II. Sex, Gender and Sexuality

The Difference between Sex,
Gender, and Sexuality
While the biological differences between males and females are fairly
straightforward, the social and cultural aspects of being a man or woman can be
complicated.
How does the meaning of gender differ from the meaning
of sex?
Sex
–In psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which
people define males and females.
Gender
–In psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people
define men and women
–Our gender is the product of the interplay among our biological
dispositions, our developmental experiences, and our current
situations.
What are some ways in which males and females tend to
be alike and to differ?
Differences on average Differences on average
• Men are 4 times more likely to • Women enter puberty sooner
die by suicide or to develop and live about 5 years longer.
alcohol use disorder. • Women express emotions
• Men are more likely to have freely.
childhood diagnosis of autism • Women have twice the risk of
spectrum disorder, color- developing depression and 10
deficient vision, or ADHD. times the risk of developing an
• Men are more at risk for eating disorder.
antisocial personality disorder.
How Are We Alike? How Do We Differ?
• Aggression
–Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or
emotionally.
• Relational aggression
–An act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person’s
relationship or social standing.
Aggression
• Minor physical aggression in romantic relationships: Men and

women are roughly equal
• Extreme violent acts: Men commit far more often than women
• Relational aggression: Women commit slightly more often than men
Social Power
• Group leadership: More likely assigned to males
• Salaries: Higher salaries paid in traditionally male occupations
• Elections: Women less successful than men
• World governing bodies: 78 percent of seats held by males in 2015
• Interaction style: Men more often offer opinions; women more often
offer support
• Everyday behavior: Men tend talk assertively, interrupt, initiate
touches, and stare, while also tending to smile and apologize less
than women
Social Connectedness
• Boys and men are often independent; girls and women are often
interdependent
• Men tend to connect perception with action; women tend to improve
social relationships
• Men often prefer working with things; women often prefer working with
people
• Men more often driven by money and status; women often opt for fewer
work hours and tend to have greater responsibility for family obligations
• Women more often support others; they “tend and befriend”
• Gender gap subsides by age 50
The Nature of Gender: Our Biological Sex
Biology does not dictate gender, but it can

influence it in two ways:
• Genetic—males and females have differing sex chromosomes.
• Physiologically—males and females have differing concentrations of sex
hormones, which trigger other anatomical differences.
Prenatal sexual development
• Contribution to 23rd chromosome pair: Mother = X chromosome; father = X
or Y chromosome
• Around 7th week: Y chromosome prompts testes to develop and produce
testosterone
• Between 4th and 5th month: Sex hormones in fetal brain support female or
male wiring
Prenatal sexual development
• X chromosome–Sex chromosome found in both men and women.
• Y chromosome–Sex chromosome found only in males.
• Testosterone
• Both males and females have it, but females have less.
• The additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in
the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
Adolescent Sexual Development
• During adolescence, boys and girls enter puberty and mature
sexually
• Puberty: Period of sexual maturation, during which a person
becomes capable of reproducing
• Pronounced physical differences emerge
• Surge of hormones triggers a two-year period of rapid physical
development
• Primary and secondary sex characteristics develop dramatically
Adolescent Sexual Development
• Primary sex characteristics–Body structures (ovaries, testes, and external

genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
• Secondary sex characteristics–Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female
breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
• Spermarche–First ejaculation
• Menarche–First menstrual period
Height Difference
• Throughout childhood, boys and
girls are similar in height.
• At puberty, girls surge ahead
briefly, but then boys overtake
them at about age 14.
• Studies suggest that sexual
development and growth spurts
are beginning somewhat earlier
than was the case a half-century
ago. (Herman-Giddens et al.,
2001).
Body Changes at Puberty
Sexual Development
Variations
• Disorder of Sexual Development
(DSD): a condition present at birth
that involves unusual
development of sex
chromosomes and anatomy
• Sex reassignment surgery: More
common in the past; can create
distress
The Nurture of Gender:
Our Culture and Experiences
HOW DO GENDER ROLES AND GENDER IDENTITY DIFFER?

Gender roles adopted during childhood normally continue
into adulthood.
Traditionally, fathers teach boys how to fix and build things;
mothers teach girls how to cook, sew, and keep house.
Children then receive parental approval when they conform to
gender expectations and adopt culturally accepted and
conventional roles.
All of this is reinforced by additional socializing agents, such
as the media.
Gender roles shift over time in history
• A century ago, American women could not vote in national elections, serve in
the military, or divorce a husband without cause
Gender roles also vary from one place to another

• Nomadic societies of food-gathering people have little division of labor by
sex−Agricultural societies, where women typically work in the nearby fields
and men roam while herding livestock, assume more distinct gender roles
How do we learn our gender identity, our personal sense of being
male, female, or, occasionally, some combination of the two?
Social learning theory:
• Proposes social behavior is learned by observing and imitating others’
gender-linked behavior and by being rewarded or punished.
Gender typing:
• The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role. It varies from
child to child, which indicates there’s more to gender typing than solely
observation and imitation.
The Nurture of Gender: Our Culture and
Experiences
Learning to be male or female involves
feeling AND thinking.
• Formation of schemas helps children make sense of our world
• Gender schemas form early in life and organize experiences of male-
female characteristics
• Gender expression can be seen as children drop hints in their
language, clothing, interests and possessions.
• Androgyny
−Displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological
characteristics.
• Transgender
–Umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs
from that associated with their birth sex.
The Nurture of Gender: Our Culture and
Experiences
Human Sexuality: The Physiology of Sex
Hormones and Sexual Behavior
HOW DO HORMONES INFLUENCE HUMAN SEXUAL MOTIVATION?
• Asexuality is having no sexual attraction to others.
• Sex hormones are one of the forces that drive sexual behavior.
• Testosterone: Most important male sex hormone
–In both males and females, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates
growth of the male sex organs during fetal period, and development of the male sex
characteristics during puberty
• Estrogens: The estrogens sex hormones, such as estradiol, are secreted in
greater amounts by females than by males and contribute to female sex
characteristics
–In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting
sexual receptivity
Hormones and Sexual Behavior
• Large hormonal surges or declines tend to occur at two predictable
points in life span
–Pubertal stage surge triggers development of sex characteristics and sexual
interest
–In later life, hormone levels fall, with women experiencing menopause and
men a more gradual change.
• A third point sometimes occurs
–For some, surgery or drugs may cause hormonal shifts
The Sexual Response Cycle
WHAT IS THE HUMAN SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE, AND HOW
DO SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS AND PARAPHILIAS DIFFER?
• The sexual response cycle identifies four stages of sexual responding
as identified:
–Excitement
–Plateau
–Orgasm
–Resolution
• Excitement: The genital areas become engorged with blood, causing a
woman’s clitoris and a man’s penis to swell. A woman’s vagina expands
and secretes lubricant; her breasts and nipples may enlarge.
• Plateau: Excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure
rates continue to increase. Some fluid—frequently containing enough
live sperm to enable conception—may appear at its tip. A woman’s
vaginal secretion continues to increase, and her clitoris retracts.
Orgasm feels imminent.
• Orgasm: Muscle contractions appear all over the body and are
accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood
pressure rates. The pleasurable feeling of sexual release is much the
same for both sexes.
• Resolution: The body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the
genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood. Men then enter
a refractory period that lasts from a few minutes to a day or more,
during which they are incapable of another orgasm. A woman’s much
shorter refractory period may enable her, if re-stimulated during or
soon after resolution, to have more orgasms.
Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias
• Sexual dysfunctions
–Impair sexual arousal or functioning–Often involve sexual motivation,
especially sexual motivation and arousal
–Include erectile disorder and premature ejaculation (males)
–Include female orgasmic disorder and female sexual interest/arousal disorder
(females)
–Sometimes involve paraphilias (sexual desire directed in unusual ways; e.g.,
pedophilia, exhibitionism)
• Sexual dysfunction
–Problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning
• Erectile disorder
–Inability to develop or maintain an erection due to insufficient bloodflow to
the penis
• Premature ejaculation
–Sexual climax that occurs before the man or his partner wishes
• Female orgasmic disorder
–Distress due to infrequently or never experiencing orgasm
• Paraphilias
–Sexual arousal from fantasies, behaviors, or urges involving nonhuman
objects, the suffering of self or others, and/or non-consenting persons
American Psychological Association (2013)
• Only classifies people as disordered who experience sexual desire in
unusual ways if:
• Person experiences distress from unusual sexual interest or
• It entails harm or risk of harm to others
• Paraphilias include necrophilia, exhibitionism, and pedophilia
Classification of necrophiliacs based on
increasing severity of disorder
Sexually Transmitted Infections
HOW CAN SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS BE PREVENTED?
Sexually transmitted infection (STI)
• Also called sexually transmitted disease (STD)
• Every day, more than 1 million people worldwide acquire an STI
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)
• Is life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection
• Caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
• Depletes immune system and leaves person vulnerable to infections
Sexually Transmitted Infections
• Condom use effectiveness varies by infection (80 percent
effectiveness against transmission of HIV when used with
infected partner; less effective with skin-to-skin STIs such as
herpes).
• Significant link between oral sex and STIs, such as HPV; most
HPV infections can now be prevented with a vaccination
administered before sexual contact.
• Worldwide, women’s AIDs rates are increasing fastest, partly
because the virus is passed from man to woman
Human Sexuality: The Psychology of Sex
HOW DO EXTERNAL AND IMAGINED STIMULI CONTRIBUTE TO SEXUAL AROUSAL?
External Stimuli
• Our sophisticated brain allows us to experience sexual arousal both
from what is real and from what is imagined
• External stimuli
• People may find sexual arousal from erotic materials either pleasing or disturbing;
repeated exposure often habituates emotional response
• Men tend to be more aroused when erotic material aligns with personal sexual interest
• Pornography may increase rape acceptance, and decrease evaluation of and sexual
satisfaction with own partner
Imagined Stimuli
• Imagined stimuli
–Sexual desire and arousal can be imagined; our brain has been said to be our
most significant sex organ
–People with spinal-cord injury reported feeling sexual desire
–95 percent of people report having sexual fantasies
–Male fantasies tend to be more frequent, more physical, and less romantic
than those of women
Teen Pregnancy
• WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE TEENAGERS’ SEXUAL BEHAVIORS AND USE OF
CONTRACEPTIVES?
• Compared with European teens, American teens have higher rates of
STIs and teen pregnancy
• Environmental factors that influence a higher teen pregnancy rate: –
Minimal communication about birth control
–Guilt related to sexual activity
–Alcohol use
–Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity; media help
write the social scripts that affect our perceptions and actions
Teen Pregnancy
• Later sex may pay emotional dividends, with those who had later first
sex reporting greater relationship satisfaction.
• Factors that predict sexual restraint:
−High intelligence
−Religious engagement
−Father presence
−Participation in service learning programs
Human Sexuality
Sexual Orientation
WHAT HAS RESEARCH TAUGHT US ABOUT SEXUAL ORIENTATION?
•Sexual orientation is our enduring sexual attraction toward

–members of one’s own sex (homosexual orientation)
–the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
–or both sexes (bisexual orientation)
•In all cultures, heterosexuality has prevailed but homosexuality has
existed. Where same-sex relationships are illegal, the prevalence of
people who are lesbian, gay, or bisexual is no different.
Human Sexuality Sexual Orientation:
The Numbers
• Survey results vary by survey methods and population; less open
response in less tolerant places
–Exclusively homosexual: 3 to 4 percent in men and 2 percent in women
–Actively bisexual: Reported by fewer than 1 percent—for example, 12 out of
7076 people in a Dutch survey
–5 percent of men and 13 percent of women in U.S. report some same-sex
sexual contact during their lives
• Reports efforts to change sexual orientation are unlikely to be
successful and involve some risk of harm
• Women’s sexual orientation tends to be less strongly felt and
potentially more fluid; sexual activity level also varies more
Human Sexuality: Sexual Orientation
Origins of Sexual Orientation
• Homosexuality is not linked with problems in parent-child
relationships, does not involve a fear or hatred of the other sex, and
isn’t significantly linked to childhood sexual victimization.
• There is a lack of evidence for environmental causes of
homosexuality.
• Instead, homosexuality seems to have biological influences, as
investigated in studies of same-sex behavior in other species, gay-
straight brain differences, genetic influences, and prenatal
influences.
• Brain scans have provided the most compelling evidence yet
that being gay or straight is a biologically fixed trait.
• The scans reveal that in gay people, key structures of the
brain governing emotion, mood, anxiety and aggressiveness
resemble those in straight people of the opposite sex.
• The differences are likely to have been forged in the womb or
in early infancy.
• But studies can’t say whether the brain differences are inherited, or
result from abnormally high or low exposure in the womb to sex
hormones such as testosterone.
• Same-sex attraction in other species
• Same-sex behavior has been observed in several hundred species (swans,
penguins, grizzlies, gorillas, monkeys, flamingos, and owls).
• Gay-straight brain differences
• Gay-straight brain differences where one hypothalamic cell cluster is smaller
in women and gay men than in straight men
• Anterior commissure is larger in gay men than in straight men.
• Gay men’s hypothalamus reacts as do straight women’s to the smell of sex-related
hormones.
• Genetic influences
–Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than among
fraternal twins.
–Sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically manipulated.
–Male homosexuality often appears to be transmitted from the mother’s side
of the family.
• Prenatal Influences
- Altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans
and other animals.
- Men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay, possibly
due to a maternal immune-system reaction.
•The consistency of the brain, genetic, and prenatal findings

clearly leads to a biological explanation of sexual orientation.
A change in
the hormonal
balance in the
mother’s
uterus with
each additional
child
The fraternal birth-order effect

Gay-Straight Trait Differences
• Spatial abilities • Age of onset of puberty

• Finger print ridge counts in males
• Auditory system • Birth size and birth
development weight
• Handedness • Sleep length
• Occupational • Physical aggression
preferences • Walking style
• Relative finger length
• Gender nonconformity
An Evolutionary Explanation of Human Sexuality:
Male-Female Differences in Sexuality
HOW MIGHT AN EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGIST EXPLAIN MALE-
FEMALE DIFFERENCES IN SEXUALITY AND MATING PREFERENCES?
Male-Female Differences in Sexuality
• Compared with lesbians, gay men (like straight men) report more interest
in uncommitted sex, more responsiveness to visual sexual stimuli, and
more concern with their partner’s physical attractiveness.
• Gay male couples report having sex more often than do lesbian couples.
• Men who had the trait of promiscuity were more likely to have their genes
continue, and even spread, in the next generation. There is little cost to
spreading their genes.
• For women, a trait of promiscuity would not greatly increase the number
of babies, and it would have greater survival costs. Pregnancy was often
life-threatening.
Natural Selection and Mating Preferences
Human Sexuality
Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective
WHAT ARE THE KEY CRITICISMS OF EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS OF
HUMAN SEXUALITY, AND HOW DO EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGISTS
RESPOND?
• Most psychologists agree that natural selection prepares humans for
survival and reproduction. But critics of evolutionary psychology research
note these limitations:
–Evolutionary psychology starts with and effect and works backward to explain what
happened
–More immediate explanations better understood through social learning theory
(including social scripts) than decisions made by our distant ancestors
–Social consequences of evolutionary explanation are problematic
–Some traits and behaviors are difficult to explain by natural selection
Human Sexuality
Social Influences on Human Sexuality
WHAT ROLE DO SOCIAL FACTORS PLAY IN OUR SEXUALITY, AND HOW DO NATURE,
NURTURE, AND OUR OWN CHOICES INFLUENCE GENDER ROLES AND SEXUALITY?
• Human sexuality research does not aim to define personal meaning of sex, but
one significance of such intimacy is its expression of our profoundly social
nature.
• For both men and women, but especially for women, orgasm occurs more often
when sex happens in a committed relationship rather than a sexual hookup.
• Sex is a socially significant act. Achieving orgasm alone is less satisfying, and
with much less of a surge in the prolactinhormone associated with sexual
satisfaction and satiety, than after sex with a loved one.
• Thanks to overlapping brain reward areas, sexual desire and love feed each
other.
Reflections on the Nature and Nurture of
Sex, Gender, and Sexuality
• Our ancestral history helped form us as a species; where there is variation,
natural selection, and heredity, there will be evolution. But our culture and
experiences also form us.
• Human nature is formed by:
–Our genes
–Our culture and experiences
• In many modern cultures, gender roles are merging. There have been swift
changes in gender roles and sexual attitudes since 1960; biology does not
fix gender roles.
• We can’t excuse our failings by blaming them solely on bad genes or bad
influences. In reality, we are both the creatures and creators of our worlds.
End

II. Sex, Gender and Sexuality

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II. Sex, Gender and Sexuality

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The Difference between Sex,

Gender, and Sexuality

• Minor physical aggression in romantic relationships: Men and

Biology does not dictate gender, but it can

• Primary sex characteristics–Body structures (ovaries, testes, and external

HOW DO GENDER ROLES AND GENDER IDENTITY DIFFER?

Gender roles also vary from one place to another

•Sexual orientation is our enduring sexual attraction toward

•The consistency of the brain, genetic, and prenatal findings

The fraternal birth-order effect

• Spatial abilities • Age of onset of puberty

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