Gender & Development

Introduction
H.S. Shylendra
 Gender and Development
• Gender is Everywhere; Everyone has a gender.
• Gender can be seen in all social and developmental domains
• Various attempts to mainstream gender in theory, policy and practice
• Hence a course on Gender at IRMA, since long (core or elective)

Term : Term-IV (PRM40)

Credit: One (Sessions 10)
Type: Elective
Sex Ratio of PRM40 Sex Ratio of PRM41

Female
37% Female
38%

Male Male
63% 62%
Sex Ratio of Covid-19 Cases in TN
Transgender
0%

Female
40%

Male
60%
 HDI by Female and Male (2018)
1.2
1
0.8
0.6 Female
Male
0.4
0.2
0
India Norway
Rationale for GAD
• Gender inequalities (between male & female)(&third sex) in development are
some of the core challenges facing the world historically.
• Women continue to suffer discrimination in all fields despite several policies,
programs, and commitments to gender rights.
• Women, particularly from rural and marginalized communities, are unable to
realize their potential contributing fully to the development process.
• Addressing gender inequalities is necessary for accomplishment of broader
developmental goals be they are in the Constitution or under SDGs
• Gender empowerment comes up both as a means and goal of development.
• Need for better understanding of Gender disparities
 Course Objectives
• The course will focus on understanding gender and gender issues in rural and
development context from a critical perspective. It aims at sensitizing the
participants to gender and enable evaluating development based on gender.
• The course builds on RSP, DT, RD, VFS
• Specific Objectives (largely modular):
i) To broaden the conceptual understanding about gender and how gender
intersects with social structures and identities.
ii)To examine the role of gender in various social and developmental sectors such
as family, property rights, work participation, education and health etc, using
gender lenses, and
iii)To familiarize participants about ways of applying /mainstreaming gender in
Politics, organizations, and development projects.
GAD : Pedagogy
• The course is aimed developing critical perspectives among participants; It
build on earlier courses RSP; RD, & DT and VFS
• A combination of pedagogic methods such as classroom discussions, case
analysis, and problem-analysis.
• The course expects the students to read suggested problems, cases and
resources, and actively participate in the discussions.
• Individual assignments- exercises and reflective essays-on specific gender issues
based on the conceptual and practical learnings from the course.
1. Assignment : Gender in Your Family
2. Assignment: Gender in Rural Context
3. Assignment: Gender in Development Policy
 Evaluation Components: Multi-methods
• Course/ Class participation : 10%
• Quizzes (2): 20%
• Exercises/Assignments(3): 35%
• End-Term Exam: 35%

• Both Absolute and Relative Grading to be adopted (Method) To be

announce soon)
What is Gender?
 Gender Roles: Historic and Normative
Male
• Men need not do household work
• Can Plough
• Can vote and hold property
• Can hold all military positions
• Boys can climb Tress
• Boys can study upto any level
• Men are decisive
• CEO posts to be held by Men
Female
• Household work main responsibility
• Should not Plough
• Cannot vote or hold property
• Cannot be a soldier in Combat
• Girls should not climb Trees
• Girls Should not go to schools or college
• Women to be submissive
• Women to be a secretary or Nurse etc.
 Understanding Gender
• Why the difference between male and female?

• Is it due to the sex (superior and inferior?) or biology of these two

groups or Any other reasons?

• What is expected (52:48 ?)? What is the reality?

• Answering these kind of questions requires going-beyond-sex.

• The differences or notions are more than biological

• Notion of Gender helps us in going-beyond-sex to understand the

differences and the implications.
 Sex is Biology; Gender is Social
Sex:
• Sex is the biological difference between male and female (and Transgender)
• There is presence of different reproductive organs/genitalia in men and women
• There are differences that emerge based on sex: Motherhood for women and higher
Stamina and Height for men (if not higher intelligence and emotion)
• There are many differences which emerge going beyond sex; and these cannot be
attributed to biological sex alone.
Gender :
• Gender enables understanding the differences that arise between male and female
going beyond sex.
• Gender is a Social-Construction
• Gender is the result of socio-cultural norms and beliefs
• Gender is a social categorisation of men and women in terms of role, attitudes and
behaviours. (Gender is a category)
• Gender is Multi-dimensional; Gender is sex and much more (Biological, Social, and
Cultural)
 Gender as Category (Division of Sex)
Category Male Female Transgender
1. Biology Male; Male Female; Female Intersex;
Reproductive organs Reproductive organs Mix or hazy
2. Grammar/ Masculine Feminine Neuter
Language
3. Gender
Role : Husband, Father, Son Wife, Mother, Daughter, etc Husband, Wife, Son,
etc Daughter, Partner etc as
per choice
Behaviour: Masculine / Manly Feminine/ Womanly
Identity: I am a boy or man I am a girl or woman I am neither ?
(Yes, I can) (No, I can’t)
Perception & Superior, Powerful, Inferior, Impure, Powerless, Powerless; No
Prescription Decisive, Complete, Subordinate, Deficient, etc recognition; Segregated;
etc invisible etc.
 Gender as a category and Implications
• Gender therefore comes up as categorization of men and women based on
social constructs and norms.
• Gender category may also intersect with other categories like caste, religion
and class.
• It is these categorization that leads to stereotyping of roles, and gender
disparities and gaps in development
• Though gender includes both the sexes (third also); generally gender debates
focus on women’s issues as it is the women who are the major victims of the
gender disparity.
• Gender analysis using gender category can also look at men’s issues.
 Assignment-1: Gender in Your Family
• The Assignment-1 is about understanding Gender in Your own family
• Using the Format given in Page-10 of reading material, collect and compile info
on 6 aspects in your family by male and female.
• Find out the reasons for difference, if any, by discussing with some of your
family members.
• The same is used for discussion in course.
• Date of Submission: 4 Sept,2020
• Mode of submission to be informed by AA
• Weightage: 10%
Why Gendered World?

H.S. Shylendra
 Gender is a Social-Construction
• Gender is Everywhere; Gender is more than biological sex

• Gender is Social division and categorisation of male and female sexes in terms of
role, attitudes and behaviours

• Gender is a Gender is a Social-Construction

• It is the categorization that leads to gender disparities

• How this social-construction takes place ?

 Gender as Social Category
Dimension/Cat Male Female Third
egory (Transgender)
1. Biology Male; Male Female; Female Intersex;
Reproductive Reproductive organs Mix or hazy
organs
2. Grammar Masculine Feminine Neuter
3. Gender
Role : Husband, Father, Wife, Mother, Daughter etc Partner ??
Son etc
Behaviour: Masculine / Manly Feminine/ Womanly ??
Identity: I am a boy or man I am a girl or woman I am neither ?
(Yes, I can) (No, I can’t)
Perception & Superior, Powerful, Inferior, Submissive, ??
Prescription Decisive, Complete, Deficient, etc
etc
 Various Discriminations against women
• Child marriage • Gungaht (veil)
• Called Barren-women (if no child) • Isolation during menses periods
• Widowhood (no sex and remarriage) • Witch-branding
• Divorce /Separation • Acid attack
• Burden of Dowry/ Bride-price • Male-preference & Selective
abortion
• Dowry deaths/ Bride-burning
• Burden of domestic work
• Sati
• Less education
• Prostitution
• Less work participation
• Rape/Molestation
• Less in politics
• Assestlessness
• Domestic violence/Control
 Folk Poem : Woes of women
1. ‘Oh mother, Why did you give birth to a daughter who is of no
value to the world; There is no life for us in this world;
Please drive us away to forest’

2. ‘The life of a childless woman is like working with a hired-

bullock; and to be thrown after use like a plantain-leaf’.

Source: Village Songs (1938)

 Why Gender Disparity ?
• The reasons are multidimensional
• Influenced by Biology, history, culture, psychology and politics.
• Though there are variation across cultures, but certain common
pattern can be observed
• Basic question is: Nature v/s Nurture ? What causes the disparity?
• Broadly we can discuss the reasons or factors under following heads:
1. Role of Science
2. Role of Religion
3. Role of Socio-cultrual Norms(Patriarchy)
4. Socialisation and Stereotyping
 Role of Science
• Science is supposed to be objective and rational; But the stand of
science has been mixed on gender

• Historically, biology regarded male body as more perfect and female

as flawed

• In UK they denied education to girls as the burden could affect their

ovaries (reproduction)

• It is argued that male sperm was considered as playing active role in

birth than female egg; though feminist biologists argued that both
have a role
• Some scientists attribute the male female difference due to Brain-
difference: Male more intelligent than female; ‘Women are ‘Right-
brained’

• Psychologist(Freud) declared: ‘ Anatomy is destiny’. The roles hence

clear

• But no conclusive proof of all these arguments; need for scepticism

 Role of Religion
• Religion is powerful instrument to regulate male and female
behaviour
• Generally all religions have tried to uphold the superiority of males
• Hinduism:
- Male is strong and pure
- Women is inferior and sinful to be controlled (Manu Smriti)
• Christianity :
- Female is secondary(emerged from man) and dependent on man
• Islam:
- Men are created to rule; women are impure
• Yet religions have tried to revere women because of the power of
motherhood crucial for sustaining human race

• Some have elevated women to Goddess

• Some advocate Androgomy (balancing male-female feature): For

Example Ardhnarishwara

• Despite the godly status; the hierarchy is maintained which is not

questionable
 Ardhnarishwara
(male and female together)
 3. Role of Socio-Cultural Norms (Patriarchy)
• Various socio-cultural norms influence male and female roles
• Patriarchy is one of major social structures which has influence gender
• Under patriarchy there is male domination in the society and family;
the lineage is traced to male (father) and property inherited as per
male lineage
• How did patriarchy evolved?
• Patriarchy has evolved due to historical reasons: One of major
reasons is to maintain control over property, sexuality and labour
• Patriarchy also interplays with caste, class and religion.
 Patriarchy : Working
• Scholars like Engels, Smuts, Uma Chakratavarthi have tried
explaining patriarchy
• Before patriarchy emerged in last couple of millenniums, the status
of women was better.
• There was no oppression under hunting and gathering period
• Patriarchy emerged with the onset of pastrolism and settled
agriculture.
• Private property emerged with it;
• Property inheritance needed clean lineage with uncertainty about
paternity
• Hence the need for ‘pair-bonding’ and patrilocal marriages.
 Patriarchy in Indian Context
• In Indian Context patriarchy worked with the caste system
• Endogamy (marriage within a caste group) was enforced to maintain caste purity
and family lineage
• Hence there was a need for control of sexuality of women through arranged
marriages
• Marriage assumed greater significance (Ideology)
• Scriptures and Mythologies sanctified endogamous marriages & wife‘s virtues.
• Women cannot deviate; Have to be dutiful to the husband (pativrata)
• Otherwise will be disciplined and punished; no widow remarriage
• Defiance by women would lead to ‘Kaliyug’
• Patriarchy thus ensured subordination of women to maintain caste purity,
property and obedience.
 Laws of Manu (Manusmriti)
‘Though destitute of virtue, or seeking pleasure elsewhere, or devoid of good
qualities, a husband must be constantly worshipped as a god by a faithful wife. If
a wife obeys her husband, she will for that reason alone be exalted in heaven’

‘The production of children, the nurture of those born, and the daily life of men,
of these matters woman is visibly the cause’.
 Socialisation and Stereotyping
• Socialisation is learning to be gendered as children grow up
• The society and culture define norms of masculinity and femininity
• There are different expectations and stereotypes of the male and
female roles and behaviour
• Socialisation is conforming to the stereotypes (expected role)
• Stereotypes are given and imposed by parents, teachers, peers and
the society in general through media or films
• Overall, boys and girls have to ‘fit-in’ the role destined for them
• ‘Gender is a performance’ (Butler): Repetitive acts lead to
conformation to the expectations.
Why Gender Equality Matters?:

(Gender & Development )

H.S. Shylendra
 Gender Inequality
Gender is a Social Division of Women and Men

Gender Relations

Power, Position and Status of Men & Women

Relations lead to (Uneven)Outcomes

Gender Inequalities/Disparities
 Gender Atlas of India(2018): Grading
Indicators Current Rate of Change
Performance (2001-2011)
Sex Ratio C- C+
Health D B-
Literacy D- C+
Political Participation & C B-
Representation
Decision Making C B+
Employment D- D
Crimes Against Women B+ F
Overall C- (Fail) C (Pass)
 Human Development Index(HDI)/
Gender Development Index (GDI)(2018)
Indices Norway India Niger
HDI 0.954 0.647 0.377
HDI Rank 1 129 189
Inequality Adjusted HDI 0.889 0.447 0.272
GDI
HDI –Female 0.946 0.574 0.130
HDI –Male 0.955 0.692 0.435
GDI 0.990 0.829 0.298
Gender Inequality Index-GII 0.044 0.501 0.647
 Why Gender Disparities or Inequalities?
• Need to address the inequalities in development
• The overall development affects gender and Inequality and vice versa
• Why Gender Disparities?
1. Persistent Gender Discrimination due to socio-cultural norms
2. Lack of Recognition of Women’s Role (esp Domestic-work)
3. Institutional Constraints (Laws and Organisations are gender-biased)
4. Gender-Blind Polices
5. Inadequate trickle-down of Development
6. Poor Implementation of Laws and Policies
7. Women Not in Positions of Power and Decision-Making
8. Overall Inequality/Poverty due to exploitation and class-differences
 Why Gender Equality Matters ?
• Any form of inequality is not desirable: Limited opportunity and Undesirable Outcomes

• Constitution of India prohibits of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or

place of birth (Article 15)

• Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of UN: Achieve gender equality and empower all
women and girls; End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls everywhere

• Gender Equality is important Intrinsically: Has its own value, per se s well-being of all is
important

• Gender Equality also has Instrumental Role: Gender Equality itself can enhance
development of women; and human development gets boosted by active role women.
 Women’s Needs and Role in Development
• Understanding the needs /interests and role of women is important in term of
addressing their development
• Needs of women: Basically two types of needs are identified
1) Practical Needs :
These are the needs which are important for fulfilling the social roles. The
practical needs meet essentially many basis needs of livelihood like access to
water, food, fuel health, housing etc.
Basic needs improve women's conditions. Meeting basic needs do not have any
major confrontation in relation to men)
2) Strategic Needs: These are needs which change the position and status of
women. They require reallocation of power and resources in relation to men.
Ownership and control of land and assets, Education, Seeking employment,
Political representation are some of the strategic needs of women.
Role of Women
• Child Bearing
Reproductive Role
• Child Care and Family Care

• Domestic Work
Productive Role
• Farm and Nonfarm work

• Participation in Social Functions/Events

Community Role
• Participation in Groups/Association/Politics
 Approaches to Gender Equality and Women’s
Development
• Varied Approaches have been followed in the last few decades towards
improving the condition and status of women and bring about gender equality

1. Welfarist and Poverty Alleviation:

- Since 1950s to meet the basic needs of women like food , water; and ensure
income and employment generation through subsidies.

2. Women in Development (WID)

- Involve women in Development process

- Implement project and polices which encourage women's participation

economic activities and adoption of technology
3. Human Rights and Rights based Approach (UN, 1987):
- Development is a Universal Human right of both women and men
- Development is an inalienable right
- Rights are justiciable or enforceable
4. Empowerment Approach :
- Empowerment is a way of improving the position and status of women
- Requires multipronged and radical approach of ensuing both practical and
strategic needs of women
5. Agency and Human Development Approach:
-Agency is about women becoming the agents of change- own and others.
-Women’s capabilities/opportunities are increased to ensure freedom to shape
their own destiny ; They are not to be treated as passive recipients
-Women can play agency role both at individual and collective level
Gender and Property Rights

H.S. Shylendra
 Introduction
• Land/Property rights is a major of discourse in mainstreaming Gender
• Access to economic resources like land, credit, house, & livestock are
considered as important for livelihood promotion and improving the
economic status of poor and women
• Land question(land struggles and land reforms) though has been a prominent
question but has been neglected in the context of women.
• Land reforms of 1950s/1960s which focussed on tenancy reforms and land
ceilings did not give attention to women's issue; even as overall land reforms
had limited success (1% net are distributed) .
• Arguments and Policies in favour of land rights for women have acquired
importance with ‘Women in Development 'approach.
• Policy steps to provide access to Land and House to women
 Gender Inequality
Gender is Social Division of Women and Men

Gender Relations

Power, Position and Status of Men & Women

Uneven Relations lead to Uneven Outcomes

Gender Inequalities
 Family and Gender
• Families have the role of supporting livelihood but also sustaining the
caste and religions to which they belong to.
• Families also own and pass on properties as per the personal-laws
• The dominant patriarchal family system has been discriminatory for
women
• ‘Historic defeat of female sex happened with private-property’
(Engles)
• Families are as seen as units cooperation and conflict over resources;
Gender is an issue of cooperative conflict; Bargaining goes on in
family; Women’s fall-back position determines women’s rights and
claims in families (AK Sen)
 Importance Land for Women
• Several Scholars have identified reasons as to why land for women is important
especially in inheritance.
• Bina Agrawal’s work “A Field of Ones’Own’’(1992) is pioneering work in women’s
land rights
• Female members are playing an important role in agriculture; Not only female
headed households are increasing (15%) but there is feminisation of agriculture
(>80 % of women work in Agriculture). Women’s access to land non-farm
occupation is limited
• A very limited proportion (about 2%) of women have legal rights over land.
 Ownership of Land in Rural Gujarat (2019)
(Based on Data from SSNNL Impact Study)

Male Female
98.7 97.1 94.5 96.8
82.4 80.5
68.8 64.1

2.8
0.99 1.6 1.9

Bank Bank Formal Formal Land Land

Account(T) Account(C) Loan(T) Loan(C) Ownership(T) Ownership(C)
 All India Operational Holdings by Gender %
(Agricultural Census, 2011,2016)

Female Male
87.2 86.1

12.8 13.9

2011 2016
 Rural House-ownership % by Gender
(H.S.Shylendra 2019 Study of Two Villages)

Male Female Joint

90 86
79

15 10
6 4 6 5

Tribal Vil Non-Tribal Total

 Why Land for Women?
• Bina Agrawal Identifies four major reasons for land rights to women:
1. Welfare Reason: Reduce women’’ vulnerability; improve women and
children’s conditions
2. Efficiency: Just like small farms are efficient; evidence shows that
women can operate land more productively. Access to land can also
improve access to inputs
3. Equity: Land rights can bring about equity; Reduce violence against
women
4. Empowerment: Change the power and position of women and improve
their bargaining abilities.
 Gender Discrimination in Land/Property Rights
• Various Personal and Common Laws govern the land and property rights
• The Hindu Succession Act (HSA)1956;
• Muslim Personal Application Law 1937
• Despite several efforts; laws are biased and discriminatory against women
• The HSA recognised male lineal descendants for inheritance (agnate); Widows
can inherit in absence sons had had absolute rights
• Women not Coparceners; No birth in property
• The HSA left the agricultural land rights issue to state tenancy laws which are
highly varying in provisions largely were biased in favour of men
• The HSA 2005 Amendment made women equal coparceners by birth and no
local laws applies. (The Supreme court in 2020 upheld saying that the rights
come retrospectively since 1956)
• Muslim Personal Application Law 1937:

- The property relation are not codified and are governed by personal laws
- The personal laws of Sunnies (Hanafi) recognises Agnate norm i.e
inheritance is through male relation.
- Daughter (1/3), Widow(1/8); and Mother(1/6) get some prescribed share
depending existence of sons; But they do get absolute rights.
- Personal law silent on agricultural land and left to local customs
 Reasons for non-working of Laws
1. Structural mismatch in law and practice (patrilocal marriages)
2. Tradition of not seeking support from daughter by parents
3. Growing Economic value of land and resistance by male members
4. Women forgo rights because of support in case of contingency like
divorce
5. Intimidation by male
6. Administration of law cumbersome and prejudiced
 Way forward
• Not easy. Land reforms failed; We must ensure women's rights with in
the larger land reforms
• Need for Recognition of women’s rights
• Support for social legitimacy of women's rights
• Laws to be reformed; Preferably recognise individual and group rights ;
better implementation of laws.
• Access to land in other domains(State ; common lands; tenancy)
• Awareness and mobilisation of women