formative and summative evaluation of educational
software)
10. Types of Observational Research
Structured Questions
i. Can be defined as a particular approach to quantifying
ii. Two fundamental components of observational research:
1) Use of predefined, behavior-code catalogs
2) Reliable observers
iii. Because human observers are so important to the instrumentation, reliability
issues loom especially large in observational research
iv. In contrast to informal observations, structured observations are systematic
and controlled
1) Many parameters must be rigidly prescribed and followed, including what,
when, where, and how to observe, as well as the methods for recording, and
analyzing the data
2) The analysis of structured, observational data may examine frequency,
duration, and interrelationships between events in an attempt to identify
meaningful patterns that are reported with descriptive statistics
v. Observational research is susceptible to several common mistakes, including:
1) Insufficient training of observers
2) Use of a complex observation form that requires too much from the observer
or requires observers to make excessively precise discriminations among
behaviors
3) Failure to take adequate precautions to avoid having observers disturb or
change the situation they are to observe
4) Failure to use at least two observers in order to determine interpreter
reliability
5) Failure to ensure that observers work independently of each other
6) Contamination of data collection
7) Failure to use random sampling techniques when appropriate
8) Lack of tight controls that help prevent observer drift and reliability decay
b. Unstructured Observations
i. The purpose of unstructured observation is to furnish an unselective, detailed,
continuous description of behavior
ii. Technique may be valuable in a preliminary study to determine observational
categories for subsequent structured observation, or the formative evaluation of
media programs
iii. Unintended effects of a media system are best detected through
unstructured observation
iv. The best kind of task analysis is in the field you have to learn how to watch
people.
v. offers several advantages in evaluating user friendliness issues, and the
unstructured record adds richness to the evaluation that is missing from the
structured approach
vi. Can be continuous, or it can be structured around time sampling
vii. It is possible to go back into an unstructured narrative to study questions
that might not have occurred to the evaluators earlier.
viii. Main disadvantage for formative evaluation is the time and labor required to
collect and analyze sets of extensive observations, as well as training observers
to record similar data in an unbiased manner
11. Considerations within Observations
a. Types of Observational Variables
i. Three types of observational variables:
1) Descriptive (considered to be "low inference" variables)
2) Inferential ("high inference" variables; observer must make an inference
before a variable can be scored)
3) Evaluative (observer must make an evaluative judgment)
ii. Advantage: they require little inference on the part of the observer, so that
they generally yield reliable data
iii. In the progression from low inference to high inference to evaluative
variables, the observers' task becomes more complex, and any changes in the
observational task that make it more complex tends to lower observer reliability
or agreement
b. The Observation Form
i. Once the observational variables to be used in the research study are
identified, a form must developed for recording them (e.g., paper-and-pencil or
media-based forms where data are entered via hand-held device or a computer
keyboard)
ii. Some more complex forms require observer to record not on1y the behavior
as it occurs but also evaluate the behavior on a rating scale, which requires a
higher level of inference on the part of the observer
1) Most human behavior studied in educational research cannot be reliably
rated on more than five levels (it is almost never advisable to attempt to obtain
ratings for finer than the 5-point scale)
2) The more inference the observer must use in making the rating, the fewer
ratings levels should be employed
c. Mediated Observation Techniques
i. Newer mediated observation techniques are available to support data
recording and analysis (e.g., audiotape, videotape, computers and related
hand-held devices)
ii. Computers offer the advantage of on-line monitoring (i.e., capturing
characteristics of the human-computer interaction automatically, in real time,
from an operating system)
iii. Virtual-reality technology, position-tracking devices, it’s possible to record
human performance precisely and in great detail
iv. Video- or audio taping has several advantages:
1) Relatively unobtrusive
2) Use can decrease the number of observers’ necessary, thereby increasing
observational reliability
3) Observers no longer need to make ratings at the time particular events are
occurring (can be replayed several times for careful study or for several
observers to rate at their convenience)
v. Other advantage of recording observations:
1) Can obtain data on behavior that a need was not anticipated for at the outset
(i.e., provides permanent record for alternate analyses)
2) Collect samples of behavior to facilitate the development of an observation
form and to provide the basis for training observers
3) In formative evaluation studies, user reactions can be shown directly to the
production staff that must revise the product
vi. Cost and availability of audio, video, and computer recording equipment is a
vital consideration
1) Each type of media is1mitcd in terms of what it captures
2) These methods can be used together or in conjunction with a human
observer
3) Technical problems or complexities may pose serious problems (technical
competence may be required in order to obtain satisfactory audio and video
recording)
vii. These tools make it possible to increase both the amount and the complexity
of data that a human observer can collect
viii. Microcomputers can be used to support observational research in many
ways, e.g.:
1) Recording and timing the events being observed,
2) Transcribing data onto coding sheets
3) Transferring data from the coding sheets into computer storage ready for
data analysis
4) Cleaning up the data by locating coding errors
5) Aggregating and analyzing data, and interpreting the results of data analysis
6) Can produce variety of graphic data representations (helpful in understanding
results
7) Costs are low compared with doing this entire large computer
c. Coding Schemes
i. Perhaps the most critical component of structured observational research is
the catalog of behavior codes identifying the behaviors that will be the basis for
data gathering
ii. The coding catalog is the measuring instrument of observational research,
specifying which behavior is to be selected from the passing stream of activity
and recorded for subsequent study
iii. Developing a coding scheme can be time consuming, involving extensive
preparation and fine-tuning
iv. As successively refined versions of the coding scheme are developed, they
should be extensively reviewed, critiqued, and validated by other appropriate
experts
v. Must also select a recording procedure, which can be classified into four
major categories:
1) Frequency-count recording (the number of times a behavioral event occurs)
2) Duration recording (the specific length of time during which a behavioral state
continues to take place)
3) Interval recording (similar to interval, but instead of recording specific time
duration, codes are assigned for successive time intervals during which
behavioral events transpire)
4) Continuous recording (the use of some type of automated event recorder or
to human recorders who are continuously alert, paying attention, ready to
record whenever a behavioral state changes, or whenever a specific time
interval elapses)
vi. Before selecting a particular recording strategy, the researcher must
determine the units and types of measures that should be used
vii. Which procedure to use depends on several factors, including the kind and
complexity of the coding scheme, the desired accuracy, and the kind of
recording equipment available?
d. Observational Schedules
i. Since many standard observational schedules have already been developed
by researchers in education and other fields, it may be possible and desirable to
use one of them instead of developing one
ii. If standard observational schedules do include all the variables that you are
interested in measuring, it may be possible to use only the part of the schedule
that is needed (keeping in mind that previously reported reliability and validity
data will not apply if only part of the instrument is used)
e. Selecting and Training Observers
i. Selecting and training observers is critically important since careless or
unmotivated observers can destroy the most carefully planned study
ii. Observers who produce the most reliable data tend to be persons of above-
average intelligence and verbal fluency who are highly motivated to do a good
job
iii. Observers must be thoroughly trained and practiced in aspects of their tasks
iv. During training, watch observers to see if there are still deficiencies in the
observational form
v. If observational data gathering is to extend for more than 1 week, observers
should be checked frequently, and a weekly refresher training session should
be held for the observers to maintain the reliability of the observations
f. Reliability and Validity
i. Today, unlike in the past, reliability and validity are viewed as significant for
observational recording as for any other data-gathering measure
ii. Reliability: refers to the dependability, consistency, predictability and stability
of the data
iii. Validity: refers to the ability of the data to reflect the underlying attribute of
interest
iv. In the literature concerning psychometrics of behavioral observation, validity
does not receive much attention
1) Partly due to widespread belief that observational data are inherently valid
because of the minimal amount of inferences required on the part of the
observers
2) This belief is justified for some behaviors but not for others, depending on the
degree of complexity
g. Validation of the Coding Scheme

i. The behavioral catalogs of codes are measuring instruments that must be
validated to ensure that these categories do indeed represent the phenomenon
of interest
ii. Validity can be improved:
1) By fine tuning behavioral categories based on unstructured (and increasingly
structured) observation within the study setting
2) By review of videotaped recordings of sample behavior streams
3) By carrying out this process of identifying and fine-tuning behavioral
categories is carried out by more than one researcher trained in observational
methods
iii. As the categories are fine-tuned and selected, they should be reviewed and
approved by outside experts
iv. The ultimate approach to validating an observational catalog is repeated
testing
v. Validity can never be proved, and it cannot be described quantitatively: it is
only possible to accumulate evidence in support of the validity of data obtained
through a specific observation system
vi. A trend toward greater complexity in behavioral observation has emerged,
threatening effective validation of observation codes (more than one behavior is
observed in a study, within a sophisticated scheme)
vii. Trend suggests research should be directed toward improving observational
techniques to meet emerging research needs (i.e., research methods will need
to be adapted to meet the growing awareness of the complexity of human
behavior and interactions)
h. Interobserver and Intraobserver Agreement and Reliability
i. Human observers may have biasing expectations, and their recording
methods may change over time due to fatigue or practice
ii. Observational research calls for an assessment of both interobserver and
intraobserver reliability
1) Interobserver reliability: data gathered by two or more observers
2) Intraobserver reliability: data gathered by the same observer on different
occasions
iii. Since classical theory is incapable of accommodating the idea of two
reliability coefficients (it assumes that a score contains only a true score
component and a random error component and that reliability is the proportion
of true variance relative to the sum of true and random error variances), the
“generalizability approach” (or theory) in observational research replaces
classical theory
iv. Generalizability theory
1) Designed to accommodate the coexistence of more than one reliability
estimate, making it possible to come to terms with the multifaceted nature of
reliability
2) Considered a powerful new psychometric tool by many analysts
3) One advantage: makes it possible to identify sources of error so that an
investigator can take steps to improve data
4) Departs from convention in 2 respects:
a) Statistically: approaches task of estimating reliabilities through an alternative
technique known as the intraclass correlation
b) Conceptually: systematically defines for each reliability assessment situation
its unique frame of reference
5) It is unique in its fundamental idea of reliability and error
a) Within the generalizability framework, reliability is not an absolute concept,
rather depending on the question asked, it is relative to a certain context with a
specific set of dimensions (e.g., time, observer, environment, instrumentation,
etc.),
b) When a set of observational data is said to be reliable, it implies that the
results can be expected to be consistent over a variety of conditions
c) Thus, whether or not a set of scores are reliable depends on what question is
being asked
v. Third group of techniques has been suggested as a superior approach to
reliability (known alternatively as “observer accuracy”, “criterion-referenced
agreement”, and “transduction accuracy”), though there is, as yet, no clear
consensus as to exactly what is being determined by these techniques
i. Reducing Observer Effect
i. Another problem involved in conducting observational research is the degree
to which the presence of the observer changes the situation being observed
ii. Observer effects can include:
1) Effect of observer on the observed: Person(s) observed change their
behavior because they Lire aware of the observation
2) Effect of the observer on the setting: Presence of the observer may lead to
anxieties or expectations that change the climate of the observed situation
3) Observer personal bias: Systematic errors are traceable to characteristics of
the observer or the observational situation
4) Error of leniency: When using a rating scale, observer tends to make most
ratings at the favorable end of the scale
5) Error of central tendency: When using, a rating scale, observer tends to
make most ratings around the midpoint
6) Halo effect: Observer's initial impression distorts later evaluations or
judgments of the subject
7) Observer omissions: Because the observation system includes variables that
occur very rapidly or simultaneously, the observer overlooks some behavior that
should be recorded
8) Observer drift: The tendency for observers to redefine gradually the
observational variables, so that the data collected do not reflect the original
categories
9) Reliability decay: Toward the end of training, observer reliability is high, but in
the field, as monitoring and motivation decrease, observer, become less reliable
10) Contamination: The observer's knowledge of one aspect of a study
influences his or her perception of events observed in another part of the study
(observer expectations are common form of contamination)
iii. Any changes in the observational situation that will make the observation
less obtrusive so that it appears to be more a part of the regular classroom
situation will reduce reactivity
iv. Recommended precautions:
1) Structure the observational situation so that the observer is as unobtrusive as
possible
2) Explain the common rating errors to the observers and structure the
observation schedule to minimize these errors
3) Be sure the observation schedule does not require the observer to record
more data or record at a higher rate than can be done accurately
4) Make the observational task as objective as possible, avoid requiring the
observer to make evaluations, interpretations, or high-level inferences
5) Give the observer as little information as possible about your hypotheses,
research design, and expectations
6) Do not reveal to the observer information about the characteristics of your
subjects (such as social class, IQ, or composition of experimental and control
groups) that the observer need not know
7) Train observers to a high level of reliability and objectivity, and retrain as
necessary to avoid observer drift
8) Monitor observers on a random basis to minimize reliability decay
9) Construct observation form to minimize recording errors
10) Check for bias when training observers, and eliminate those who submit
biased observations
j. Naturalistic Contrived Situations
i. The researcher intervenes in a natural situation in a manner that cannot be
detected by the subject, thus, the naturalness of the situation is preserved
1) Advantages:
a) Manipulating the situation helps to ensure that the events of interest will
occur, possibly in shorter time
b) Level of intensity of the situation can be manipulated; thus, behavior can be
observed at several specific and clearly defined levels of intensity
2) Limitations:
a) In many cases believable situations cannot be contrived without arousing the
suspicion of the subjects
b) Difficult ethical problems may arise because of the deception involved
k. Situational Testing
i. Can be used when the above limitations rule out the use of naturalistic
contrived situations
ii. Another form of contrived observation where the subjects are aware that
they’re playing a role
iii. Advantages: can control the behavior that is likely to occur to a greater
degree than is usually possible in the naturalistic contrived situation
l. Portfolios
i. Provide a descriptive measure of student work based on actual performance
ii. Consist of learner-created products that reflect the processes of learning and
development over time
iii. Recommended as a mechanism for integrating learning and assessment
iv. Types of Portfolios
1) Can take many forms (records of the student’s best compositions, game
performances, multimedia projects, artwork, or problem solutions)
2) Advantages:
a) They enlarge the view of what is learned (i.e., provide a developmental point
of view as a mechanism for assessing progress)
b) Offer students an opportunity to learn about their own learning while requiring
active student responsibility and self-assessment.
l. Constructing Portfolios
i. With strong tradition in the creative arts, use is being extended to other fields
of study, including various subjects within education and centering on mediated
projects produced by students (e.g., print-based materials produced with
desktop publishing, videotaped recordings of student presentations, etc.)
ii. Process of assessing portfolios is central concern, calling for systematic and
refined analysis
iii. Recommended assessment areas:
1) Individual profile (e.g., specific cognitive strengths, weaknesses, and
proclivities of the student, disposition toward work – taking risks and
persevering, particular intellectual propensities - such as linguistic, logical,
spatial, and interpersonal skills)
2) Quality of work
3) Communication
4) Reflection
5) Mastery of facts, skills, and concepts
iv. Good descriptive studies use data collection instruments that are reliable and
valid
1) Reliability: the ability to provide consistent answers in comparable situations,
e.g.:
a) Making sure that the same research instrument is used for all participants
within a particular study
b) Making sure that the research staff is well trained for using the same
procedure for collecting the data
c) Attending to the clarity of materials used within the study so that the
respondents are able to understand precisely what is meant by any question
2) Validity: the ability to provide answers that correspond to what they are
intended to measure
TRIANGULATION
a.) . Triangulation of researchers Equivalent to what is known
as interdisciplinary teams, and involves the participation of
researchers from different disciplines D, perspectives and
experiences in the same research, respecting the different
approaches that they perform on a problem (pro) in
common
b.) Triangulation of theories. It is to use several theoretical

perspectives (T), to analyze common problem (Pro). It is
preceded by deriving hypotheses (H), operationalization of
concepts from theoretical propositions. The analysis is
performed contrasting propositions (T) data in the context
of research (data triangulation).
c.) Data triangulation. It is used a variety of information,

sources or informants, regarding a particular problem,
situation, or event to be analyzed. Triangulation occurs
when there is agreement or disagreement between these
sources. It can be triangulated, informants / people,
information, time, space and / or contexts.
Infor. 2 Source2
Source1 Infor. 1 Data
Infor. 3 Source1
d.) Triangulation of methods. It is proceeded by combining

different methods Ethno-Estad or techniques to address the
same problem, or analysis (generalizing data from different
perspectives). For example, statistical analysis (surveys)
and analysis from ethnography (O. Participant, G.
discussion, interview.
CHAPTER FIVE: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
A qualitative study should be a reflexive process operating through every stage
of a project (Hammersley& Atkinson, 1995); the activities of collecting and
analyzing data, developing and modifying theory, elaborating or refocusing the
research questions, and identifying and dealing with validity threats are usually
going on more or less simultaneously, each influencing all of the others.
Additionally, the researcher may need to reconsider or modify any stage during
the study due to new developments or to changes in some other aspect of the
design. Grady and Wallston (1988) argue that applied research in general
requires a flexible, no sequential approach and “an entirely different model of
the research process than the traditional one offered in most textbooks” (p. 10).
Thus, Becker, Geer, Hughes, and Strauss (1961), authors of a classic

qualitative study of medical students, begin their chapter titled “Design of the
Study” by stating, in one sense, our study had no design. That is, we had no
well-worked-out set of hypotheses to be tested, no data-gathering instruments
purposely designed to secure information relevant to these hypotheses, no set
of analytic procedures specified in advance. Insofar as the term “design” implies
these features of elaborate prior planning, our study had none.
The idea of design taken in a larger and looser sense, using it to identify those
elements of order, system, and consistency of procedures did exhibit, the study
had a design. “We can say what this was by describing our original view of the
problem, our theoretical and methodological commitments, and the way these
affected our research and were affected by it as we proceeded”. (p. 17)
For these reasons, “the model of design that I present here, which I call an
interactive model, consists of the components of a research study and the ways
in which these components may affect and be affected by one another. It does
not presuppose any particular order for these components, or any necessary
directionality of influence”.
The model thus resembles the more general definition of design employed
outside research: “An underlying scheme that governs functioning, developing,
or unfolding” and “the arrangement of elements or details in a product or work of
art” (Frederick et al., 1993). A good design, one in which the components work
harmoniously together, promotes efficient and successful functioning; a flawed
design leads to poor operation or failure.
Traditional (typological or linear) approaches to design provide a model for

conducting the research—a prescriptive guide that arranges the components or
tasks involved in planning or conducting a study in what is seen as an optimal
order. In contrast, the model presented in this chapter is a model of as well as
for research. It is intended to help you understand the actual structure of your
study as well as to plan this study and carry it out. An essential feature of this
model is that it treats research design as a real entity, not simply an abstraction
or plan.
Borrowing Kaplan’s (1964, p. 8) distinction between the “logic-in-use” and

“reconstructed logic” of research, this model can be used to represent the
“design-in-use” of a study, the actual relationships among the components of
the research, as well as the intended (or reconstructed) design (Maxwell &
Loomis, 2002).
This model of research design has five components, each of which addresses a
different set of issues that are essential to the coherence of a study:
1. Goals: Why is your study worth doing?What issues do you want it to

clarify, and what practices and policies do you want it to influence? Why do you
want to conduct this study, and why should we care about the results?
2. Conceptual framework: What do you think is going on with the issues,
settings, or people you plan to study? What theories, beliefs, and prior research
findings will guide or inform your research, and what literature, preliminary
studies, and personal experiences will you draw on for understanding the
people or issues you are studying?
3. Research questions: What, specifically, do you want to learn or

understand by doing this study? What do you not know about the things you are
studying that you want to learn? What questions will your research attempt to
answer, and how are these questions related to one another?
4. Methods: What will you actually do in conducting this study? What

approaches and techniques will you use to collect and analyze your data, and
how do these constitute an integrated strategy?
5. Validity: How might your results and conclusions be wrong? What are
the plausible alternative interpretations and validity threats to these, and how
will you deal with these? How can the data that you have, or that you could
potentially collect, support or challenge your ideas about what’s going on? Why
should we believe your results?
6. Ethics: itis considered a separate component of research design. That

should be involved in every aspect of design. Especially it addresses these
concerns in relation to methods, but they are also relevant to your goals, the
selection of your research questions, validity concerns, and the critical
assessment of your conceptual framework.
These components are not substantially different from the ones presented
inmany other discussions of qualitative or applied research design (e.g.,
LeCompte&Preissle, 1993; Lincoln &Guba, 1985; Miles &Huberman, 1994;
Robson, 2002). What is innovative is the way the relationships among the
components are conceptualized. In this model, the different parts of a design
form an integrated and interacting whole, with each component closely tied to
several others, rather than being linked in a linear or cyclic sequence. The most
important relationships among these five components are displayed in Figure
7.1.
CONCEPTUAL
GOALS
FRAMEWORK
RESEARCH
QUESTIONS
METHODS
METHODS VALIDITY
Figure 7.1 An Interactive Model of Research Design

SOURCE: From Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach, by J. A. Maxwell, 2005.
Let´s look at every tradition in qualitative research design. The term design
takes another different meaning within the quantitative approach, particularly
because qualitative research is not planned in detail and is subject to the
circumstances of each particular environment or scenario. In the qualitative
approach, design refers to "approach" that we will generally use in the research
process. Alvarez-Gayou (2003) calls interpretive framework.
The design, like the sample, data collection and analysis, are emerging from the
problem statement to the initial immersion and field work and, of course, is
undergoing modifications, even if it is rather one way to approach the
phenomenon of interest. Within the framework of the activities are design
mentioned so far: initial immersion! deep in the context of the research, a stay in
the field, data collection, data analysis and theory generation.
What are the basic designs of qualitative research?
Several authors define different types of qualitative designs, it is difficult to

summarize in these lines, so in this classification it is being considered the
following generic designs: a) grounded theory, b) ethnographic designs, c)
narrative designs, and d) action research designs. It should also be noted that
the "borders" between such designs are highly related, not really there, and
most of the studies takes elements from more than one of these. That is, the
designs are juxtaposed.
GROUNDED THEORY DESIGNS
Grounded theory arose in 1967, was proposed by Barney Glaser and Anselm
Strauss in his book The Discovery of Grounded Theory, which is based
primarily on symbolic interactionism (Sandin, 2003). Over time other authors
have developed in different directions.
The design uses a grounded theory qualitative systematic procedure to

generate a theory that explains a conceptual level action, interaction or a
specific area. This theory is called substantive or midrange and it is applied to a
more concrete context. Glaser and Strauss (1967) distinguish it from the "formal
theory" whose perspective is greater. Table 15-1 shows examples of
substantive theories versus formal theories.
As it can be seen, the theories are substantive in nature "local" (related to a

situation and a particular context). His explanations are limited to a specific
area, but with English teaching, Economy and psychology provide interpretative
visions of a new phenomenon.
Substantive theory (intermediate) Formal theories

Theory of caregiving in English Theory of social attributions (in
teaching for preschoolers. Psychology)
English in the human Development Theoryof social mobility (in sociology)
scale
Theory of educational psychology and Theoryof uses and gratifications of
student problem behavior. collective mass media (in
communication)
Theory of the meaning of the marriage Generaltheory of evolution Darwinian
relationships between couples with and Wallace (Biological science)
higher age differences age 20
Theory of the elements to prefer a Theory of regulation (in economics)
mall
As noted by Glaser and Strauss, if you follow the proper procedure, anyone can
develop a substantive theory by the method of grounded theory, which logically
must be verified and validated (Sandin, 2003).
The basic design approach of grounded theory is that the theoretical

propositions suggested by the data obtained in the research, rather than the
previous studies. It is the process that generates the understanding of a
phenomenon.
Creswell (2009) states that grounded theory is especially useful when the
available theories do not explain the phenomenon or problem statement, or
when do not cover the participants or a sample of interest.
Grounded theory provides a strong sense of understanding that "fits together" in

the situation under study, working in a practical and concrete manner, it is
sensible to expressions of individuals from the context as it is also considered, it
can represent all the complexity in the process discovered (Glaser and Strauss,
1967: Creswell, 2009). Furthermore, grounded theory goes beyond previous
studies and preconceived conceptual frameworks, in search of new ways to
understand the social processes that occur in natural environments (Draucker
et al., 2007). When used with special groups and communities has been very
fruitful (children with attention problems, individuals with disabilities, illiterate,
etc...). It is a qualitative design that shows rigor and direction for the sets of data
that evaluates.
When B. Glaser and A. Strauss propose the grounded theory, it represented a

unique design, even though, the two authors had conceptual differences,
resulting in two designs of grounded theory: systematic and emerging, which
are presented below
SYSTEMATIC DESIGN
This design enhances the use of certain steps in the data analysis and it is
based on procedures Corbin and Strauss (2007) as seen in Figure 15.1.
Let's look at each of the basic elements from the open coding.
Systematic design process
Open coding
Axial coding
From all the categories coded openly, the researcher selects what he considers
most important and positioned in the center of the process that is in exploration
(this category is called central or key phenomenon). Subsequently, he relates to
the core category with other categories. They may have different roles in the
process:
 Causal conditions (categories that influence and affect the central

category).
 Actions and interactions (categories resulting from the central category
and contextual and intervening conditions and strategies).
 Consequences (categories resulting from the actions and interactions
and the use of strategies).
 Strategies (categories of implementation of actions that influence the
central category and actions, interactions and consequences).
 Contextual conditions (categories that are part of the environment or
situation and they can framed the central category that can influence any
category including the principal).
 Intervening conditions (categories that also influence other and that
mediate the relationship between causal conditions, strategies, the
central category, actions, interactions and consequences).
Of course, not all research based on grounded theory roles derive all of the
categories. Axial coding concludes with an outline of a diagram or model called
"coded paradigm" that shows the relationships between all elements (causal
conditions, key category, intervening conditions, etc.).
The process result is shown as in Figure 15.2

Data collection
Preliminary
First interview categories
Refined
categories
Second interview
More refined
categories
Saturation
Third interview
Contextual
conditions
Causal conditions
Category 1 Central Actions and
Category 2 category interactions
Category 3
Intervenient Consequences
conditions
intervinientes
The categories are "subjects" of background information identified in the data to

understand the phenomenon process which they refer to. As we can see,
grounded theory is useful to undertake educational processes, psychological,
social and similar, as it identifies the concepts involved and the sequence of
actions and interactions of the participants involved. The product (diagram or
model) is an emerging theoretical proposal that explains this process or
phenomenon.
Strauss and Corbin (1998) agree with Creswell (2005) finding that the central
category or keyword:
1. It must be the center of the process or phenomenon. The most important

issue that drives the process and explains the phenomenon and that has major
implications for the generation of theory.
2 all or most of the other categories should be linked with it. In fact, regularly t is
the category with the highest number of links to other categories.
3. it must occur frequently in data (in most cases).
4. its saturation is regularly faster.
5. his relationship with the other categories should be logical and consistent, the
data should not be forced.
6. The name or phrase that identifies the class should be abstract enough.
7. As it refines the category or central concept, theory strengthens its

explanatory power and depth.
8. When conditions change, the explanation is maintained, certainly in the form

which expresses the phenomenon or process can be visualized slightly
different.
Creswell (2005), in an attempt to illustrate the types of categories that can be

found by means of grounded theory, notes the following:
 Environmental categories (examples: power of the participants in the

system -educational, political, social or other-, functional area to which
the worker belongs, classroom).
 Perspectives held by participants (e.g. rejection of abortion, political
affiliation, etc.).
 Performance of the participants (poor learning, work motivation for rooted
job, etc.).
 Processes (acceptance of the death of a family member, joining a group
to perform a task: survive in a disaster, implement an educational model,
resolve a labor dispute, other).
 Perceptions of people (problematic child, rebel young, murderer, etc.).
 Perceptions of other living beings and objects (aggressive animal,
relaxing pictorial picture and other similar examples).
 Activities (comprehend the teacher's explanations, comfort the patient,
participate in religious congregational events, etc.).
 Strategies (return home to reunite the family, rewarding good
performance of the worker).
 Relationships (dating, socializing students at recess or leisure time, etc.).
Selective coding
Once generated the schema, the researcher returns to the units or segments
and compares them to substantiate their emerging scheme. The comparison
also arise hypothesis (theoretical proposals) that establish the relationships
between categories or themes. So, you get the sense of understanding. Finally,
write a story or narrative linking the categories and describing the process or
phenomenon. The typical qualitative analysis tools (maps, matrices, etc.)are
usually used. As mentioned above, the resulting theory is medium range
(usually your application is not wide) but has high explanatory power for all the
data collected. In grounded theory is common to use "live code" (which
remember are labels for categories consist of passages, phrases or exact
words of the participants or observation notes, rather than the researcher's
preconceived language). Examples of live codes would be as shown in Table
15.2.
Default Code Live Codes

Upward mobility of the "Set up the job (well
organizational hierarchy expressed by participants)
Have employment Having a job, I have a job, I
have earning a living,
(Expressions of participants)
Table 15.2 example of "live code"
The analytical memos play an important role in the development of the theory.
These are generated to document major decisions and developments
(categorization, selection of the core category, causal conditions, intervening,
etc..; sequences, links, thoughts, new sources of data, ideas, etc..). They can
be long or short, more general or specific, but always around the evolution of
the theory and its foundation.
During the generation of theory, it is recommended that the researcher is in

question:
• What kind of data we're finding?
• What do the data and emergent elements indicate? (categories).
• What process or phenomenon is happening?
• What theory and hypotheses are proving?
• Why these categories, links and patterns emerge?
The report, a study based on grounded theory usually includes: a) diagram or

schematic pop, b) set of propositions (hypotheses) and c) narrative history
(Creswell, 2005).
Emerging design
This design or conception emerged as a review of Glaser (1992) to Strauss and

Corbin (1990). The first author criticized the second highlight in excess the rules
and the procedures for the generation of categories and noted that the "frame"
that his procedure establishes to develop (diagram or schema based on a
central category) it is a form of preconceive categories, whose purpose is to
verify than generate theory. Glaze (2007) highlights the importance of the
theory to emerge from the data rather than a predetermined category system as
with axial coding.
In the emergent design the open coding is done and from this emerges
categories (also constant comparison) which are connected together to
construct theory. In the end, the researcher explains this theory and the
relationships between categories. The theory comes from the data itself, not
forced into categories (central, causal, intervening, contextual, etc.).
In both designs, the preferred type of sampling is theoretical, that is, the
collection of data and theory that is "sprouting" will indicate the composition of
the sample. As noted by Martens (2005), the researcher should be very
sensitive to the emerging theory. The researcher must provide enough detail so
that who reviewed the study can see in the result reports, how evolved the
conceptual development and induction of relations between categories or
themes.
A third design, more recently (Henderson, 2009), it is called constructivist. This

design seeks above all to focus on the meanings provided by the study´s
participants. The author is more interested in considering the views, beliefs,
values, feelings and ideologies of people. And in a way, he criticizes the use of
certain tools, such as diagrams, maps and complex terms that "darken or
tarnish" the expressions of the participants and grounded theory. To Charmaz
(2000), the researcher must lie very near the words "live" of individuals and the
results should be presented through narratives (i.e., supports coding
foreground, open, and clustering and linking back categories but not in
diagrams).
A further example of theory based
The field of educational psychology present this example, and those who are
not familiar with the terms of this field that we ask institutions to ignore the
important thing is: a) visualize how the initial categories become issues, b) how
to establish causation (that qualitative research is conceptual, not based on
statistical analysis as in quantitative studies), c) how it is positioned in a central
category scheme (which in this case is at the end of the resulting schema). The
central category is sometimes located at the beginning of the diagram, among
other times and in some cases ultimately its position is determined by the
researcher based on the emergent data and insights.
Miller (2004) conducted as part of a wider research project, a qualitative study

in England whose overall research question was at the beginning: how
interventions (derived from psychology) in problem behavior of children who
attend school can achieve its effects?
For this she analyzed 24 psychological interventions for problem behavior in

students and involved teachers, the students 'problem' and advisers or
supervisors of educational processes (which were mostly psychologists). The
first was to interview teachers. The interviews focused on two key topics: 1)
perceptions about how severe were the behavior problems and 2) perceptions
of how successful the intervention considered jointly with the consultant
psychologist to solve the problem. Thus, 10 teachers said that the behavior
problem of some students was the greatest difficulty they had faced in his life,
eight felt that was among the hardest problems they had faced and six
conceived averaged problem behavior. In relation to the second question, six
defined it as a successful intervention, but with reservations and doubts about a
future deterioration of behavior, 11 indicated that the intervention had generated
an improvement, without qualification and seven commented that the
intervention was so successful that it provoked a strong emotional impact upon
them. The interviews also included a discussion of theories, models and
educative concepts, which were transcribed. Open coding generated 80 codes
(categories), several of them recurring. One category that was not included,
was "other staff members (colleagues and other staff working in the school),
which became the "theme" (it was composed by 24 codes that emerged about
in the first two thirds of the material, because then and no new codes, saturated
the subject). Coding results to the "other members of staff" is presented in
Figure 15.3 (Miller, 2004, p. 200).
The core category is the "maintenance divisor" (socio-psychological process by

which assert or maintain the boundaries between the teacher strategy and the
strategies of other staff members). The threats to the process of psychological
intervention to address behavior problems in students are:
a) give too much importance to the other strategies that the teacher
drew (besides the intervention) to deal with the student (above
causes confusion in the latter).
b) b) Too much knowledge and interference of the strategies of other
staff (leading to tension between individuals that address the
problem).
c) In this case, the grounded theory model of the primary causes
(codes or categories obtained in primary open coding) to the
central category and shows the complexity that can capture this
qualitative research design.
As a result of analysis, Miller (2004) found several resulting patterns:

Figure
15.3 Example of a scheme of the grounded theory (axial coding established after the open and selective
coding.
1. The identity problem child has an intricate, difficult to handle by teachers,

counselors, and staff (as the dining serving or recreation supervisors).
2. Once that psychological intervention is implemented, the other teachers and

staff members perceived positive changes in the child.However, counselors did
not ask (teacher and supervisor) on possible reasons of the improvement or on
the recommendations of the educational psychologist.
3. There is a cultural resistance to adopt potentially successful practices in

terms of psychosocial system boundaries of schools and home-school
boundaries. For example, teachers have a tendency to attribute the problem
behavior to parents, but also feel a responsibility to find a solution.
4. The threats and uncertainties are resolved temporarily by the involvement of

the educational psychologist (consultant or supervisor) They create a temporary
system between this, the teacher, parents and students with new rules and
regulations with therapeutic functions, encompassing constructive action of all
involved in the student's problem behavior, who assumes a "new identity". A
contextual requirement (intervening) is that this internal stability among
teachers.
In summary, the intervention work. Miller (2004), besides the model shown in
Figure 15-3, (which refers only to the "other members staff"), it generated a
broader, showing subsystems that integrate the psychosocial context of the
school (system). This is shown in Figure 15-4.
Figure 15-4 conceptual model of the psychosocialcontext of the student problematic behavior
The student's behavior must be considered in relation to all these subsystems.

This second scheme does not present a causal relationship between subjects,
but a diagram linking issues that they must be sized to research the behavior of
the child in the school, particularly the problem behavior (misconduct).
The model was developed in England, it can be transferred to other contexts?

This response is not in the researcher Andy Miller, each reader of the study
(manager, teacher, educational psychologist) determine its application to other
schools or school systems.
Grounded theory, as we can see, is similar to the revised coding system in the
previous chapter, because in fact, such a system is a contribution of this design.
Another example of a study based on grounded theory is to Werber and Harrell

(2008), who analyzed how employment affects their jobs their lifestyle of
thousand military wives of the U.S. army members and their experiences and
perceptions.
ETHNOGRAPHIC DESIGNS
Ethnographic designs intended to describe and analyze ideas, beliefs,

meanings, knowledge and practices of groups, cultures and communities
(Patton, 2002; McLeod and Thomson, 2009). Even they can be wide ranging
and cover the history, geography and socioeconomic subsystems, educational,
political and cultural development of a social system (rituals, symbols, social
roles, kinship, migration, and endless networking elements). Ethnography
involves deep description and interpretation of a group, social or cultural system
(Creswell, 2009).
Alvarez-Gayou (2003) considers that the purpose of ethnographic research is to

describe and analyze what people of a site, or stratum usually do certain
context, and the meanings they give to that behavior conducted under ordinary
or special circumstances, and finally it presents the results so as to highlight the
regularities that implies cultural process. The ethnographic design study
categories, themes and patterns related to the cultures. From ancient
civilizations, like the great Roman Empire in the first centuries of our era or
before, the Maya civilization and ancient Egypt, to organizations today, as the
major Trans world’s national enterprises, ethnic or indigenous current, fans of a
soccer team.
For example, it is curious, the fans of Junior in Barranquilla, or at least the ones
that belong to the “Brave barras” such as the FrenteRojiblanco or the Cuervos
(thecrows), every time the team is defeated make demonstrations along the
nearby areas to the Metropolitan stadium and make disaster in commercial
stores, malls etc. Even though, it is a depressed area with a lot of problems
such as public services, education and health. Normally in these aspects
nobody protects in the same way as they do when the team is defeated.
Frenterojiblancosur barrabrava del junior de Barranquilla

Some of the cultural elements that can be considered in ethnographic research
are shown in Table 15.3 list.
And this is an incomplete list, which only shows some ethnographic objects.
Examples of ideas to research from the standpoint of ethnographic design are:
• The culture of violence in schools reflected basic middle-school-or-higher-
secondary education (how emerged in Colombia in recent years).
• The rites and customs of the bandcrimes gang.
• The culture of a religious order of nuns.
• The social structure of the ELN guerrilla group that fought in southern Bolivar
• Corruption of a bureau of investigation of crimes related to drug trafficking.
• The culture of the terrorist group Al-Qaeda.
• The subculture of fans of Boca Juniors of Argentina on weekends when the
team plays.
• The organizational culture of a particular company.
• The livelihoods of Chimilas in the Sierra Nevada.
• The routines and daily lives of a group of women who belong to a club and
have formed a fraternity.
• A network or online youth community (in Facebook or Hi5, for example).
There are various classifications of ethnographic designs. Creswell (2005)

divides them into:
1. "Realistic" or mixed Designs. These designs are partially positivist

sense. They collect data, both quantitative and qualitative, from
culture, community or group of certain categories (some
preconceived before entering the field and others do not, the latter
will emerge from the field work). Finally, we describe the
categories and culture, statistically and narrative speaking. For
example, if one of the categories of interest in the study was
emigration, are provided: a) emigration figures (number of
migrants and their age, gender, socioeconomic status and other
demographic data, average monthly emigration acts, semi and
annual migration reasons, etc.) and b) qualitative concepts
(meaning to migrate, migration experiences, feelings that develop
in the migrant, etc..). The researcher must avoid introducing
biases. Qualitative data were collected using semi-structured and
structured instruments.
2. Critical designs. The researcher is interested in studying
marginalized groups of society or culture (for example, a research
into certain schools that discriminate against students because of
their ethnicity and this causes inequitable situations). He analyzes
categories or concepts linked sides with social issues such as
power, injustice, hegemony, repression and victims of society. He
seeks to clarify the situation of the participants relegated for
denounce purposes. The ethnographer must be aware of their
own ideological position and remain thoughtful to include all the
"voices and expressions" of culture (Creswell, 2005). In the report
differs clearly what express the participants and what the
researcher interprets. Some studies called "feminist" could be
seen from this kind of ethnographic designs (for example,
research on the oppression of women in a work environment). In
critical designs are not predetermined categories, but issues of
inequality, injustice and emancipation.
3. "Classical designs". This is a qualitative method which typically
discusses cultural topics and categories which are induced during
fieldwork. The research area can be a group, a collectivity, a
community where members share a particular culture (way of life,
common beliefs, ideological positions, rituals, values, symbols,
practices and ideas, whether implicit or underlying as explicit or
overt). Also, in this design, typical cases, exceptions,
contradictions and synergies of culture are considered. The
results are connected with social structures.
4. Ethnographic micro designs (Creswell, 2005). They focus on one
aspect of culture (eg, a study of the rituals that occur in an
organization to choose new partners in a legal advisory firm).
5. Cultural case studies. They see a culture in a holistic way
(complete).
6. Ethnographic goal. Review of ethnographic studies to find patterns
(Hernández Sampieri and Mendoza, 2008).
Another classification of the ethnographic-designs provides Joyccen

Boyle (in Gayou Alvarez, 2003), which is based on the type of social unit
studied:
Procedural Ethnographies: They describe certain elements of social processes,

which can be analyzed functionally, if explained how certain parts of culture or
social systems interrelate within a certain time, and ignored the historical
background. They are also analyzed diachronically when trying to explain the
occurrence of events or current processes as a result of historical events.
Holistic or classical ethnography: it covers broad groups. The entire group's

culture is generally considered and obtained by large amounts of data, so it is
presented in books. Such it is the case of Foster (1987), who studied a
community in central Mexico: Pzintzuntzan, Michoacán, and that is considered
an ideal example of ethnographic inquiry. George. M. Foster ranges from a site
map to descriptions of its people, rituals, myths, beliefs and customs. Another
example is the BronislawMalittowski´s research on Trobriand Islanders
(Alvarez-Gayou, 2003).
Particularistic ethnography: it is the application of the holistic methodology to

particular groups or a social unit. Example of such studies are Erving Coffman
(1961), who performed under field with patients in psychiatric hospitals, and
Janice Morse (1999), who analyzed the strategies of comfort by nurses dealing
with patients who arrive at the emergency room in critical condition.
"cross-sectional" ethnography: studies are conducted at a specific time of

the groups under research and no interactional processes or processes over
time.
Ethno-historicalethnography:it involves counting the current cultural reality as
a result of past historical events. An example of this type of study is Villarruel
and Ortiz de Montellano (1992), in which beliefs are explored as related to the
experience of pain in ancient Mesoamerica (Alvarez-Gayou, 2003, p. 78).
Groups or communities studied in ethnographic designs have some of the

following characteristics:
 They involve more than one person; they may be small (family) or large
groups.
 Individuals that shape them maintained interactions on a regular basis
and have done this for some time ago.
 They represent a fashion or lifestyle.
 They share beliefs, behaviors and other patterns.
 They have a common purpose.
In ethnographic designs, the researcher reflects on points like these: What
qualities own the group or community that (a) apart from other? How is its
structure, and what rules govern their operation?, what beliefs are shared, and
what behavioral patterns do they show?, how interactions occur?, what are their
living conditions, customs, myths rituals and, and what processes are central to
the group or community?, what are their cultural products?, etcetera.
The researcher is usually a fully participant observer (he lives with the group or
he lives in a typical house of the community) and he spends long periods
immersed in the context or field. He must go gradually becoming a member of it
(eat the same as everyone, living in a typical house in the community, he buys
where the majority do, etc.). He also uses various tools to collect their cultural
data: observation, interviews, focus groups, life histories, obtaining documents,
materials and artifacts, semantic networks, projective techniques and self-
reflection. He is interpreting what he sees, feels and lives. His initial observation
is general and then begins to focus on certain cultural aspects He offers
detailed descriptions of the site, members of the group or community, its
structures and processes, and the categories and cultural issues. Actually there
is no a single process to implement ethnographic research, but some of the
actions that undoubtedly are performed are presented in Figure 15-5 on the
next page.
Other examples of ethnographic studies, besides those mentioned, are those

listed in Table 15.4.
Reference Essence of research

Viladrich(2005) This research examines the subculture represented
by Argentine tango dancers who arrived in New York
in recent years as a result of a recent boom in such a
dance genre in Manhattan. It also examines the
importance of the world of tango in the city.
Rhoads (1995) The author analyzed for two years the culture of a
fraternity of homosexual and bisexual students around
four emerging themes: 1) membership in the fraternity
as a continuous process, 2) personal changes related
to memberships, 3) the negativeexperiences in the
process and 4) harassment and discrimination.
Martin Sánchez jankowski (1991) This study, mentioned above, assessed the cultures
of 37 gangs in the United States for 10 years.
Pruitt-Mentle(2005) The research considered the meaning that
educational technology has on the lives of young
immigrants living in the United States and who are
from Central America.
Couser (2005) A study of the daily life of a woman who lives in
Pennsylvania, USA, with his sister, who has a
different mental capacity. The research chronicles the
experiences they both have at taking the bus daily.
Bousetta (2008) A new research Moroccan migrants seeking better
opportunities in Belgium, to better understand their
expectations, anticipations and strategic reactions.
Among other issues compared to those who settled in
the past.
NARRATIVE DESIGNS
In narrative designs the researcher collects data on the life histories and
experiences of certain people to describe and analyze them. They are of
interest the individuals themselves and their environment, including, of course,
other people.
Creswell (2005) notes that on several occasions narrative design is an outline of
research, but also a form of intervention, as the storytelling helps to process
issues that were not clear or conscious previously. It is often used when the
objective is to evaluate a sequence of events. It also provides an analytical
micro framework.
The data are obtained from autobiographies, biographies, interviews,
documents, artifacts and personal materials, and testimony (which are
sometimes found in letters, diaries, newspaper articles, radio and television
recordings, etc.).
The narrative designs can refer to: a) the entire life history of an individual or
group, b) a passage or time of such life history or c) one or more episodes. An
example of how can be a narrative study'' (without containing the
systematization of a true design of this type), it would be a series Band of
Brothers (Band or brothers clique), 2001, directed by David Frankel and Tom
Janks, based on the book by Stephen E. Ambrose, who narrates the
experiences of a group of U.S. soldiers from the company "Easy" (Parachute
Infantry Regiment No. 506), during World War I.
In these designs, rather than a theoretical framework, it is being used an
approach that provides ICT framework for understanding the individual or group
and it writes the narrative (the time and place where the person or group lived,
or where the events or experiences happened, are contextualized). Likewise,
the documents and oral histories provide "raw" data to be analyzed by the
researcher and returned to tell the research report.
The researcher examines various issues: the life story, passage or event (s)
itself, the environment (time and place) in which the person or group lived, or
the events occurred, the interactions, the sequence of events and results. In this
process, the researcher reconstructs the history of the individual or the chain of
events (it is usually in chronological order: the first ones made in the past), then
the narrative continues under their optical and it describes (on the basis of
available evidence) and emerging categories and themes that are identified in
the narrative data (derived from the stories told by the participants, documents,
materials and the researcher's own narration).
Delimitation of the group

Initial immersion in the field Checking if the group or
or community (check
(stage where acts or community is the Appropriate
boundaries)
community group). according To the Approach.
Collect and analyze data

Collect and analyze "open"
"focused" on specific aspects
of the culture of the group data, but on general aspects of
or community. Prepare a report on the the culture and the
collection and open analysis. community groups.
Remarks addressed
Descriptions of categories General comments
Open interviews with
structural and contrast and cultural emerging
Open interviews with
questions themes
descriptive questions
Selective collection of
artifacts, documents and Extensive collection of
cultural materials. artifacts, documents and
cultural materials
Prepare a report of collection

Prepare the final report:
and focused analysis:
Final descriptions of class and
Descriptions of categories and Extensive observations, to cultural issues
cultural emerging themes look for extreme cases, to
confirm categories and Taxonomy of categories and
Cultural classifications or cultural issues
cultural issues
taxonomies
Explanations of culture or
community group
Emerging theory and
hypotheses Theory and hypotheses
Check the report with participants

Field immersion
(check) and make appropriate
adjustments
Mertens (2005) divides narrative studies of: a) topics (focused on a theme,

event or phenomenon), b) biographical (a person, group or community, not
including the account of participants 'live', either because they died or are not
remembered because of their advanced age or infirmity, or they are
inaccessible), and c) autobiographical (a person, group or community including
oral testimony from "live" actors involved).
As in ethnographic designs, there is no a predetermined process to implement a

narrative study, but some activities which undoubtedly take place are shown in
Figure 15.6.
Orientated approach to Select participants. Immersion in the field. Collect data on the life
understand and present Individuals or members of histories and contexts
experiences through the life groups, whose life stories Recognition and
stories of individuals and reflect the experience s of subsequent review of the Gather documents,
groups. interest (if they are still places where life stories objects and relevant
alive). and facts occurred. materials
Search for historical Interviews.

background on the
participants and events. Public and private
Develop the study archives
report: Analyze the narration of
the story (that of the
• Particularnarratives actors and the
(stories of each researcher): Retell the story,
participant). narrative researcher. Explore the meaning of
• Identify units,
• Narrative of the categories and themes. (cross sources, verifying the experiences and
overall story or event. facts, stories and documents reported
• Establish a timeline of perspectives are (meaningoverall data).
• Descriptions. events of the narratives. combined differently.
• Emerging issues. • Validate the accuracy of actorsorparticipants).

the data.
• Explanations,
hypothesis and theory.
Review the report with

Prepare the final report
participants and other (narrative short).
researchers or experts in
the analyzed life histories.
Figure 15.6 Key actions for conducting a narrative study.
Also, some considerations for this process are:
 The key element of the narrative data is personal experiences, and social
group of actors or participants (each participant must tell their story).
 The narrative should include a timeline of experiences and events (past,
present and future perspectives, although sometimes only cover past
events and their aftermath). To Mertens (2005) it is very important to the
evolution of events up to the present.
 The context is located according to the statement of the problem (it can
cover several facets of the participants and their family, work, hobbies,
different scenarios).
 The life stories, when obtained by interview, are narrated in the first
person. "The investigator reviews memories recorded in documents
(books, letters, archival records, articles in the press, etc.) And
recordings, also interviews the actors (collects data in the very language
of the participants about the significant experiences related with an event
or life).
 To review the events is important to have multiple data sources. For
example: if we do an investigation to document an event, say a case of
extreme violence in a school as was the killing of twenty seven people (20
small children, six teachers, and his mother dead)occurred in December
16th 2012, at a school in Newtown (Connecticut) (USA), by a 20-year-old
Adam Lanza, we must contemplate the event and data sources.
KILLER ADAM LANZA 'OBSESSED' WITH VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES

THE loner responsible for the sickening massacre was mentally ill, aggressive and had an unhealthy obsession for violent computer games, it emerged
last night.
Cowardly Adam Lanza, 20, was driven to carry out the bloody killings after his parents split up and his friends alienated him, reports emerging from
America revealed.
Chillingly, his favorite video game was said to be a shockingly violent fantasy war game called Dynasty Warriors which is thought to have given him
inspiration to act on his darkest thoughts.
His easy access to a deadly arsenal – he learned how to shoot after his mother took him to local ranges – meant he was able to wreak revenge for his
lonely existence.
His parents Nancy and Peter split up in 2009, and he is understood to have taken it particularly badly, but his emotional and social problems appear to
have run much deeper.
He had not spoken to his 24-year-old older brother Ryan for more than two years.
High school colleagues said crazed Lanza was a member of the outcast “tech club” where boys who had trouble making friends with their peers played
together.
He was vividly remembered as someone who had difficulty socializing with people.
He is said to have suffered from antisocial disorder Asperger’s syndrome and was known for being unable to empathize with others, suffering child-like
violent tantrums.
Shocked neighbors told how his murdered mother would never leave him alone in a room because he was so troubled.
Federal investigators who searched the home that outcast Lanza shared with his mother yesterday found a telling video of him shooting guns with
friends.
Last night it emerged that after shooting his mother in the head, Lanza stole her legally held weapons and used so-called dum-dum bullets to kill the
teachers and children in Newtown.
The devastating ammunition has specially-made deep cuts in the tip which help the bullet explode inside the body, killing targets instantly. Less accurate
than regular ammunition, but much more deadly, it was the choice of Norwegian madman Anders Behring Breivik during his deadly rampage around the
idyllic holiday island of Utoya last year.
Yesterday Connecticut’s chief medical examiner H Wayne Carver II said the damage to the victims was “probably the worst I’ve seen”.
Fighting back tears the seasoned medic, who has spent 30 years performing autopsies, said each of the 26 victims was shot between three and 11 times.
The bullets had pierced everywhere, he said – heads, extremities and torsos.
Yesterday, sick trolls took to the internet after a heart-wrenching but entirely fake note – said to have been written in the moments before the
massacre – went viral.
The letter is signed by a little girl called Ellie and is addressed to her mother. The girl’s father is described as a cancer patient and she tells him they will
meet up in heaven “for a coffee”.
Last night a relative said that Lanza’s mother was a “survivalist” who thought the world was on the verge of collapse because of the financial crisis.
The gunman’s mother was said to have started hoarding food and water and had started “prepping” or preparing for the end of the world by learning
survival skills, including using a gun.
The killer’s aunt, Marsha Lanza, said: “She was stockpiling food. We talked about prepping a lot. She was getting ready for the economic collapse. I think
she had the guns for self-defense because she lived alone.”
Journalists broke the news of the massacre to Lanza’s father who now lives in Stamford, Connecticut, with a new wife.
We are in a state of disbelief and trying to find whatever answers we can
Peter Lanza's father In a statement last night he said: “Our hearts go out to the families and friends who lost loved ones and to all those who were
injured. Our family is grieving along with all those who have been affected by this enormous tragedy. No words can truly express how heartbroken we
are. We are in a state of disbelief and trying to find whatever answers we can.
“We too are asking why. We have cooperated fully with law enforcement and will continue to do so.
“Like so many of you, we are saddened, but struggling to make sense of what has transpired.”
Federal officials are now investigating whether the maniac is the same individual who had an “altercation” with staff members at the school 24 hours
before the shootings. Three of the four teachers involved were killed. The fourth was not in school on Friday and is being interviewed by federal agents.
Last night heavily armed Swat teams evacuated a Roman Catholic Church in Newtown where mourners had gathered in the wake of the shootings.
Officers had received a threat, but the call is believed to have been a fake.
Worshippers left screaming, saying they had been told there was a bomb threat. At least a dozen police carrying machine guns arrived at the St Rose of
Lima Church.
Taken from: http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/365190/Killer-Adam-Lanza-obsessed-with-
violent-video-games
(Express .co.uk home of the daily and Sunday news).
Interviews with police officers

Interviews with witnesses whoreviewed the crime scene
Survivors (students, teachers, and conducted investigations
workingstaff in the institution). (local police, agents of Federal
Firsthand data (direct actors). Bureau of InvestigationUnited
States or FBI).
Reviewing records Interviews with family

Background school of members, former teachers,
Adam Lanza (behavior, Violent event counselors, neighbors,
grades, caused by Adam former primary school
Reports, etc.). classmates, friends outside
Lanza Newtown of school, and so on.
(Connecticut)
Review of materials and (USA)
documents produced by the
youngster (letters, diary, written
on paper, etc. he was mentally ill, Revision of his sickness and
aggressive and had an unhealthy
obsession for violent computer
behavioral antecedents. He
games. Hisfavorite video game have suffered from antisocial
was a shockingly violent fantasy disorder Asperger’s syndrome
war game called Dynasty and was known for being
Warriors, maybe it hs given him
inspiration to act on violently.His unable to empathize with
easy access to a deadly arsenal – others, suffering child-like
he learned how to shoot after his violent tantrums. Federal
mother took him to local ranges –
meant he was able to wreak
investigators who searched the
revenge for his lonely existence. home that outcast Lanza shared
He had deep emotional and with his mother yesterday found
social problems.Lanza stole her a telling video of him shooting
mother legally held weapons and
used so-called dum-dum bullets guns with friends. He was a
to kill the teachers and children in member of the outcast “tech
Newtown.The devastating club” where boys who had
ammunition has specially-made
deep cuts in the tip which help the
trouble making friends with their
bullet explode inside the body, peers played together.Shocked
killing targets instantly. neighbors told how his
murdered mother would never
leave him alone in a room
because he was so
troubled.had an “altercation”
with staff members at the
school 24 hours before the
shootings. Three of the four
teachers involved were killed.
The fourth was not in school on
Friday and is being interviewed
by FBI.
Figure 15.7 Example of diagram in a study of violent event (case of a school of Newtown (Connecticut)
(USA)).
The narrative sequence would be as shown in figure 15.8
Characterizations Actions
• Participants in the • Movement of the Problem
story or event. participants in the • Questions to
• Descriptions of story or event, to be answered or
Context
participants: illustrate his central
• Place.
archetypes, styles, characterizations, phenomenon to
• Time.
behaviors, patterns, thoughts and be described
• Characteristics.
etc. behaviors. and explained.
Resolution
• Answers to
questions.
• Explanations.
The second scheme is the three-dimensional structure. There is no a sequence,

but three dimensions that are related narratives (see Figure 15-9).
Continuity
Interactions of the participant • Past
• Staff ("himself"): internal • Present
conditions, feelings, emotions, • Future
desires, expectations, values. Memories of the past, the
• With other relationship between participants
with the past, presentand future
sequels over time and future
expectations.
NARRATIVE
Situation
• Physicalenvironment.
• Social environment (cultural, economic, political, religious, etc.).
• Perception of the situation (perspective characterizations).
Figure 15.9 Three-dimensional narrative schematicstructures.
The most important invalidation sources of stories are false data, distorted
events, exaggerations and omissions caused by trauma or age. Again, the
solution lies in the triangulation of data sources.
A classic example of a narrative study is Lewis (1961), who explored the culture
of poverty in five families in Mexico City and the Mexican province. Another
case is the research of Davis (2006), who investigated the life and history of a
family with children whose abilities were different (disabilities) and people who
were helping them (discussed the meanings of 'believing in each other "and
empathy in a context of marginalization).
The narrative designs may be useful to study the culture of a company,

document the implementation of an educational model or assess the
development of a draft or branch in an intermediate city services (for example, a
study to determine how they have developed "lounges "themed" chill out "in an
intermediate city: how many have opened?, have been successful or not,
generate fun experience?, etc.).
ACTION RESEARCH DESIGNS
The purpose of action research is to solve every day and immediate problems
(AIvarez-Gayo, 2003; Merriam, 2009) and improve specific practices. Its
fundamental purpose is focused on providing information to guide decision
making for programs, processes and structural reforms. Sandin (2003, p. 161)
notes that action research essentially seeks to "promote social change,
transforming reality and that people become more aware of their role in this
transformation process." Meanwhile, Elliot (1991) conceptualized action
research to the study of a social situation with a view to improving the quality of
action within it. To León and Montero (2002) action research is the study of a
social context where through a research process "spiral" steps, is being
investigated while intervenes
Most authors located in the interpretive and critical frames of reference (Sandin,
2003). McKernan (2001) based on the designs of action research on three
pillars:
 Participants who are experiencing a problem are those who are better
able to address it in a naturalistic setting.
 The behavior of these people is influenced significantly by the natural
environment in which they find themselves.
 The qualitative methodology is best for the study of naturalistic
environments, since it is one of its epistemological pillars.
Action research builds knowledge through practice (Sandin, 2003). This same
author, with support from other colleagues, summarizes the characteristics of
the studies that concern this type of research, the main are:
1. Action research involves the transformation and upgrading of a reality (social,

educational, administrative, etc.). In fact, since it is constructed.
2. Part of practical problems related to environment or context.

3. It involves the full collaboration of the participants in the needs assessment
(they know better than anyone the problems to be solved, the structure to
change, to improve the process and practices that require transformation) and
the implementation of the study results.
According to Alvarez Gayou (2003) highlight three perspectives on action

research:
1. The technical and scientific vision. This perspective was the first in
historical terms, as the founder of the research, Kurt Lewin. Their
model consists of a set of spiral decisions, which are based on
repeated cycles of analysis for conceptualizing and redefine the
problem again and again. Thus, action research is integrated with
action sequential phases: planning, identification of facts, analysis,
implementation and evaluation.
2. The deliberative view. The deliberative conception focuses
primarily on human interpretation, interactive communication,
deliberation, negotiation and detailed description. It has to do with
the results, but on the whole process of action research. John
Elliot proposed this vision as a reaction to the strong inclination of
educational research into positivism. Alvarez-Gayou highlights
that this author is the first to propose the concept of triangulation
in qualitative research
3. Emancipatory vision. Its purpose goes beyond solving problems or
developing improvements to a process, participants are intended
to generate a profound social change through research. The
design not only meets diagnostic functions and knowledge
production, but also creates awareness among individuals about
their social circumstances and the need to improve their quality of
life.
In this sense, Stringer (1999) states that action research is:

a) Democratic, since it enables all members of a group or community to
participate.
b) Fair, contributions from anyone are valued and solutions include the whole
group or community.
c) it is releasing one of its purposes is in combat oppression and social injustice.
d) Improving the lives of the participants, to enable human development
potential.
Creswell (2005) considers two basic designs of action research, which are
summarized in Figure 15-10.
Mertens (2003) points out that the design of participatory action research should
involve members of the group or community in the whole process of the study
(from the problem statement to the preparation of the report) and the
implementation of actions, product from inquiry. This type of research joints
expertice of the researcher with the practical knowledge, experience and skills
of the participants.
In the design of action research, the researcher and the participants need to
interact constantly with data
ACTION RESEARCH
Practical Participative
• It studies local practice (group

or community). • It studies social issues
• It involves individual or team that constrain the lives of
people in a group or
inquiry.
community.
• It focuses on the development
• It highlights the equal
and learning of the participants. partnership of the whole
•It implements an action plan group or community.
(to solve the problem, • It focuses on changes to
introducing improved or create improve the living
change). standards and human
• Leadership is exercised jointly development of individuals.
by the researcher and one or • It emancipates
more members of the group or participants and the
researcher.
community.
1
Figure 15.10 Basic Designs into action research
Carr and Kemmis (Carr &Kemmis 1986, pp. 162) describe action research as a
form of self-reflection. They use the following definition:
Action research is simply a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by

participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of
their own practices, their understanding of these practices, and the situations in
which the practices are carried out
Building on this definition it can be said that action research is participatory in

nature and is best suited for use in situations where there is some flexibility in
the scope of the original research problem/question. In some situations in which
action research is utilized there may not even be a problem. Action research
can be used to maintain positive standards and promote the continuity of values
(Dadich& Fitzgerald 2007, pp. 12). It is a learn-as-you-go progression and one
1
Base on Creswell (2005, p.552)
might find that as they progress they may end up redefining the problem based
on their experiences.
Even though various participatory research models have been developed in

different disciplinary roots and historical traditions, the participatory approaches
share an ideological commitment to obtaining and using knowledge to empower
oppressed groups. Action researchers are primarily concerned with research
that will have implications for public policy, whether addressing specific practical
problems or transforming the broader social structure. (Kwok & Ku 2008, pp.
278)
Action research is a systematic approach to investigation that enables people to

find effective solutions to problems they confront in their everyday lives. Action
research focuses on specific situations and localized solutions. It is usually used
to identify issues to do with practice and to improve one’s service. The primary
purpose of action research is to provide the means for people to engage in
systematic inquiry and investigation to ‘design’ an appropriate way of
accomplishing a desired goal and to evaluate its effectiveness, usually by a
means of qualitative research. Action research is based on the proposition that
generalized solutions may not fit particular contexts or groups of people and
that the purpose of inquiry is to find an appropriate solution for the particular
dynamics at work in a local situation. Action research is a participatory process
that involves all those who have a stake in the issue engaging in systematic
inquiry to be investigated. Action Research is a means to develop solutions and
experimental practices, and then tested to improve the methods. Action
research is a collaborative approach to inquiry or investigation that provides
people with the means to take systematic action to resolve specific problems. It
does not resolve all problems but provides a means for people to get a handle
on their situations and formulate effective solutions to problems they face in
their public and professional lives (Stringer 1999).
Action research refers to the conjunction of three elements: action, research,

and participation. All three of these elements must be present; otherwise it is
not classified as action research.
The action research process involves five essential steps or parts:
1. Ask a question, identify a problem, or define an area of exploration.

Determine what it is you want to study.
2. Decide what data should be collected, how they should be collected, and
how often.
3. Collect and analyze data.
4. Describe how your findings can be used and applied. You create your plan
for action based on your findings.
5. Report or share your findings and plan for action with others.
These steps do not always proceed in a linear fashion. They are done in a
different order depending on who is doing them and the research being
conducted (Johnson 20082).
The three essential phases of action research designs are seen (build an
outline of the problem and collect data), thinking (analysis and interpretation)
and act (solve problems and implement improvements), which occur on a
cyclical basis, a and again, until the problem is resolved, change or
improvement is achieved successfully introduced (Stringer, 1999).
The detailed process, which as in any qualitative study is flexible, is presented

in Figure 15.1 l. Note that most authors presented as a "spiral" successive
cycles (Sandin, 2003). The cycles include:
 Identify the research problem, clarify and diagnose it (either a social

problem, the need for change, improvement, etc.).
 Development of a plan or program to solve the problem or make the
change.
 Implement the plan or program and evaluate results.
 Feedback, which leads to a new diagnosis and a new spiral of reflection
and action.
As it can be seen in Figure 15.11, to raise the issue is necessary to know its
nature through immersion in the context or environment, whose purpose is to
understand why events happen and how they happen, achieving clarity about
the problem and the people who are linked thereto. The research problem can
be of various kinds as shown in Table 15.12 and does not necessarily mean a
lack of social background (the meaning of the word problem is as broad as it is
the language of research methodology in general).
Once the conceptual clarity achieved by immersing the problem, collecting data
on the problem. Stringer (1999) suggests interviewing key players associated
with the problem, the environment obseve sites, events and activities that relate
to the problem, in addition to reviewing documents, records and relevant
materials. Even some quantitative data will be (statistics on the problem). It is
appropriate to take notes on the dive and give collection, recording interviews,
filming events and perform all the activities of qualitative research. The data is
analyzed and generate categories and themes related to the problem. Stringer
(1999) reminds us of the range of techniques that can be used for analysis,
among them
2
Johnson, AP 2008, A short guide to Action Research, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education, USA.
• Concept maps (for example, linking the problem with different topics relating to
different groups or individuals with ei problem themes that integrate the
problem, etc.).
• Diagrams cause-elected.
• Analysis: Problem, background, consequences.
• Matrices (eg, categories of causes issues with categories or themes crossed
effects).
• Ranking of identifying themes or priorities.
• Organizational structure of the formal (string hierarchies) and informal.
• Network Analysis (groups and individuals).
• Conceptual networks
The interviews, observation and document review are essential techniques to

locate valuable information, as well as focus groups. Several sessions are
regularly conducted with participants from the environment, and indeed, in the
form of participatory action research is an essential requirement.
Once the data have been analyzed, a report is made to the diagnosis of the
problem, which introduces participants to add data, validate information and
confirm findings (categories, topics and hypotheses). Finally, there is the
problem of research and travels to the second cycle: the development of the
plan to implement solutions or introduce change or innovation.
In developing the plan, the researcher remains open to collect more data and
information that can be associated with the problem statement.The plan should
incorporate practical solutions to solve the problem or create change. According
to Stringer (1999) and Creswell (2005), the common elements of a plan are:
•Priorities (to resolve issues according to their importance).

•Goals (general or broad goals to meet the highest priorities).
•Specific objectives to meet the goals.
•Tasks (actions to be executed, the sequence must be defined: what
comes first, what comes after, etc.).
•People (who or who will be responsible for each task). 'Programming
time (scheduling): determine the time it takes to perform each task or
action.
•Resources to implement the plan.
Besides defining how the researcher will evaluate the success in implementing
the plan. Implement the plan is the third cycle, which depends on the specific
study and Circumstances of each problem. Throughout The Implementation of
the plan, the researcher's task is extremely proactive: to inform participants
about the Activities of others, to motivate people for the plan to be executed in
Accordance with expectations and everyone carries on best, and to assist them
When They have Difficulties connecting participants in a network of mutual
support (Stringer, 1999).
During this cycle the researcher continuously collects data to assess each task
performed and the development of implementation (monitoring progress,
documenting processes, identifies strengths and weaknesses and provides
feedback to the participants). Again, using all the tools of data collection and
analysis that are possible, and program participants group sessions, which
serves two purposes: to assess progress and collect "open outcry" the opinions,
experiences and feelings of the participants in this stage.).
With the data collected are made permanently-on par with the participants, or at
least their leaders or key players-partial reports to assess the implementation of
the plan. On the basis of such reports are made relevant adjustments to the
plan, it redefines the problem and generate new hypotheses. At the end of the
introduction, is re-evaluated, which leads to the cycle of "feedback" which
means more adjustments to the plan and adapt to contingencies that arise. The
cycle repeats until the problem is resolved or change is achieved
In the shed "participatory", at least some members of the environment are

involved throughout the research process, cycle by cycle, their junctions are the
same as those of the researcher. Even, it is customary that are co-authors of
the interim reports and the final report.
The action research designs also represent a form of intervention and some
authors consider mixed designs because usually collect quantitative and
qualitative data, and simultaneously moving between inductive and deductive
scheme.
In Spain and Latin America, these designs are widely used to tackle challenges
in various fields of knowledge, and solve social issues. A well-known researcher
in the entire field of social sciences, Paulo Freire, made several studies based
on action research, until his death in 1997.
This type of design has been applied to a wide range of fields. For example,
education, as is the case of the study of Gomez Nieto (1991), which attempted
to find an alternative educational model for children under six years old with
special needs from birth, or that of Krogh (2001), which explored in Canberra,
Australia, how to use action research as a learning tool for students, educators,
business enterprises linked with educational institutions and service providers.
Also, Mendez Hernandez Sampieri and Cuevas (2009), who evaluated, among
other issues, the perceptual impact of social and infrastructural works
implemented by the government of Guanajuato with its own resources and the
World Bank, involving nearly two thousand inhabitants of communities from this
State.
For Business administration, we have several examples, such as Mertens

(2001), which evaluated the progressive reorganization of the Belgian Ministry
of Taxes, in line with action research and constructivist perspectives. It was a
study where they collaborated with external advisors and officials of the
institution and documented in several stages: recruitment of consultants,
collaborative design of the study, organizational change (adjustments to the
structure and processes of the unit) and training of bureaucracy for change.
It has even been used to study emotional intelligence of young children (three to
five years old) and how to increase, along with social skills (Kolb and Weede,
2001). Also to study the feasibility of operating medical centers threatened by:
a) changes in the U.S. health system, b) the rising costs of hospital practice, c)
reduced research budget and helps the poorest society (Mercer, 1995)3, or
solve a problem such as broken glass bottles in a bottling plant, which implied
losses for the company for more than three billion dollars a year (Hernandez
Sampieri, 1990.
OTHER DESIGNS
In addition to the revised designs in this chapter, some authors envision others,
for example, Mertens (2005) adds phenomenological designs that focus on
subjective individual experiences of the participants. In terms of Bogden and
Biklen (2003), it is to recognize the perceptions of people and the meaning of a
phenomenon or experience. The typical research question of a
phenomenological study is summarized in: what is the meaning, structure and
essence of the lived experience of a person (individual), group (grupa!) or
community (collective) for a phenomenon? (Patton, 2002). These designs are
3
The results of the action research process, in this case, suggested several measures to address the
crisis of medical centers considered, among them: administrative restructuring, worker strikes, mergers
and alliances between hospitals, doctors reduce hiring and modify the schemes of hospital
management.
similar to the rest of those who form the core of qualitative research and,
perhaps, what distinguishes them is that the one or more of the participant
experiences are the focus of the inquiry.
According to Creswell (1998), Alvarez-Gayou (2003) and Mertens (2005),

phenomenology is based on the following assumptions:
• The study aims to describe and understand the phenomena from the point of
view of each participant and collectively constructed perspective.
• The design is based on phenomenological analysis of speeches and topics, as

well as in the search for their possible meanings.
• The researcher relies on intuition, imagination, and universal structures to

achieve apprehend the experience of the participants.
• The researcher contextualizes the experience in terms of its timing (time that
happened), space (which took place), corporeality (individuals who lived) and
the relational context (the bonds that were generated during the experience) .
• Interviews, focus groups, collecting documents and materials and life stories
are aimed at finding issues everyday and exceptional experiences.
• The collection focused get information from people who have experienced the
phenomenon under study.
An example would be a phenomenological research inquiry among people who

have been abducted to understand how to define, describe and understand the
ordeal, on their own terms. Other cases are: 1) Willig (2007/2008), who studied
what it can mean for individuals to "hook" in extreme sports, eight doctors
interviewing experts and 2) Bondas and Eriksson (2001), investigating that
examined the experiences of Finnish women during pregnancy (the baby kind
of wishing, promoting infant health in the future, changes in their bodies,
changes in mood, strive for "communion" with the family, their dreams, hopes
and plans, as well as relationships that change
ETHNOMETHODOLOGICAL APPROACH
The spread in the area of humanities- of scientific methods based on

quantitative instruments have made to forget or dull some research practices
that, without using rules statistical or positivist measures fully comply with the
objectives of some branches of Human Sciences. Perhaps one of the reasons
for the existence of the scientific movement that was called "ethnomethodology"
was born from saturation caused by those who claimed to "quantify" all
proposed methodology in the field of study of man. Ethnomethodology came to
remind social scientists that a major part of the work of analyzing human
practices, either individually either group, can be conducted from materials that
keep the data in its original purity, maintain freshness in the story lived by the
actors and try to rescue as much information that generally provides the story of
the individual. Indeed, the effort to free the Human Sciences from a rigid
quantitative methodological perspective could lead to this new way of studying
and understanding social reality.
Garfinkeland ethnomethodological perspective
In 1952 Garfinkel holds his doctoral thesis on The Perception of the other: A
Study in Social Order (Harvard University). In its early developments Garfinkel's
thought drew attention to their importance in the everyday knowledge of
scientific concepts definition. Some believed that these notions or concepts
obeyed to abstract methodological requirements when in fact commonsense
notions were elevated to the status of "essences". Garfinkel did not reproach
their opponents that fact, but rather he reminded them precisely these notions
had its own dynamics and were valid as long as keep the players experience
and connect to personal experience and verbal expressions of the actors.
Despite his efforts to fit the facts and to the word of the actors,
ethnomethodology created his own vocabulary. And among the main concepts
that have given importance are "practice" and "fulfillment". For Garfinkel's
ethnomethodology "is a subject of empirical study to practical activities, to
practical circumstances, the practical sociological reasoning. Attributing to the
mundane activities of daily life the same attention usually given to the
extraordinary events, they will seek to take them as “right mind facts”.
Ethnomethodology is empirical research methods used by individuals to make
sense while performing their daily activities: communication, decision making,
reasoning…
No wonder, then, that Garfinkel has criticized the great social scientists of the
time. Especially challenging approaches of Talcott Parsons and Emile Durkheim
who insisted on modeling studies of the social and psychological realities in
terms of experimental method or scientific paradigms drawn from the natural
sciences. Durkheim wrote at the beginning of the twentieth century his book La
méthodesociologique enunciated and explained that his great methodological
principle: "Social facts are things", in the sense that such things should be
approached in the same way that the objects of study of natural sciences are
things. Questioned more than once, Durkheim tried to defend himself by saying
that the word "things" did not mean that human actions were as natural objects,
but that the human sciences had to follow the model proposed by experimental
scientific research, after the cognitive revolution conducted from spectacular
experiences of science from the eighteenth century. For Durkheim, the model
was the "experimental method", that is, the exercise of knowledge based on a
definition of assumptions that should be validated with objective facts or
practices. Laboratory investigations are a good example of applying the
"experimental method".
In them hypothesis are verified and elaborated based on assumptions to the

rigorous analysis. Now it is precisely against the rigidity of the application of this
method in the Humanities and against the widespread dissemination of it at the
academy, that Garfunkel’s voice raises and his companions in the
implementation of "ethnomethodological model".
The world of language and indexicality. “For the bare definitions I have just
remembered passes one important methodological choice: language as an
instrument which articulates the experience and the living of individuals”. In
other words, it is in the language which combines the expertise or experience
and explanation. The researcher collects the word of the actor because the
gesture or action is "hoarse".
.What Garfinkel sought is precisely this "living word" of the actor and he defined
in words the action. In that sense, they are central to the language of the actor's
words that aimed to give life to the context of the described gesture. Those
words or expressions are then "indexed", that is, placed in a context the fact
whether indicated or spoken. For example, the word "thing", "I", "we" ... "We
were ..." The indexicality is the group of words that help to determine a situation,
or a context.
The notion of "indexicality" does not come from the Social Sciences. It is
originated in linguistics and it appoints all words used in the characterization of
a fact. Because the words, that describe human practices, realize only a small
part of what the individual invests in action. And the language never fully
expresses what the gesture updates. In that sense, the indexicality does not
exhaust all the dimensions of the gesture. Therefore, it is important to gather
the greatest number of words so that they can account for the facts.
The world of life or experiential dimensions of research, the role of language in

the ethnomethodological approach, is essential. And it has its reason for being.
By opting for the facts and the world of life, to give voice to the actor and the
circumstances under which he acts, the ethnomethodologist researcher will be
concerned mainly to ensure the facts, the oral form and style of their birth.
Hence the importance that has, in the ethnomethodological approach of reality,
all the elements and circumstances, occurring gestures or actions. The actor
tries to individualize their action through a number of words. It is these that
allow the listener to know that such act or practice that was executed by this or
that actor in unique circumstances.
It is more easily understood with the previous paragraphs that

ethnomethodology favors "individualization" of gesture or action. It could be said
that the search goes in the sense of .isolating the action of its context bland and
common, while other research approaches universalize its findings flattening
differences and putting the facts in its group dimension. In other words, what
ethnomethodology is looking for is precisesly is leaving in its expression
radically live the speech that the actor pronounces to update a gesture or
action. The more accurate the speech becomes more individual is becoming.
Rather, the word will be the more universal the least individualized and precise
becomes in the description of the facts. The "experimental method" has to put
aside many t elements to generalize abstractions of the experiences
circumstances.
Instead, the ethnomethodological perspective burdens the fact with all the
weight of the actor's elocution. Thus it becomes more and more individualized
and experiential. If, for example, the researcher wants to explain an incident in
the street, a collision between two cars, includes versions of the protagonists of
the facts and the testimonies of those who witnessed the accident. That fact
elevated to the court that has to get done within the defined framework by the
code in this kind of crime. For that to happen, the lawyer and the judge have to
give up an important part of the circumstances for the gesture or action fit the
criminal model. That is, the judicial system tries to universalize the case so that
it falls within the terms defined in the penal code. Therefore, where the legal or
criminal system generalizes the actor's individualized word and it becomes life
or vivid experience
The psychological approach and collective dimension of sociology to some

extent it could be said that the research tools in the field of psychology
accommodate the individual word and try to understand it in its experiential
form, while sociology, for example, aims towards a collective and group
perspective. In that sense, it is easy to understand the efforts made by
psychologists in the use of techniques such as interviews where the researcher
tries to understand a fact or set of facts based on the word of the actor. The
colloquial form of that approach to reality is one of the most important aspects
of current Human Sciences. The psychology privileged psychoanalysis. And by
influencing in it, many social scientists today insist on the importance of the
word that brings us closer to the experience of the actor.
Today research is not followed by rigid canons, and the instruments used by
social scientists know how to balance and sometimes employ various
techniques in an effort to understand the phenomena. It wil not surprise, then, to
see in the same research process, the psychologist or sociologist used the
interview technique or the autobiographical method and then develop a
questionnaire that it will allow to generalize some of the dimensions of the
phenomena studied. To the extent that this is possible in that research practice
it is posible it is convenient to use it because it gives to the scientific explanation
a dimension simultaneously experiential abstract or universal.
The criticisms that were made to the ethnomethodologist against traditional
methods used in human sciences have been widely reported and they were not
neglected by researchers. They were important to give the universe of the
Human Sciences Research experiential dimension, the presence of the word of
the actor. To retain it, the story of the researcher becomes simple means of
transmission and the instrument which guarantees the facts that are to explain
the realism and the "truth" of the gesture or action.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM DESIGN
Symbolic interactionism is one of three main classes of sociological thought and

is the view that people react to other people and objects based on the personal
views they've given that object. The way people interact with each other can
change a person's views so that the object has a different meaning to them.
The term comes from Herbert Blumer who explained the theory of symbolic
interactionism and drew from the work of George Mead, Charles Cooley, and
John Dewey. The theory states that people assign everything a symbolic
meaning and alter this meaning to fit with current social norms. They then react
to different situations based on what specific meaning that situation holds for
them.
Herbert Blumer drew on a number of important theories to create symbolic

interactionism. He looked at the work of John Dewey who felt that people's
actions can be better understood if we look at their environment and the type of
people they interact with. George Mead felt that language is made entirely of
symbols and people create new words so they can assign meaning to an object.
This also played a role in Blumer's theory along with the work of Charles Cooley
who is one of the major contributors to the theory of symbolic interactionism.
The theory of symbolic interactionism draws on three important parts: meaning,

language, and thought. People assign different meanings to objects or people
they come into contact with and act differently depending on the specific
meaning they've given that person or thing. To express themselves to each
other, people create language as a set of symbols to give names to the different
meanings we find in the world. Finally, people use thought to examine their
beliefs and change their interpretation of things based on new information
they've learned about the object or person.
People act based on symbolic meanings they find within any given situation. We
thus interact with the symbols, forming relationships around them. The goals of
our interactions with one another are to create shared meaning.
Language is itself a symbolic form, which is used to anchor meanings to the

symbols.
Key aspects are:

• We act toward others based on the meaning that those other people have for
us.
• Meaning is created in the interactions we have with other people in sharing our
interpretations of symbols.
• Meanings are modified through an interpretive process whereby we first

internally create meaning, then check it externally and with other people.
• We develop our self-concepts through interaction with others.
• We are influenced by culture and social processes, such as social norms.
• Our social structures are worked out through the social interactions with
others.
For the interactionist, society consists of organized and patterned interactions

among individuals. Thus, research by interactionists focuses on easily
observable face-to-face interactions rather than on macro-level structural
relationships involving social institutions.
Example of this theory:
Erving Goffman (1958), a prominent social theorist in this tradition, discusses

roles dramaturgically, using an analogy to the theater, with human social
behavior seen as more or less well scripted and with humans as role-taking
actors. Role-taking is a key mechanism of interaction, for it permits us to take
the other's perspective, to see what our actions might mean to the other actors
with whom we interact. At other times, interactionists emphasize the
improvisational quality of roles, with human social behavior seen as poorly
scripted and with humans as role-making improvisers. Role-making, too, is a
key mechanism of interaction, for all situations and roles are inherently
ambiguous, thus requiring us to create those situations and roles to some
extent before we can act.
For example, if Mary is attracted to Paul but Paul does not share these feelings,
the two will act differently toward each other. Mary will interpret Paul's actions
as possible signs that he likes her since she has assigned him the symbolic
meaning of being a potential boyfriend. Paul still sees Mary as only a friend and
acts this way toward her. If Mary were to admit her feelings to Paul, he might
see her differently and she would have affected the symbolic meaning he has
given her. This is a prime example of symbolic interactionism at work in
everyday life.
THE THEORY
Symbolic Interactionism as thought of by Herbert Blumer, is the process of

interaction in the formation of meanings for individuals. Blumer was a devotee
of George H. Mead, and was influenced by John Dewey. Dewey insisted that
human beings are best understood in relation to their environment (Society for
More Creative Speech, 1996). With this as his inspiration, Herbert Blumer
outlined Symbolic Interactionism, a study of human group life and conduct.
Blumer came up with three core principles to his theory. They are meaning,
language, and thought. These core principles lead to conclusions about the
creation of a person's self and socialization into a larger community (Griffin,
1997)
The first core principle of meaning states that humans act toward people and
things based upon the meanings that they have given to those people or things.
Symbolic Interactionism holds the principal of meaning as central in human
behavior.
The second core principle is language. Language gives humans a means by

which to negotiate meaning through symbols. Mead's influence on Blumer
becomes apparent here because Mead believed that naming assigned
meaning, thus naming was the basis for human society and the extent of
knowledge. It is by engaging in speech acts with others, symbolic interaction,
that humans come to identify meaning, or naming, and develop discourse.
The third core principle is that of thought. Thought modifies each individual's
interpretation of symbols. Thought, based-on language, is a mental
conversation or dialogue that requires role taking, or imagining different points
of view.
THE CASE
Last week, I received an exciting e-mail from an old flame named Jeremy.
Jeremy and I have been getting to know each other again through the wonderful
world of cyberspace. I like e-mall because it doesn't have the nervous element
that phone calls do. Unfortunately, it doesn't have the personal touch of phone
calls either. The biggest downfall of e-mail is that non-verbal cues are
impossible to detect, because of the simple fact that e-mail is not verbal. It is
very easy for misunderstanding to arise. Well, Jeremy's e-mail to me on
Thursday said he was coming to Boulder the next day, and he was wondering if
I wanted "to go out?" I accepted his offer "to go out." With the help of my
friends, I picked out the perfect outfit for my date with Jeremy. The girls and I all
assumed Jeremy and I would do dinner and a movie because that is pretty
much standard date practice. The next night, Jeremy picked me up "to go out"
to the bars with him and three of his buddies. I got very angry and he couldn't
figure out why. After all, I told him we would "go out."
APPLICATION OF THEORY TO CASE

I can explain the problem between Jeremy and myself using the lens of the
three core principles of Symbolic Interactionism as outlined by Herbert Blumer.
The first miscommunication that Jeremy and I had falls under the principal of
meaning. Jeremy and I acted differently toward one another because we had
different meanings of one another. Last year, Jeremy and I broke up under the
heading "we're just friends." Therefore, Jeremy assigns "friend" as the meaning
for me. For myself, however, when Jeremy and I started talking again, I
reevaluated my meaning for him as "potential boyfriend." Jeremy was treating
me like a friend, and I was treating him like a boyfriend because we act toward
people based on the meanings we assign to them.
Our second miscommunication falls under the principle of language. The

symbols "do you want to go out" are very ambiguous, especially without the
luxury of non-verbal cues. After engaging in symbolic interaction with my group
of friends, I decided that "going out" means a romantic evening of dinner and a
movie. My girl friends asked where the two of us were going, what I was going
to wear to impress him, would we kiss on the first date - even though it really
wasn't our FIRST date, if the two of us were going to start dating again, and
other things like that. Through my interaction with them, the language "going
out" took on a specific meaning. Apparently for Jeremy, the language "going
out" took on the specific meaning of hitting the bars for a night on the town. To
put it another way, if the extent of knowledge is naming, I name a typical date
as "going out," while Jeremy names being at the bars with friends "going out."
Because we have two different situations with the same name, we fell upon a
misunderstanding.
Our third miscommunication falls under the principal of thought. In my internal

dialogue, the symbols "do you want to go out" were interpreted through my
thought process based on my naming system. I read his e-mall, talked to my
friends, and assigned meaning to the language through symbolic interaction.
Based on that meaning from language, I had an internal dialogue, and ended up
coming to the conclusion that Jeremy and I were going to spend some romantic
time alone together. Jeremy's thought process also modified his interpretation of
the language. Jeremy assigned the name of "just a friend" to me. That name
was his meaning. He acted toward me based on that meaning. Through his
internal dialogue, he used the language "going out" to be interpreted as time
spent among friends.
While we ended up have a great time together, just the five of us, the focal point
of the problem between Jeremy and myself is that each of us had different
meanings with the same name which can account for our behavior.
CRITIQUE
The theory of Symbolic Interactionism is strong in that it provides a basis to
understand the establishment of meaning. As I understand it, Symbolic
Interactionism falls under the category of a Humanistic theory. It has creative
meaning - interaction gives humans meaning. It has free will - every human has
meanings which can change at any time. It has emancipation - individuals are
free to find their own meaning. It has rules for interpretation meaning, language,
and thought. And it uses a ethnography to find meaning.
Symbolic Interactionism also meets the five humanistic standards that make a
good theory. There is a new understanding of the people where we get
meaning. There is a clarification of values. Meaning comes from interaction, so
interaction is important to human society. There is aesthetic appeal - the theory
is in three, easy-to-understand parts. There is a community of agreement -
Blumer's ideas are adopted by people in the academic community. And there is
a reform of society - because meaning comes from interaction, interaction must
not be taken for granted.
Although Symbolic Interactionism is a good theory by the five humanistic

standards, there is a critique of the whole basis for it. While Blumer insists that
the interpretive process and the context in which it is done are a vital element in
the person's use of meaning and formation thereof, others view the use of
meaning as simply the calling upon and application to specific situations of
previously held meanings (Society for More Creative Speech, 1996). That is, a
social interactionist believes that meaning arises out of the interaction between
people, while a contradicting point of view a asserts that meaning is already
established in a person's psychological make-up.
While it is debatable if Symbolic Interactionism is a good theory, or not, I find it

effective in evaluating human interaction. My conflict with Jeremy is the perfect
example of how different meanings can cause communication problems. While
this is a fairly insignificant example, it is easy to see how larger problems can
arise if the lines of communication are not open, and assumptions are made.
CASE STUDY DESIGN
A case study is a detailed investigation of a single individual or group. The case

study can be defined as "a process through research quantitative, qualitative
and/or mixed, deeply analyzes an integral unit to respond to the statement of
the problem, test hypotheses and develop theory" (Hernandez Sampieri and
Mendoza, 2008) ,Mertens (2005) conceived of the case study as a research of
an individual, group, organization, community or society, which is seen as a unit
or entity.
Case studies can be qualitative or quantitative in nature, and often combine
elements of both. The defining feature of a case study is its holistic approach—it
aims to capture all of the details of a particular individual or group (a small
group, classroom, or even a school), which are relevant to the purpose of the
study, within a real life context. To do this, case studies rely on multiple sources
of data; including interviews, direct observation, video and audio tapes, internal
documents, and artifacts. The final report or write-up is a narrative with thick,
rich descriptions. Increasingly, case studies are being presented as multimedia
packages, such as a documentary, to showcase the uniqueness and
complexities of the context.
Case study research is better than any other study, at bringing the researcher to
an understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience or
add strength to what is already known through previous research. Case studies
emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or
conditions and their relationships. Researchers have used the case study
research method for many years across a variety of disciplines. Social
scientists, in particular, have made wide use of this qualitative research method
to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the
application of ideas and extension of methods. Researcher Robert K. Yin
defines the case study research method as an empirical inquiry that
investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the
boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in
which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984, p. 234).
Many well-known case study researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen

Simons, and Robert K. Yin have written about case study research and
suggested techniques for organizing and conducting the research successfully.
Case studies can be used for descriptive, explanatory, or exploratory purposes
(Yin, 19935). For any of these purposes, there are two distinct case study
designs: single-case study design and multiple-case study design. Single-case
studies are just that, an examination of one individual or group. In choosing a
case, researchers may purposely select atypical, or outlier, cases. An outlier
case tends to yield more information than average cases. Multiple-case studies
use replication, which is the deliberate process of choosing cases that are likely
to show similar results. This helps to examine how generalizable the findings
may be
The main benefit of conducting a case study lies in the particular details and
holistic understanding researchers gain from a specific case. Case studies allow
researchers to fully understand how an intervention worked, or why an
intervention had an effect in a particular case. In contrast, other forms of
4
Yin, R. (1984). Case study research: Design and methods (1st ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing.
5
Yin, R. (1993). Applications of case study research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publishing.
research, such as experimental or quasi-experimental research, do not delve
into this type of detail, but rather aim to give information on whether or not an
intervention has a particular, predefined effect.
All studies attempt to maximize both their internal and external validity. Internal
validity addresses how valid it is to make causal inferences about the
intervention in the study. External validity addresses how generalizable those
inferences are to a larger population. Case studies tend to have very strong
internal validity, but are often criticized because of their extremely poor external
validity. Because case studies look at only one case at a time, and purposefully
choose cases that are atypical, external validity is a real concern.
Case studies attempt to examine the how and why questions associated with an
intervention. Case studies either describe or explain what happened in a
particular case, by giving a detailed, holistic account of a particular case and
allow researchers to see the product used in a natural setting. The general form
of a case study research question is “How did the [specific
program/intervention] work in a particular case?” Or “Why did the [specific
program/intervention] have a particular effect on a particular case?”
Many other forms of research may be more appropriate for your needs,
depending on your research question. For example, if one asked “What is the
effect of an intervention on a specific population?” or “What is the market
demand of x?”, a case study would not be ideal.
Even when there are no specific quantitative techniques or validity issues to

address when implementing a case study, objectivity is extremely important. It
is recommended that organizations use outside consultants or research
organizations to conduct case studies. Not only does this allow the case study
to be conducted by experts in interviewing, conducting focus groups, and
analyzing qualitative data, but it also protects the results of the study from a
perceived bias of the organization. For example, while a company with a
product that aims at improving literacy in children with learning disabilities might
conduct an objective, enlightening case study that shows why their product
worked successfully in a specific school, school districts might not trust this
result unless it was conducted and analyzed by an unaffiliated organization.
The time and cost of conducting a case study largely depends on the unit of
analysis. For example, conducting a case study on a single child’s experience
using a tele-therapy approach may only take a short period of time and minor
costs to gain all relevant information. However, examining how and why an
intervention worked within a whole school or within a large district would take
much longer and would be far more expensive to gather all relevant interviews,
focus groups, and other data. Before initiating a case study, you should be sure
that you have the required amount of time and resources to complete it.
Recruiting study participants or study sites is critical. First, it is important that
the study participants represent the population for which you hope your
intervention will be effective. Second, study participants and their
parents/guardians (if you are working with minors) must agree to be in the
study. This involves getting parent/guardian approval through signing consent
forms which describe the study and any risks and benefits that study
participants may be exposed to, and then separately asking participants to
consent to participate in the intervention. Because case studies examine how or
why an intervention worked in a particular case, rather than testing the effects of
an intervention, recruiting study participants may be much easier than with other
forms of research. Furthermore, since case studies focus on one individual or
group, there are fewer people who need to give consent. However, just getting
individuals to agree to participate is not enough. Any studies that are funded by
government agencies must have the study, data collection items, and even the
consent forms approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) before study
participant recruitment begins.
Case study research often does not keep the research participants’ identities
anonymous. Cases that are presented with video, still photos, audio tapes, or
other artifacts that are personally identifying offer compelling reasons to invite
the participants to be active members of the research team. Consent and
assent rules still apply, as does oversight by an IRB; however, these
participatory cases give voice to the participant and ask participants to help
interpret the findings.
It is critical that researchers conducting case studies collect as much data that
may be relevant to the intervention and the context as possible. Typically,
researchers will get qualitative data from interviews, focus groups, direct
observations, video and audio records, and any extant documents that may
pertain to the intervention and context in question. It is best to have developed
interview, focus group, and observation protocols beforehand to be sure you
capture the data you need to answer your study question.
Soy, Susan K.6(1997)proposessix steps that should be used:
Determine and define the research questions
Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques
Prepare to collect the data
Collect data in the field
Evaluate and analyze the data
6
Soy, Susan K. (1997).The case study as a research method. Unpublished paper, University of Texas at
Austin
Prepare the report
Step 1. Determine and Define the Research Questions
The first step in case study research is to establish a firm research focus to
which the researcher can refer over the course of study of a complex
phenomenon or ob about the situation or problem to be studied and determining
a purpose for the study. The research object in a case study is often a program,
an entity, a person, or a group of people. Each object is likely to be intricately
connected to political, social, historical, and personal issues, providing wide
ranging possibilities for questions and adding complexity to the case study. The
researcher investigates the object of the case study in depth using a variety of
data gathering methods to produce evidence that leads to understanding of the
case and answers the research questions.
Case study research generally answers one or more questions which begin with
"how" or "why." The questions are targeted to a limited number of events or
conditions and their inter-relationships. To assist in targeting and formulating
the questions, researchers conduct a literature review. This review establishes
what research has been previously conducted and leads to refined, insightful
questions about the problem. Careful definition of the questions at the start
pinpoints where to look for evidence and helps determine the methods of
analysis to be used in the study. The literature review, definition of the purpose
of the case study, and early determination of the potential audience for the final
report guide how the study will be designed, conducted, and publicly reported.
Step 2. Select the Cases and Determine Data Gathering and Analysis
Techniques
During the design phase of case study research, the researcher determines
what approaches to use in selecting single or multiple real-life cases to examine
in depth and which instruments and data gathering approaches to use. When
using multiple cases, each case is treated as a single case. Each case´s
conclusions can then be used as information contributing to the whole study,
but each case remains a single case. Exemplary case studies carefully select
cases and carefully examine the choices available from among many research
tools available in order to increase the validity of the study. Careful
discrimination at the point of selection also helps erect boundaries around the
case.
The researcher must determine whether to study cases which are unique in
some way or cases which are considered typical and may also select cases to
represent a variety of geographic regions, a variety of size parameters, or other
parameters. A useful step in the selection process is to repeatedly refer back to
the purpose of the study in order to focus attention on where to look for cases
and evidence that will satisfy the purpose of the study and answer the research
questions posed. Selecting multiple or single cases is a key element, but a case
study can include more than one unit of embedded analysis. For example, a
case study may involve study of a single industry and a firm participating in that
industry. This type of case study involves two levels of analysis and increases
the complexity and amount of data to be gathered and analyzed.
A key strength of the case study method involves using multiple sources and
techniques in the data gathering process. The researcher determines in
advance what evidence to gather and what analysis techniques to use with the
data to answer the research questions. Data gathered is normally largely
qualitative, but it may also be quantitative. Tools to collect data can include
surveys, interviews, documentation review, observation, and even the collection
of physical artifacts.
The researcher must use the designated data gathering tools systematically
and properly in collecting the evidence. Throughout the design phase,
researchers must ensure that the study is well constructed to ensure construct
validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. Construct validity
requires the researcher to use the correct measures for the concepts being
studied. Internal validity (especially important with explanatory or causal
studies) demonstrates that certain conditions lead to other conditions and
requires the use of multiple pieces of evidence from multiple sources to uncover
convergent lines of inquiry. The researcher strives to establish a chain of
evidence forward and backward. External validity reflects whether or not
findings are generalizable beyond the immediate case or cases; the more
variations in places, people, and procedures a case study can withstand and
still yield the same findings, the more external validity. A technique such as
cross-case examination and within-case examination along with literature
review helps ensure external validity. Reliability refers to the stability, accuracy,
and precision of measurement. Exemplary case study design ensures that the
procedures used are well documented and can be repeated with the same
results over and over again.
Step 3. Prepare to Collect the Data
Because case study research generates a large amount of data from multiple
sources, systematic organization of the data is important to prevent the
researcher from becoming overwhelmed by the amount of data and to prevent
the researcher from losing sight of the original research purpose and questions.
Advance preparation assists in handling large amounts of data in a documented
and systematic fashion. Researchers prepare databases to assist with
categorizing, sorting, storing, and retrieving data for analysis.
Exemplary case studies prepare good training programs for investigators,

establish clear protocols and procedures in advance of investigator field work,
and conduct a pilot study in advance of moving into the field in order to remove
obvious barriers and problems. The investigator training program covers the
basic concepts of the study, terminology, processes, and methods, and teaches
investigators how to properly apply the techniques being used in the study. The
program also trains investigators to understand how the gathering of data using
multiple techniques strengthens the study by providing opportunities for
triangulation during the analysis phase of the study. The program covers
protocols for case study research, including time deadlines, formats for
narrative reporting and field notes, guidelines for collection of documents, and
guidelines for field procedures to be used. Investigators need to be good
listeners who can hear exactly the words being used by those interviewed.
Qualifications for investigators also include being able to ask good questions
and interpret answers. Good investigators review documents looking for facts,
but also read between the lines and pursue collaborative evidence elsewhere
when that seems appropriate. Investigators need to be flexible in real-life
situations and not feel threatened by unexpected change, missed appointments,
or lack of office space. Investigators need to understand the purpose of the
study and grasp the issues and must be open to contrary findings. Investigators
must also be aware that they are going into the world of real human beings who
may be threatened or unsure of what the case study will bring.
After investigators are trained, the final advance preparation step is to select a
pilot site and conduct a pilot test using each data gathering method so that
problematic areas can be uncovered and corrected. Researchers need to
anticipate key problems and events, identify key people, prepare letters of
introduction, establish rules for confidentiality, and actively seek opportunities to
revisit and revise the research design in order to address and add to the original
set of research questions.
4. Collect Data in the Field
The researcher must collect and store multiple sources of evidence

comprehensively and systematically, in formats that can be referenced and
sorted so that converging lines of inquiry and patterns can be uncovered.
Researchers carefully observe the object of the case study and identify causal
factors associated with the observed phenomenon. Renegotiation of
arrangements with the objects of the study or addition of questions to interviews
may be necessary as the study progresses. Case study research is flexible, but
when changes are made, they are documented systematically.
Exemplary case studies use field notes and databases to categorize and
reference data so that it is readily available for subsequent reinterpretation.
Field notes record feelings and intuitive hunches, pose questions, and
document the work in progress. They record testimonies, stories, and
illustrations which can be used in later reports. They may warn of impending
bias because of the detailed exposure of the client to special attention, or give
an early signal that a pattern is emerging. They assist in determining whether or
not the inquiry needs to be reformulated or redefined based on what is being
observed. Field notes should be kept separate from the data being collected
and stored for analysis.
Maintaining the relationship between the issue and the evidence is mandatory.
The researcher may enter some data into a database and physically store other
data, but the researcher documents, classifies, and cross-references all
evidence so that it can be efficiently recalled for sorting and examination over
the course of the study.
Step 5. Evaluate and Analyze the Data
The researcher examines raw data using many interpretations in order to find
linkages between the research object and the outcomes with reference to the
original research questions. Throughout the evaluation and analysis process,
the researcher remains open to new opportunities and insights. The case study
method, with its use of multiple data collection methods and analysis
techniques, provides researchers with opportunities to triangulate data in order
to strengthen the research findings and conclusions.
The tactics used in analysis force researchers to move beyond initial

impressions to improve the likelihood of accurate and reliable findings.
Exemplary case studies will deliberately sort the data in many different ways to
expose or create new insights and will deliberately look for conflicting data to
disconfirm the analysis. Researchers categorize, tabulate, and recombine data
to address the initial propositions or purpose of the study, and conduct cross-
checks of facts and discrepancies in accounts. Focused, short, repeat
interviews may be necessary to gather additional data to verify key observations
or check a fact.
Specific techniques include placing information into arrays, creating matrices of

categories, creating flow charts or other displays, and tabulating frequency of
events. Researchers use the quantitative data that has been collected to
corroborate and support the qualitative data which is most useful for
understanding the rationale or theory underlying relationships. Another
technique is to use multiple investigators to gain the advantage provided when
a variety of perspectives and insights examine the data and the patterns. When
the multiple observations converge, confidence in the findings increases.
Conflicting perceptions, on the other hand, cause the researchers to pry more
deeply.
Another technique, the cross-case search for patterns, keeps investigators from
reaching premature conclusions by requiring that investigators look at the data
in many different ways. Cross-case analysis divides the data by type across all
cases investigated. One researcher then examines the data of that type
thoroughly. When a pattern from one data type is corroborated by the evidence
from another, the finding is stronger. When evidence conflicts, deeper probing
of the differences is necessary to identify the cause or source of conflict. In all
cases, the researcher treats the evidence fairly to produce analytic conclusions
answering the original "how" and "why" research questions.
Step 6. Prepare the report
Exemplary case studies report the data in a way that transforms a complex
issue into one that can be understood, allowing the reader to question and
examine the study and reach an understanding independent of the researcher.
The goal of the written report is to portray a complex problem in a way that
conveys a vicarious experience to the reader. Case studies present data in very
publicly accessible ways and may lead the reader to apply the experience in his
or her own real-life situation. Researchers pay particular attention to displaying
sufficient evidence to gain the reader´s confidence that all avenues have been
explored, clearly communicating the boundaries of the case, and giving special
attention to conflicting propositions.
Techniques for composing the report can include handling each case as a
separate chapter or treating the case as a chronological recounting. Some
researchers report the case study as a story. During the report preparation
process, researchers critically examine the document looking for ways the
report is incomplete. The researcher uses representative audience groups to
review and comment on the draft document. Based on the comments, the
researcher rewrites and makes revisions. Some case study researchers
suggest that the document review audience include a journalist and some
suggest that the documents should be reviewed by the participants in the study.
Applying the Case Study Method to an Electronic Community Network
By way of example, we apply these six steps to an example study of multiple

participants in an electronic community network. All participants are non-profit
organizations which have chosen an electronic community network on the
World Wide Web as a method of delivering information to the public. The case
study method is applicable to this set of users because it can be used to
examine the issue of whether or not the electronic community network is
beneficial in some way to the organization and what those benefits might be.
Case study research, with its applicability across many disciplines, is an

appropriate methodology to use in library studies. In Library and Information
Science, case study research has been used to study reasons why library
school programs close (Paris, 1988), to examine reference service practices in
university library settings (Lawson, 1971), and to examine how questions are
negotiated between customers and librarians (Taylor, 1967). Much of the
research is focused exclusively on the librarian as the object or the customer as
the object. Researchers could use the case study method to further study the
role of the librarian in implementing specific models of service. For example,
case study research could examine how information-seeking behavior in public
libraries compares with information-seeking behavior in places other than
libraries, to conduct in-depth studies of non-library community based
information services to compare with library based community information
services, and to study community networks based in libraries.
Signing Science Dictionary: Benefits to Students and Teachers. For researcher

Judy Vesel of TERC and her partners at Vcom3D, developer of the Signing
Avatar® assistive technology, NCTI Tech in the Works-funded research
demonstrated that a preliminary, 300-word version of the Signing Science
Dictionary raised science achievement among students with hearing
impairment. The unit of analysis in this study was the classroom where the
dictionary was implemented, which allowed the researchers to observe and
analyze the behavior and learning of students, teachers, and involved parents.
Final report of the study:
http://www.nationaltechcenter.org/documents/NCTI_Report.doc
Published articles using case study
Zorfass, J. &Rivero, K. (2005). Collaboration is key: How a community of

practice promotes technology integration. Journal of Special Education
Technology, 20(3), 51-67.
The authors explain how STAR Tech, a professional development program,

used communities of practice to help teachers work together to integrate
technology tools into the curriculum to benefit students with and without
disabilities. Components of the STAR Tech system include providing teachers
with assistance from experts and building leadership capacity to support
professional development. Findings from the study demonstrate that a
community of practice can promote technology integration. This article will be of
particular value to administrators interested in creating a community of practice
within their school. However, what makes this article unique is that it presents a
professional development program that considers the needs of teachers that
service both general and special education students.
Grimes, D. &Warschauer, M. (2010). Utility in a fallible tool: A multi-site case

study of automated writing evaluation. Journal of Teaching, Learning, and
Assessment, 8(6).
Automated writing evaluation (AWE) software uses artificial intelligence (AI) to
score student essays and support revision. We studied how an AWE program
called MY Access!® was used in eight middle schools in Southern California
over a three-year period. Although many teachers and students considered
automated scoring unreliable, and teachers’ use of AWE was limited by the
desire to use conventional writing methods, use of the software still brought
important benefits. Observations, interviews, and a survey indicated that using
AWE simplified classroom management and increased students’ motivation to
write and revise.
Why aren't your EFL / ESL students progressing in language learning?
Our foreign or second language students have qualities that can enhance or
hold back their language learning process. But there again so does the
language itself. Think about all the following when teaching your FL students:
 Age influences how quickly learning takes place. Brain plasticity and
critical age for learning mean younger children have an advantage over
mature students.
 Personality also plays a part. Confident students will experiment with
language especially in the earlier stages of their learning. Practice and
production speed up the learning process.
 A positive attitude towards the English language and culture raises the
students’ level of motivation to learn. Keen students look for ‘after class’
learning opportunities.
 Anxiety can impede foreign language production and achievement. High
levels of hormones hinder the ability to process information and impede
language acquisition.
 Certain teaching or studying methods and styles may be unknown to
some students; some prefer to work alone, others choose pair work or
groups.
 Some students may possess an aptitude for learning languages.
 The extent that the native language differs from English linguistically can
affect the speed of acquisition of the four basic language skills: speaking,
listening, reading, and writing.
 The English language has irregularities, a complicated sound system,
difficult tense structure and more.
 The greater the difference between the orthography of the native
language and that of the English language the harder it will be to acquire
the English writing and reading system
 Since first language proficiency provides a foundation on which to
position other languages, check to make sure your students are fully
proficient in all aspects of their first language.
 It is well known that difficulties in any areas of first language acquisition
will cause similar problems in the same skills during foreign language
learning.
Critics to the case study method think that the study of a small number of cases
can offer no grounds for establishing reliability or generality of findings. Others
believe that the intense exposure to study of the case biases the findings. Some
dismiss case study research as useful only as an exploratory tool. Yet
researchers continue to use the case study research method with success in
carefully planned and crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and
problems. Reports on case studies from many disciplines are widely available in
the literature in every discipline.
The boundaries between qualitative designs are not really there. For example, a
study guided by grounded theory includes narrative and phenomenological
elements. An action research can generate axial coding (grounded theory)
when analyzing interviews with participants about some problem of interest.
Weit is believed that students should not worry so much about whether their
study is narrative or ethnographic, their attention needs more to focus on
research conduct in a comprehensive and thorough manner, and to respond to
the problem statement.
REPORTS OF RESULTS OF THE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Reports of results of qualitative research process can acquire the same formats
as quantitative reports.The first thing the researcher must define is the type of
reporting that it is necessary to be developed, which depends on the following
points:
1) The reason why research emerged,
2) Users of the study and
3) The context in which it is to be submitted. Research reports can be presented

in an academic or in a non-academic context.
The report should provide an answer to the problem statement and identify the
strategies used to address it, as well as the data were collected, analyzed and
interpreted by the researcher.The reports are more flexible qualitative than
quantitative and there is only one way to present, but are developed through a
form and narrative scheme.The descriptions and narratives used colorful, fresh
and naturallanguage. The style is more personal.The language of the report
should not be discriminatory in any way.Before preparing the report should be
reviewed the full set of categories, topics and encoding rules.
The most common structure of the qualitative report is: cover, index (s),
abstract, main text (introduction, method, analysis, results and discussion),
references and appendices.The description of the environment must be
complete and detailed.Upon completion of the analysis and develop the
qualitative report, the researcher must link the results with previous
studies.Three aspects are important in the presentation of the results by the
report: the narrative, the support of the categories (with examples) and graphic
elements.
There are different forms or narrative descriptions to write the report of

qualitative results. If possible, each category should be included examples of
units of all groups or actors and the ideal is that the categories must be
supported by several sources. The report is appropriate for being reviewed by
the participants, in one way or another, they have to validate the results and
conclusions. To develop the qualitative report it is recommended the
|publications style guide of the American Psychological Association and the
Chicago Manual of Style, APA manual also summarized.
How to note the references down?
APA Style
What is APA Style?
The American Psychological Association has established its own style, APA
style, and it is fast becoming the norm for all social and behavioral sciences.
These sciences include psychology, sociology, anthropology, business,
education, and more. In APA style, the bibliography is referred to as the "list of
references".
List of references must begin on a separate page at the end of the paper, and
double spaced.
Page must be labeled References, with no formatting (underlining, quotation
marks, etc...) and centered at the top of the page.
List of references must include every source cited in the paper.
Author's names are presented with last name first, and listed alphabetically.
Multiple articles by the same author are listed in order by the year of publication.
Capitalize the first word of a title and subtitle when referring to any work that is
NOT a journal.
All major words in journal titles must be capitalized.
Journals, books, or other longer works must be italicized.
Do not italicize shorter works such as journal articles, short essays, etc...
APA Style Examples
Book by a Single Author/Editor
Arnheim, R. (1971). Art and visual perception. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
Book by Multiple Authors/Editors
– Festinger, L., Riecken, H., &Schachter, S. (1956). When prophecy fails.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
Book by More than Six Authors/Editors
– Roeder, K., Howdeshell, J., Fulton, L., Lochhead, M., Craig, K., Peterson,
R., et.al. (1967). Nerve cells and insect behavior.Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Bibliography Reference:
APA Magazine
In order to cite a magazine in APA include:
Author(s) of the magazine article
Date published
Name of the magazine (in italics)
Name of article
Volume number (in italics)
Page numbers
Chapter or article in a book
In order to cite a chapter or article in a book in APA include:
Author's) of the chapter
Editor's) of the book
Chapter/Article name
Pages of the chapter
Book name (in italics)
Year of publication
Publisher
Place of publication
Dictionary Entry
In order to cite a dictionary in APA include:
Name of the dictionary
Editor(s) of the dictionary (if known)
Word defined
Year published
Volume number if citing a specific entry. Use total number of volumes if
citing the dictionary in general
Edition
Page numbers (if citing a specific entry)
Placed published
Publisher
Format
When citing a specific definition:
– Dictionary Entry. In B. Editor (Ed.), Name of Dictionary (Page numbers,
edition, volume). (Year). Place published: Publisher.
When citing a general dictionary:
– Editor, B. (Ed.). (Year).Name of Dictionary (Edition, Total Volumes).
Place published: Publisher.
ENCYCLOPEDIA ARTICLE
Author of encyclopedia article (if known)
Editor of encyclopedia (if known)
Name of the encyclopedia article
Year published
Volume number if citing a specific entry. Use total number of volumes if
citing the entire encyclopedia
Edition
Page numbers
Publication information
Format
Author, A. (Date).Name of Article. [In] A. Editor (Ed.), Name of Encyclopedia
(Edition, Volume, Page Numbers). Place Published: Publisher.
Examples
Example of citing an entire encyclopedia with and without an editor
– Taparia, N. (Ed.). (2000). Columbia Encyclopedia (2nd Edition, Vols. 1-
45). Chicago: Columbia Press.
– Columbia Encyclopedia (2nd Edition, Vols. 1-45). (2000). Chicago:
Columbia Press.
Example of a specific entry from an encyclopedia with an author, without
any known editors
– Smith, J. (2004). Martin Luther. In Encyclopedia of Science and Religion
(Vol. 4, p. 898). Cincinnati: Babson Press.
Newspaper
In order to cite a newspaper in APA include:
Author(s)
Date published
Name of the newspaper (in italics)
Name of article
Volume Number (in italics)
Page numbers
Format
Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day).Name of the Article.Name of Newspaper,
volume, page number(s).
Examples
Waldo, S. R., &Danedakar, V. (2004, August 4). Why Medical School?
New York Times, p. 34. 55
Web Site
When citing a website in APA include the following information:
The name of the website/article (in italics)
Author of the source
The day the website was created or when the particular online source
was published (if known)
Date the website was accessed
The website URL
Format
Author, A. (Date Published). Name of website/article. [Retrieved] Date, [from]
URL of Website
Examples
Iguchi, L. (2003, February 3). Japan Warfare. Retrieved March 11, 2004,
from http://book.edu/japan
Humdrums from Africa. Retrieved May 17, 2005, from
http://www.abcd.com/africa/b2k
Online Data base
Citing a source from an online database is very straightforward. Cite all
the information about the original source as you always would, and then cite
online information. This includes:
Name of the database
Date accessed
Format
Original Publication Information. [Retrieved] Month Day, Year, [from the]
Database Name [database].
Examples
Tutanka, O. (2001, January). Hot New Ferrari Modena.Car and Driver,
12. Retrieved April 8, 2005, from the ProQuest database.
Potter, H. (2002, May 17). Euthanasia and Society.Chicago
Tribune.Retrieved May 8, 2003, from the EBSCO database.
Journal
When citing a journal in APA include the following information:
Author(s) of the journal article
Date published
Name of the journal (in italics)
Name of journal article
Volume number (in italics)
Page numbers
Issue number (in italics and parenthesis), if pages numbers are restarted
with each issue
Format
Author, A. (Year).Name of Article.Name of Journal, Volume (Issue), and Page
number.
Examples
Hastalis, D. (2003, January). Effects of Prozac.New England Journal of
Medicine, 30.12-43.
Smith, T. J., &Weyers, J. Derivatives and other Securities. The Journal of
Economics, 8(2), 90-104

Chapter Four:: Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter Four:: Data Collection and Analysis in Qualitative Research

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate

 they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (i.e.,

 they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents may be

 they use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (i.e.,

 generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population,

School enrollment, primary (% gross)

School enrollment, secondary (% gross)

Primary completion rate, male (% of relevant age group)

Primary completion rate, female (% of relevant age group)

Children out of school, primary, female

 •mail surveys returns

 •coded interview data

 •pretest or posttest data

 •Are the responses legible/readable?

 •Are all important questions answered?

 •Are the responses complete?

 Is all relevant contextual information included (e.g., data, time, place,

 variable format (number, data, text)

 variable location (in database)

 Can the population be enumerated?

 Is the population literate?

 Are there language issues?

 Will the population cooperate?

 What are the geographic restrictions?

 What data is available?

 Can respondents be found?

 Who is the respondent?

 Can all members of population be sampled?

 Are response rates likely to be a problem?

 What types of questions can be asked?

 How complex will the questions be?

 Will screen questions be needed?

 Can question sequence be controlled?

 Will lengthy questions be asked?

 Will long response scales be used?

 Can the respondents be expected to know about the issue?

 Will respondent need to consult records?

 Can social desirability be avoided?

 Can interviewer distortion and subversion be controlled?

 Can false respondents be avoided?

 determining the question content, scope and purpose

 Filter questions can get very complex. Sometimes, a researcher has to

 if possible, jump to a new page

 Does the researcher need to ask income or can you estimate?

 Are Several Questions Needed?

 What are his/her feelings towards African-Americans and Hispanic-

 What does he/she think of proposed changes in benefits and hours?

Does the Question need to be more specific?

 Are all of the alternatives covered?

 Is the list of reasonable length?

 Is the wording impartial?

 Is the form of the response easy, uniform?

Is the time frame specified?

 Are working conditions satisfactory or not satisfactory in the plant where

 Do you feel that working conditions satisfactory or not satisfactory in the

 How did you feel about being in the war?

 How well did the equipment hold up in the field?

 How well were new recruits trained?

 Does the question contain difficult or unclear terminology?

 Does the question make each alternative explicit?

 Is the wording objectionable?

 Is the wording loaded or slanted?