Professional Documents
Culture Documents
81O
XX RIGINAL
Innovation
Blackwell
Oxford,
International
IJMR
©
1460-8545
Blackwell
UK ARTICLE
management
Publishing
Publishing
Journal of
Ltdmeasurement:
Management
Ltd 2006 A review
Reviews
measurement: A review
Richard Adams,1 John Bessant and Robert Phelps
Measurement of the process of innovation is critical for both practitioners and academics,
yet the literature is characterized by a diversity of approaches, prescriptions and practices that
can be confusing and contradictory. Conceptualized as a process, innovation measurement
lends itself to disaggregation into a series of separate studies. The consequence of this is the
absence of a holistic framework covering the range of activities required to turn ideas into
useful and marketable products. We attempt to address this gap by reviewing the literature
pertaining to the measurement of innovation management at the level of the firm. Drawing
on a wide body of literature, we first develop a synthesized framework of the innovation
management process consisting of seven categories: inputs management, knowledge
management, innovation strategy, organizational culture and structure, portfolio management,
project management and commercialization. Second, we populate each category of the
framework with factors empirically demonstrated to be significant in the innovation process,
and illustrative measures to map the territory of innovation management measurement. The
review makes two important contributions. First, it takes the difficult step of incorporating
a vastly diverse literature into a single framework. Second, it provides a framework against
which managers can evaluate their own innovation activity, explore the extent to which their
organization is nominally innovative or whether or not innovation is embedded throughout
their organization, and identify areas for improvement.
methods, there is a risk that different opera- ontological and epistemological positions to
tionalizations of the same effect will produce investigate, analyse and report on a phenome-
conflicting findings, and that theoretical non that is complex and multidimensional
advances become lost in the different termi- (Wolfe 1994). More specifically, this diversity
nologies that resist the accumulation of is reflected in the multitude of approaches
knowledge. to measurement and the number of different
Within the literature on the management of measures that can be found. It is difficult to
innovation, measures of aspects of innova- identify a bounded body of literature in which
tion management are frequently proposed, a comprehensive discussion of innovation
responding to the needs of both firms and measurement issues might be located. Repre-
academics to understand the effectiveness senting this diversity within a synthesized
of innovation actions (Barclay 1992; Kim and framework is a challenging task.
Oh 2002). However, their treatment is frag- Indeed, the term ‘innovation’ is notoriously
mented. It is possibly a consequence of this ambiguous and lacks either a single definition
fragmentation that empirical studies have or measure. We chose to adopt the UK Depart-
found many organizations tend to focus only ment of Trade and Industry’s (DTI 1998)
on the measurement of innovation inputs and broad definition of innovation, ‘the successful
outputs in terms of spend, speed to market exploitation of new ideas’, to guide our
and numbers of new products, and ignore the review, because it accommodates the range of
processes in-between (Cordero 1990). A gen- innovation types (product/service, process,
eralized measurement framework specified administrative, technological, etc.) that one
at the level of the organization would provide might reasonably expect to encounter in an
a useful basis for managers to monitor and organization. This holistic approach is clearly
evaluate their innovation processes, diagnose important from the practitioner’s perspective,
limitations and prescribe remedies (Cebon and as it obviates the need to collate measures on
Newton 1999). In an attempt to extend meas- a piecemeal basis from a diverse literature.
urement theory and practice beyond a focus So, while this review is broadly specified, its
on output performance, this paper reviews the breadth presents a number of methodological
literature as it relates to the measurement of challenges. We address these challenges by
innovation management in the context of a employing the approach of an adapted sys-
conceptual framework of process that pro- tematic review.
vides the basis for a general measurement The notion of systematic review has
framework. We bring together disparate sug- recently gained currency in the management
gestions for innovation management measure- literature (Denyer and Neely 2004), and the
ment made in various parts of the literature strategy for this review followed, in many
and summarize commonly used measures at respects, the methodology detailed by Tran-
different stages of innovation management. field et al. (2003). They state that systematic
We identify gaps in measurement theory and reviews include: development of clear and
practice and point the way toward the devel- precise aims and objectives; pre-planned
opment of a comprehensive set of innovation methods; comprehensive search of all poten-
management measures. tially relevant articles; use of explicit, repro-
ducible criteria in the selection of articles for
review; appraisal of the quality of the research
Developing an Analytic Framework for
and the strength of the findings; synthesis of
Innovation Management Measurement
individual studies using an explicit analytic
The innovation literature is a fragmented framework; and balanced, impartial and com-
corpus, and scholars from a diversity of prehensible presentation of the results. Our
disciplinary backgrounds adopt a variety of review strategy broadly adopted this model,
but with some changes to suit the exigencies respondents were contacted by e-mail and asked
of our question and data sources, notably: first, to respond to a series of questions relating to
the inclusion of a Delphi study and, second, a innovation metrics at the level of manage-
relaxation of the requirement for reproducible ment practice, particularly addressing aspects
criteria for document selection and appraisal. of measuring the existence and effectiveness
The authors formed a review panel consist- of the innovation management process.
ing of domain-relevant experts from a range There was a high degree of consensus in the
of disciplines with an interest in both innova- 28 responses received. All respondents recog-
tion and measurement. Time was spent outlin- nized the existence of a plethora of extant
ing the research project, which was articulated measures, obviating the need for new meas-
in terms of the fragmented world of com- ures to be developed. Specifically, an absence
peting and contradictory measures addressing of measures well aligned to the activities of
the issue of the management of innovation. the innovation process was noted. Further,
Rather than attempting to generate an exhaus- our attention was drawn to the absence of
tive list, our objectives were defined in terms devices to help identify the appropriate
of the collation and synthesis of measures, metrics to apply.
better reflecting the needs of academics and Systematic review stresses the importance
practitioners: we ask ‘What are the measures of an audit trail in the review process to
that have been used, and to what extent do ensure clarity and replicability. Significant to
they adequately populate and dimensionalize this is the use of explicit, reproducible criteria
a comprehensive analytic framework?’ in the selection of articles for review and, an
McManus et al. (1998), reflecting upon sys- appraisal of the quality of the research and the
tematic review, identified the limitations of strength of the findings (Tranfield et al. 2003).
searching electronic databases as sometimes However, regardless of a study’s methodology
uncovering only half the relevant studies. They or generalizability, it might still incorporate
attribute this in part to a lack of sensitivity of measures of innovation management that could
electronic databases. Indeed, this may account contribute to the construction of a measure-
for the disappointing outcome in terms of ment framework, and so grey literature is
breadth that Leseure et al. (2004) report from included in this review. As we were not
their search of electronic databases for litera- reviewing an evidence base in the normally
ture relating to the adoption of promising accepted use of the term, quality criteria as
practices. Compensating strategies include used in previously published systematic reviews
either hand searching of journals (which we in the management literature (e.g. Leseure
had to discount on the grounds of time and et al. 2004; Pittaway et al. 2004), in which the
cost) or consultation with appropriate experts value of the evidence base is determined by
(McManus et al. 1998). The latter are partic- assessed levels of theory robustness, method-
ularly important when ‘performing a system- ology, implications for practice, generalizability
atic review in a developing field that does not and contribution, were felt not to be wholly
have a clearly defined specialist literature’ relevant in this case. We instead adopted a
(McManus et al. 1998, 1563). Using the Del- position akin to Glaser and Strauss’s (1967)
phi method, a process consisting of structured notion of ‘theoretical saturation’ which is
design for group communication relating to achieved when
complex problems (Linstone and Turoff 2002),
we extended our consultation process to no additional data are being found whereby the
incorporate the input of external experts. researcher can develop properties of the category.
A list of global experts in innovation and As he sees similar instances over and over again,
measurement (n = 100) based on the knowledge the researcher becomes empirically confident that
of the review panel was developed. Potential a category is saturated … when one category is
March
2006
25
Innovation management measurement: A review
High levels of R&D intensity are therefore collaborative relationships can emerge and add
not necessarily evidence of good innovation significant value to innovation outcomes.
practice: they may simply mask process inef- Although Baldridge and Burnham (1975) argue
ficiencies (Cebon and Newton 1999; Dodgson that demographic characteristics (sex, age,
and Hinze 2000). However, adequate funding cosmopolitanism, education) do not appear
is clearly a critical input into the innovation to influence innovative behaviour among
process. Expenditure data have long been a individuals, more recent research suggests that
popular proxy measure of innovation input, innovating groups should comprise individuals
largely because of their ready availability. with a mix of these characteristics (Amabile
Several different approaches, both qualitative 1998). Members with high levels of education
and quantitative, to measuring funding can and self-esteem increase the effectiveness of
be identified: total expenditure, expenditure R&D project teams (Kessler and Chakrabarti
expressed as a proportion of sales or revenues, 1996), and individuals of greater educational
and expenditure by item (organizational depart- attainment with diverse backgrounds have
ment, patent, innovation or scientist) (Geisler been associated with more innovative teams
1995; Oliver et al. 1999). Also, there is a (Bantel and Jackson 1989).
series of perceptual measures that attempt to The propensity of an individual to innovate
determine the adequacy of funding (Atuahene- has received considerable attention, though it
Gima 1995). Measures, though, tend princi- is difficult to measure. Kirton (1976) devel-
pally to be quantitative and express little other oped a 32-item questionnaire designed to
than funding level; in particular, few measures establish an individual’s position on an
attempt to determine the adequacy of funding ‘adaptor–innovator’ continuum. Scott and
for the innovation project. Kerssens-van Bruce (1994) operationalized an ‘innovative
Drongelen and de Weerd-Nederhof (1999) behaviour measure’ consisting of six items
point to a lack of measurement procedures against which subordinates are measured by
to help managers diagnose poor innovation hierarchical superiors. Finally, the Innovation
performance or support improvement. Potential Indicator (Patterson 2003) provides
A more helpful measure of inputs may a framework for investigating individual
therefore be obtained by disaggregating inputs behaviours that might promote or inhibit
into different types and measuring each inde- innovation in the workplace. This measure
pendently, before aggregating back to a meas- is constructed around four dimensions: an
ure of overall inputs management. Brown and individual’s motivation to change, challeng-
Svenson (1988, 30) define the inputs into the ing behaviour, preferred approach to work,
R&D system as ‘the raw materials or stimuli and preference for tried and trusted
a system receives and processes’, including methods of work as opposed to doing things
people, equipment, facilities and funds. This differently.
fundamental distinction between people, tools Facilities, or physical resources, is a broad
and physical and financial resources is widely category that captures a range of inputs from
mirrored in the literature. buildings to computer equipment. Physical
People factors have been measured as the resources can be counted or measured in
number of people committed to the innovation dollar terms. However, one important general
task (absolute numbers and relative to total measure of facilities, which cannot be so read-
employees), in terms of the mix of types of ily measured, is slack. Slack resources or
people regarding cosmopolitanism and pro- unused capacity can be regarded as an import-
pensity to innovate and, in terms of skills, ant catalyst for innovation. Slack allows
experience and education. Damanpour (1991) failures to be absorbed, provides the opportu-
argues that a diversity of skills and experience nity for diversification, and fosters a culture
permits more differentiated units from which of experimentation and protects against the
are reduced, measurement approaches become Several quantitative approaches have been
increasingly qualitative and possibly more developed for the measurement of imported
costly and time-consuming to deploy. Meas- tangible knowledge. The most frequently used
ures imply an assumption that the objective is approach counts numbers or value of patents
to generate as many ideas as possible through brought in. However, this restricts its applica-
the use of generative tools. Several measures tion to contexts in which patents are signifi-
attempt to count the number of ideas gener- cant, and overlooks those industries where
ated in a period (cf. Chiesa et al. 1996; Lee they do not feature. For a while, patent data
et al. 1996), while others probe the extent to was widely accepted as a proxy measure for
which organizations are using different gener- innovation. More recently, however, the valid-
ative tools and techniques (cf. Cebon and ity of patent statistics has been questioned:
Newton 1999; Chiesa et al. 1996; Loch et al. patents vary in their utility for organizations,
1996; Rochford 1991; Szakonyi 1994; and so their input value to the innovation can-
Thompson 2003). not adequately be judged in terms of a cash
If knowledge is fundamental to innovation, price (Griliches 1990; Pakes and Griliches
then it should be possible to measure the 1980). Only a few studies have attempted to
accumulated knowledge of the firm, its devise measures for other contexts. For exam-
knowledge repository. One aspect of innova- ple, Kleinknecht (1987) constructed a ques-
tion relates to combinations of new and tion designed to capture the informal hours of
existing knowledge, which privileges the con- R&D work that are hypothesized to be hidden
tribution of internal and external knowledge within other activities or to take place outside
and the mechanisms by which it flows into formal working hours.
and within an organization (Galunic and Patents represent codified knowledge, but
Rodan 1998; Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995; Pitt the importance of tacit knowledge to organi-
and Clarke 1999). Central to this perspective zational innovation is underscored in the
is the idea of ‘absorptive capacity’, the firm’s resource-based approach (Barney 1991; Galu-
ability to absorb and put to use new knowledge, nic and Rodan 1998; Grant 1991; Leonard
and involving ‘an ability to recognize the and Sensiper 1998). Tacit knowledge is an
value of new, external knowledge, assimilate important resource when it is has value for the
it, and apply it to commercial ends’ (Cohen organization, is difficult for competitors to
and Levinthal 1990, 128). Absorptive capacity imitate, is rare, and can be operationalized by
results from a prolonged process of invest- the organization. Of particular importance is
ment and knowledge accumulation within the its acquisition and use (Bess 1998). It can be
firm, and its development is path dependent. acquired opportunistically or by a deliberate
Firms with strong absorptive capabilities are policy of search.
more likely to acquire knowledge and learn Tacit knowledge is notoriously difficult to
effectively from outside. Higher levels of measure in organizational research, and
absorptive capacity appear to be positively methodologies for its investigation and
related to innovation and performance (Chen measurement can be complex. Ambrosini
2004; Tsai 2001), but it is impossible to and Bowman (2001), for example, propose
predict what is the ‘right’ level of investment an approach that consists of causal mapping
in absorptive capacity for any individual facilitated by story-telling and the use of meta-
firm (Cohen and Levinthal 1990), meaning phor. Other attempts to capture tacit know-
that it is not readily amenable to interna- ledge and group memory have been reported
tional benchmarking. However, the conceptual by Oliver et al. (1999). At the level of the
development and empirical studies infer or organization, Sveiby (1997) suggests the
imply a range of organizational knowledge difference between market value and net
states. book value as an indicator of the value to an
of the input measures (such as level of R&D Friesen 1982) and identifiable roles for new
expenditure) that we have already discussed. products and services (Cooper and Klein-
It is argued that it is not their absolute magni- schmidt 1990; Geisler 1995; Hauser and
tude but their magnitude relative to industry Zettelmeyer 1997; Tipping and Zeffren 1995).
rivals that is significant. As has been noted, The second type of measure regards strategy
although these may be useful indicators of as a dynamic instrument that shapes and
commitment or intent, they could mask pro- guides innovation in the organization. These
cess inefficiencies. However, O’Brien’s (2003) measures assume that strategy exists and asks
observation that an interaction between questions about how effective it is in shaping
intended strategy and slack will influence per- and guiding: ‘are structures and systems
formance suggests that process inefficiencies aligned’ (Bessant 2003), ‘do innovation goals
are less likely to occur where an innovation match strategic objectives’ (Tipping and
strategy is not merely nominally adopted, but Zeffren 1995) and further similar measures of
is embedded in the culture, behaviours and strategic fit (Bessant 2003).
actions of the organization. From a strategic leadership perspective,
In Li and Atuahene-Gima’s (2001) terms, Dougherty and Cohen (1995) found the
the evidence for an embedded innovation behaviour of senior managers to be influential.
strategy is subjective and may include evalua- Those chief executives most likely to make
tions of an organization’s emphasis on NPD, innovation happen are those with a clear
such as resource allocation. Saleh and Wang vision of the future operation and direction of
(1993) describe this as consisting of three organizational change and creativity (Shin and
main components: risk-taking, proactiveness McClomb 1998). Senior management are
and persistent commitment to innovation. responsible for developing and communicat-
These include top management responsibility ing a vision for innovation, being supportive
for innovation within the organization, includ- and adopting an attitude tolerant to change
ing specifying and communicating a direction and championing the notion of innovation
for innovation. Cooper (1984) demonstrated within the organization. Managerial tolerance
that new product performance is largely to change creates the right climate for the
decided by the strategy that top management implementation stage of innovation, where
adopts. The key components are the link conflict resolution might be necessary
between innovation strategy and overall busi- (Damanpour 1991).
ness goals (strategic orientation) and the Managerial attitude is also reflected in
provision of leadership to make innovation norms or support for innovation. These are the
happen via a strong vision (Pinto and Prescott expectation, approval and practical support of
1988) for innovation, a long-term commit- attempts to introduce new and improved ways
ment to innovation and a clear allocation of of doing things in the work environment.
resources (Cooper et al. 2004). This distinc- Measures are mostly qualitative in nature and
tion between strategic planning or orientation explore perceptions, mostly about the extent
and strategic vision or leadership is frequently to which respondents recognize factors to be
replicated in the literature. present (or absent).
Two distinct types of strategic orientation Relatively few measures of championing
measures can be identified in the literature. and leadership have been uncovered in this
First, those that measure whether the organi- review other than those that simply ask the
zation has an innovation strategy; this can be question whether or not one or other exists,
evaluated in several ways, such as commit- perhaps through evidence of signs of commit-
ment to differentiated funding (White 2002), ment in annual reports (Chiesa et al. 1996) or
explicit expression (does the organization levels of concern of top management (Coughlan
have an innovation strategy?) (Miller and et al. 1994) or whether or not an individual
has been physically assigned to a particular realignment of the fit between strategy and
role (Souitaris 2002). Shane et al. (1995) pro- structure. That is, to perform effectively, an
vide a series of reflective questions designed organization must be appropriately differenti-
to allow organizations to determine for them- ated, specialized and integrated. Pugh et al.
selves their expectations and understanding (1969) argued that the structure of an organi-
of the role of champion. For example, ‘to what zation is strongly related to the context within
extent should the organization make it possible which it functions. Our closing discussion in
for the people working on an innovation to the previous section, that the characteristics of
bend the rules of the organization to develop organizations following an innovation-focused
the innovation, or be allowed to bypass certain strategy will differ from those that do not, is
personnel procedures to get people committed consistent with this contingency approach and,
to an innovation?’ in the following, we focus on those dimen-
It must be emphasized that the dominant sions of culture and structure that have been
perspective on strategy in the literature is identified to differentiate between innovative
one that examines the relationship between and non-innovative organizations.
strategy and performance. However, a small Organizational culture and structure concern
number of studies have examined the nature the way staff are grouped and the organiza-
of the transitions of these states as organiza- tional culture within which they work. There
tions adopt and embed an innovation strategy. has been considerable work on the situational
This sub-section of the literature is under- and psychological factors supportive of inno-
pinned by the assumption that firms that fol- vation in organizations. Indeed, it has been
low innovation strategies differ from other widely demonstrated that the perceived work
firms in several respects. It is apparent that environment (comprising both structural and
more innovative firms adopt different opera- cultural elements) does make a difference to
tional strategies to accommodate flexibility the level of innovation in organizations (Ama-
and quality capabilities (Alegre-Vidal et al. bile et al. 1996; Ekvall 1996). Creative and
2004), have different capital management innovative behaviours appear to be promoted
practices to facilitate slack resources (O’Brien by work environment factors (Mathisen and
2003), are more tolerant of internal conflict in Einarsen 2004). Indeed, it is clear that organ-
support of creativity (Dyer and Song 1998), izations can create environments in which
and maintain organizational structures that are innovation can be encouraged or hampered
in the ‘intermediate zone between order and (Dougherty and Cohen 1995; Tidd et al.
disorder’ (Brown and Eisenhardt 1997, 22). 1997). A common theme is that of the poly-
What is clear from this literature is that any chronic organization – one with the capacity
transition towards an innovation strategy will to be in two states at once (Becker and
necessarily take several years because of the Whisler 1973). Shepard (1967) describes this
resources and energy that are necessary before as a two-state organization manoeuvreing
such a transformation can even be triggered between loose and tight, and Mitroff (1987)
(Hope Hailey 2001). as business-as-usual versus business-not-as-
usual. More prosaically, this means organiza-
tions need to be able, for example, to provide
Organizational Culture and Structure
sufficient freedom to allow for the exploration
Burns and Stalker (1961) described a contin- of creative possibilities, but sufficient control
gency approach to innovation management, to manage innovation in an effective and effi-
later developed to include concepts of func- cient fashion.
tional differentiation, specialization and inte- Ernst (2002) specifies a range of generic
gration (Lawrence and Lorsch 1967), which characteristics for the dedicated project group
suggests that environmental change prompts a assigned the innovation task: multidisciplinarity,
dedicated project leader, inter-functional com- been shown to have a negative impact on organ-
munication and co-operation, qualifications izational innovation (Burns and Stalker 1961;
and know-how of the project leader, team Damanpour 1991). Indeed, rigidity in rules
autonomy and responsibility for the process. and procedures may prohibit organizational
And these factors are echoed throughout the decision-makers from seeking new sources of
literature. Rothwell (1992) refers to them as information (Vyakarnam and Adams 2001).
‘corporate conditions’, Chiesa et al. (1996) Underlying the concept of the workplace
‘enabling processes’ and O’Reilly and Tushman environment are issues related to the manage-
(1997) ‘norms for innovation and change’. ment of human resources and the creation of
However, despite their perceived importance, a culture or climate in which individuals per-
there is little guidance on how to measure ceive innovation to be a desired and supported
them. organizational objective. There has been con-
Volberda (1996) developed a conceptual siderable empirical work on organizational
model of alternative flexible organizational climates supportive of the innovation process,
forms that are argued to initiate or respond and several measurement instruments have
better to different types of competition. Yet, in been developed, which Mathisen and Einarsen
spite of its importance, there is relatively little (2004) review. The Team Climate Inventory
evidence of extant measures of flexibility in (TCI) (Anderson and West 1996, 1998) and
the literature. Rothwell (1992) and Ekvall the KEYS instrument for assessing the work
(1996) propose a range of foci for measures of environment for creativity (Amabile et al. 1996)
organizational and production flexibility, such have been found to be robust and rigorous.
as ‘corporate flexibility and responsiveness to The TCI has been applied and validated in
change’; Coughlan (1994) considers the flexi- several studies (Agrell and Gustafson 1994;
bility of resource allocation. Several measures Anderson and West 1998; Kivimäki et al.
of personnel flexibility are evident, such as 1997; West and Anderson 1996). Replication
‘the adaptiveness of R&D personnel to tech- studies using the TCI have found it can
nology changes’ (Lee et al. 1996) and ‘the explain a large part of the variance in teams’
willingness to try new procedures and to innovative performance (Agrell and Gustafson
experiment with change, so as to improve a 1994). The TCI is based around four main
situation or a process’ (Abbey and Dickson factors: participative safety (how participative
1983). At the level of the firm, Liao et al. is the team in decision-making procedures,
(2003) introduce a similar construct – ‘organ- and how psychologically secure do team
izational responsiveness’. members feel about proposing new and
Organizational complexity, the amount of improved ways of doing things), support for
specialization and task differentiation report- innovation (the degree of practical support for
edly have a positive relationship (Damanpour innovation attempts contrasted with the rheto-
1996), though Wolfe (1994) argues that it may ric of professed support by senior manage-
favour initiation at the expense of implemen- ment), vision (how clearly, defined, shared,
tation. Administrative intensity, that is the attainable and valued are the team’s objectives
ratio of managers to total employees, favours and vision) and task orientation (the com-
administrative innovation (Damanpour 1991, mitment of the team to achieve the highest
1996), but possibly at the cost of other pro- possible standards of task performance, includ-
duct or technological innovations (Dougherty ing the use of constructive progress monitor-
and Hardy 1996). Centralization, the concen- ing procedures) (Anderson and West 1996).
tration of decision-making authority at the top Kivimäki et al. (1997) suggested a fifth factor,
of the organizational hierarchy, and formaliza- ‘interaction frequency’ relating to the regularity
tion, the degree of emphasis on following rules of contact and communication within the
and procedures in role performance, have both project team.
There is general agreement about the while West (1990) contends that the quality of
importance of individual and group autonomy innovation is partly a function of vision.
in the innovation process (Amabile 1998). Keller (1986) adopts Kirton’s (1976) 32-item
Zien and Buckler (1997) emphasize the need adopter–innovator inventory to determine
for freedom to experiment and the creation of individual and team orientation to innovation.
safe havens, without which innovation out- Vision is operationalized in the team climate
come might be constrained. Measures of inventory (cf. Agrell and Gustafson 1994;
autonomy mix both qualitative and quantita- Anderson and West 1996, 1998; West and
tive approaches. For example, ‘the degree of Anderson 1996) and is deconstructed into a
freedom personnel have in day-to-day operat- series of sub-dimensions such as clarity, shared-
ing decisions such as when to work and ness, attainability and value with regard to
how to solve job problems, including freedom team objectives.
from constant evaluation and close supervi- Another aspect of culture is the propensity
sion’ (Abbey and Dickson 1983) or ‘percent- to take risks. Saleh and Wang (1993) describe
age of R&D portfolio with explicit business this as a willingness to confront risky oppor-
unit and/or corporate business management tunities and tolerate failure, and learn from
sign-off’ (Tipping and Zeffren 1995). Addition- doing so rather than recklessly gambling.
ally, several authors have proposed general Similarly, West (1990) demonstrated that
measures of autonomy such as ‘freedom to higher levels of participative safety facilitate
make operating decisions’ (Abbey and Dick- innovation. Participative safety is non-
son 1983) or ‘degree of empowerment’ (de judgmental, supportive and characterized by
Leede et al. 1999; Tipping and Zeffren socio-emotional cohesiveness. The attractive-
1995). ness of the organization as a place to work
Morale and motivation are dimensions of and undertake innovative activities is used by
the innovative organization that can be meas- Geisler (1995) as an indicator of the climate
ured as they pertain to individuals – ‘the for innovation, measured by numbers of can-
extent to which personnel are well rewarded’ didates applying for positions, and the age
(Abbey and Dickson 1983); to groups – ‘our profile of scientists and engineers. Keller
reward system is more group-based than (1986) offers a slightly different perspective
individual-based’ (Parthasarthy and Hammond on participative safety with the construct
2002); and to the organization as a whole – ‘group cohesiveness’, which he operational-
‘the degree to which the organization attempts izes using an established five-item measure.
to excel’ (Abbey and Dickson 1983). Aspects This review has described a wide variety of
of morale and motivation that have been measures proposed for organizational culture
measured include trust (Miller and Friesen and structure. Unlike some other aspects of
1982) and job satisfaction, which has been innovation management, this area has received
measured by Keller (1986) on a 20-item scale. extensive measurement attention. However,
Organizational culture may include a shared Holbek (1988) argues that innovating organi-
vision, and it has been argued that, the clearer zations must adopt contrasting structures and
the vision, the more effective it is as a facilitator climates as they move from the initiation to
of innovation, as it enables focused develop- the implementation stages of innovation.
ment of new ideas that can be assessed more Chesborough and Teece (1996) and Burns and
precisely (West 1990). Pinto and Prescott Stalker (1961) argue that there is a relation-
(1988) found that the only factor to have pre- ship between organizational design and type
dictive power in terms of potential for success of innovation. It is a significant gap in innova-
at all stages of the innovation process (con- tion measurement that there appears to be no
ception, planning, execution and termination) measures that adequately capture or articulate
was having a clearly stated mission /vision, this sense of structural shift.
measures of external communications, which process, that is, ‘implementation’. This can
tend to focus on whether communication is mean taking an innovation to market (Chakra-
taking place, the level at which it occurs and vorti 2004), but may also include convincing
with whom (Cebon and Newton 1999; Lee production managers to adopt a series of new
et al. 1996; Rothwell 1992; Souitaris 2002). techniques available to them (Single and
These measures of internal and external com- Spurgeon 1996). Indeed, the successful intro-
munication in the literature are based on both duction of new products and services into
subjective evaluations and objective frequency markets is important for the survival and
counts. Subjective measures include: ‘we always growth of organizations. Kelm et al. (1995)
consult suppliers/customers on new product regard commercialization as a transitional
ideas’ (Parthasarthy and Hammond 2002) and phase in which the organization becomes
‘degree of organization members involved and less reliant on its technological capabilities
participating in extra-organizational professional (important during the activities of initiation),
activities’ (Damanpour 1991). Objective counts but more dependent on market dynamics.
include (Damanpour 1991) ‘extent of commu- Commercialization is concerned with making
nication amongst organizational units or groups the innovative process or product a commer-
measured by various integrating mechanisms cial success; it includes issues such as market-
such as numbers of committees and frequency ing, sales, distribution and joint ventures.
of meetings’, (Anderson and West 1998) While technical capabilities are important for
‘frequency of formal meetings concerning the early stages of the innovation process and
new ideas’, (Souitaris 2002; Szakonyi 1994) development activities, for the launch and
‘how well do the technical and finance people implementation stage it is marketing capabili-
communicate with one another’. ties (market investigation, market testing,
It is widely recognized that collaborating promotion etc.) that are significant (Calantone
with suppliers (Bessant 2003) and customers and di Benedetto 1988; Globe et al. 1973).
(von Hippel 1986) can also make a significant Verhaeghe and Kfir (2002) consider aspects
contribution to the innovation process. of commercialization under the headings of
Measures of collaborative working include market analysis and monitoring, reaching the
the use of guest engineers (Maylor 2001), the customer and market planning.
percentage of projects in co-operation with Firm-level measures of the launch or com-
third parties (Kerssens-van Drongelen and mercialization process appear to be relatively
Bilderbeek 1999) and the extent to which thin. In their description of the R&D process,
decision-making at top levels is characterized Balachandra and Brockhoff (1995) character-
by cross-functional discussions (Miller and ize the commercialization stage as requiring
Friesen 1982). In addition, Jassawalla and ‘big bucks’, market reviews and organiza-
Sashittal (1999) identify some characteristics tional commitment. Most measures appear to
of internal collaboration, i.e. that teams are be not much more sophisticated than this.
characterized by their mindfulness, levels of Measures are frequently restricted to numbers
at-stakeness, synergy and transparency, but of products launched in a given period (e.g.
they do not suggest how these aspects might Yoon and Lilien 1985). There is, though,
be measured, which constitutes a further some focus on market analysis and monitor-
research gap. ing (Verhaeghe and Kfir 2002). Song and
Parry (1996) employ a set of measures of
launch proficiency (salesforce, distributional
Commercialization
and promotional support) that directly address
Commercialization can be considered to be the ‘adequacy’ of the organization’s facilities in
the second of the two phases in Zaltman et al.’s these areas, as do Avlonitis et al. (2001). And
(1973) conceptualization of the innovation there is a limited mention of the commercial
intentions of an organization’s competitors et al. 1974) and the task of generating and
(Calantone and di Benedetto 1988). The then converting ideas into usable and market-
themes of proficiency of personnel in this area able products requires high levels of inter-
(e.g. Atuahene-Gima 1995; Cebon and New- functional co-ordination and integration. This
ton 1999), of adherence to a commercializa- paper opened with the general observation
tion schedule (e.g. Griffin and Page 1993) and that innovation measurement does not appear
of formal post-launch reviews (Atuahene- to take place routinely within management
Gima 1995; von Zedtwitz 2002) can also be practice and that, where it does, it tends to
found in the literature. focus on output measures. Further, from the
Even in the work that addresses post- relatively small number of empirical studies
project reviews, very little attention is directed of measurement in practice, measurement of
towards measuring innovation launch or innovation management appears to be under-
commercialization. However, this comes as taken infrequently, in an ad hoc fashion, and
little surprise, as Hultink et al. (2000) recently relies on dated, unbalanced or under-specified
observed that little work has been done in the models of the innovation management phe-
area, perhaps because, at least in the innova- nomenon. This suggests that a large part of
tion literature, launch activities appear to be the contemporary conceptualization of the
considered the domain of other specialists, innovation management phenomenon is over-
particularly marketers, and the process is seen looked in practitioners’ measurement prac-
as separate from innovation. In their study, tices and, consequently, that opportunities for
they investigated launch decisions associated the more efficient and effective management
with success for consumer and business-to- of the innovation process are not realized.
business products. Much of the literature that Some possible reasons for this state of affairs
considers launch and commercialization does are: failure of academics to communicate ade-
so from the viewpoint of the adopter, and quately, inconsistency, inaccessibility and
assesses rates of adoption and diffusion of complexity of measures and poor synthesis
innovations over time across populations and packaging.
(Kessler and Chakrabarti 1996; Van Den Following a review and synthesis of the
Bulte 2000). literature, we proposed a seven-dimensional
The area of commercialization appears to conceptualization of the innovation manage-
be the least developed of the issues involved ment phenomenon and applied it to an exam-
in innovation management. This is a huge gap ination of the measurement problem. Through
because, without this last step, the previous the application of this framework to their own
steps of assembling inputs, project manage- particular context, it is suggested that practi-
ment, etc. will not result in a commercially tioners will be able to conduct an evaluation
viable outcome for the firm. We believe that of their own innovation management activity,
this area of innovation is in urgent need of identify gaps, weaknesses or deficiencies, and
further development, from both theory and also improvement potential. Further, it is
measurement viewpoints. hoped that organizations applying the frame-
work will be able to tease out areas where
innovation is only nominally adopted in their
Discussion
processes and identify areas where attention
Innovation management measurement is a and resources might be focused.
critical discipline for both academics and From the perspective of its management, it
practitioners. The capacity of organizations to is no longer sufficient to treat innovation as a
innovate is determined by multiple factors that linear process where resources are channelled
relate both to their own internal organization at one end, from which emerges a new prod-
and to their market environment (Rothwell uct or process. The measurement framework
presented in Table 2 shows the breadth and we have noted the objections to counts of
variety of elements of innovation management patents or increasing expenditure on R&D being
that ideally need to be measured. There have used as measures of innovative organizations.
been several studies that have investigated the Similarly, there is an absence of evidence that
limitations of various approaches to measure- the large number of subjective perceptions of
ment (e.g. Werner and Souder 1997), and of innovation management practices proposed
specific measures (e.g. Trajtenberg 1990) as (‘we do A’, ‘we are good at B’) actually relate
they relate to the practice of innovation. The to innovation management performance.
choice of an appropriate R&D measurement Omission gaps occur where the importance
metric depends on the user’s needs in terms of of an aspect of innovation management is sup-
comprehensiveness of measurement, type of ported in the literature, but measures for this
R&D being measured, available data and aspect are lacking. Omission gaps are particu-
amount of effort the user can afford to allocate larly prevalent in the elements of innovation
to the exercise. Nonetheless, the common management such as knowledge management,
citing across various papers of the measures innovation strategy and commercialization
noted in the innovation management frame- that do not feature strongly in the literature on
work presented here suggests that a base set technological and manufacturing-based inno-
of innovation management measures is vation. Another area traditionally not given
implicitly present in the literature, even much emphasis in this literature is organiza-
though they may be fragmented in appearance tion and culture, which, fortunately, is better
and presentation. By pulling together the treated by the organizational behaviour litera-
innovation management framework from ture, where a number of measures have been
diverse sources, this paper aims to bring such developed. Much of the current state of meas-
issues into the open and identify relevant urement practice can be traced back to the dis-
research gaps. Table 2 can be viewed as the cipline’s early manufacturing, R&D and NPD
basis for a balanced scorecard (Kaplan and focus. While product innovation is undoubt-
Norton 1992) for innovation management, edly important, it is only one dimension of an
that is, as a balanced set of areas that need to organization’s innovation agenda. Process and
be measured in order to gain insight into an organizational innovations are recognized,
organization’s holistic ability to manage inno- too, as critical for competitiveness, yet these
vation. Such multidimensional approaches to perspectives are inadequately represented in
measurement have been found in other areas measurement terms.
of management to be an improvement on sim- General areas of omission in this field
ple one-dimensional measures and to be able relate to an over-reliance on financial meas-
to capture both short- and long-term aspects ures rather than process measures: for exam-
of value creation in the firm (Phelps 2004). ple, the use of financial measures of portfolio
We have identified a large number of meas- optimization, but an absence of portfolio
ures and approaches in a variety of innovation capability measures; a similar reliance on
management areas, and we have constructed a codified knowledge such as patents to the
generic set of innovation management meas- exclusion of more intangible measures such
urement areas to act as a framework for bal- as tacit knowledge; the measurement of levels
anced measurement. However, in several of of resources or activities with no indication of
these areas, measurement gaps have been what an optimal level would be; the measure-
identified. These gaps are of two types: valid- ment of drivers of innovation without meas-
ity gaps and omission gaps. Validity gaps arise ures of whether these drivers are aligned with
where there is insufficient evidence that pro- each other and with firm strategy; measures of
posed measures actually do capture drivers or presence that do not measure quality (e.g. the
outputs of innovation management; for example, use of dichotomous (yes/no) measures that do
not indicate how well an action is implemented, the authors gratefully acknowledge this support.
and measures of the presence of leadership Further, the authors are grateful to the editors
(such as champions), but not of quality of and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful
leadership); a general absence of measures and insightful comments on previous versions
for important properties of organizational of this paper.
structures such as flexibility, and a lack of
measures of the match between structure and
Note
environment; a technological and NPD bias to
project management measures and a relative 1 Corresponding author. Telephone: +44 (0) 20
absence of measures for service sectors; a 7594 9137; e-mail: r.adams@imperial.ac.uk
paucity of measures for internal communica-
tions; and a general lack of measures for
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