Electrical Science

Compilation of Summaries

Module 1: Basic Electrical Theory

Atoms and its forces

atom Coulomb’s Law

- smallest particle to which an
element can be reduced while still
keeping properties of that element - (q1*q2)
Valence electrons
- electrons in outermost orbit
Free electrons
- valence electrons that have left the
atom
Electrical Terminology

Resistors
- also called semiconductors; neither
good conductor nor good insulator
Voltage
- basic unit of measure for potential
difference is the Volt (V)
Volt
- a difference in potential causing
one coulomb of current to do one
joule of work
- force required to force one ampere
of current through one ohm of
resistance
Current
- movement or flow of electrons
Units of Electrical Measurement
Voltage
- emf (electromotive force) or potential
difference is described as the pressure
of force that causes electrons to
move in a conductor
Current
- movement of free electrons
Resistance
- opposition to current flow
Conductance
- reciprocal of resistance; ability to
conduct current
Ohm’s Law V=IR
Power
- rate at which work is done; rate at
which heat is being generated
- P=IV ; P=I2R
Inductance
- ability of coil to store energy, induce
a voltage in itself, oppose changes
in current flowing through it
Capacitance
- ability to store an electric charge
Methods of producing Electricity

Electrochemistry example: voltaic chemical - Photoconduction - light energy is

cell applied to poor conductors causing
Piezoelectric effect is exhibited by quartz, free electrons to be produced so
rochelle salts, barium titrate they become better conductors
Thermocouples exhibit thermoelectricity
Uses of Photoelectric Effect
- Photovoltaic - light energy in one of
the two plates that are joined
together causes one plate to
release electrons to the other;
plates build up opposite charges
like a battery
- Photoemission - photon energy
from a beam of light could cause a
surface to release electrons in a
vacuum tube. a plate would then
collect the electrons
Magnetism

Magnetism - one Wb = 1x10-8 magnetic field lines

- is a result of electron spinning in
their own axis around the nucleus.
domains
- areas where electrons are aligned
such they electrons spin in the
same direction
Law of magnetism
- like magnetic poles repel and unlike
magnetic poles attract one another
Magnetic flux (ɸ)
- unit: Wb (weber)
Magnetic Flux Density (B)
- unit: Tesla (Wb/m2)
- formula: B=ɸ/m2
Magnetic Materials
- can be attracted/repelled by a
magnet; can be magnetized
themselves
- most commonly used magnetic
material is iron and steel
Relative permeability (μR)
 - ratio of permeability of a material to - magnetic field lines become more
the permeability of a vacuum dense inside the loop
- all lines inside the loop are aiding in
- the same direction
Electromagnetism - adding an iron core will increase
- relationship between magnetism flux density
and electrical current (discovered Magnetomotive force (mmf)
by oersted) - strength of a magnetic field in a coil
- if electric current was caused to of wire
flow through a conductor, the - Fm = NI (Ampere-turns)
conductor produced a magnetic Field Intensity (H)
field around that conductor - concentration of magnetic lines of
Polarity of a single conductor: force
- decreases when length increases
- H = Fm / L
- units: At/m
Reluctance (R)
- R = mmf / ɸ
- inversely proportional to
permeability

Polarity of a coil
Magnetic Circuits

BH magnetization curve

-
- permeability μ is ratio of B to H
Hysteresis -
- lagging behind retentivity
- magnetic flux in an iron core lags - value of +Br or -Br which is the flux
behind the magnetizing force density after magnetizing force is
zero
coercive force of the material force, or if magnetic lines of force
- value of -Hc which is the force cut across a conductor, a voltage,
required to reduce flux density to or EMF, is induced into the
zero conductor.
magnetic induction
- Faraday found that if a conductor
"cuts across" lines of magnetic

Module 2: Basic DC Theory

DC Sources

Battery across magnetic field to produce

- two or more chemical cells voltage output
connected in series Rectifiers
DC Generator - convert AC to DC
- consists of an armature with single - uses diodes for conversion
turn of wire; armature wire cuts diodes
 - solid state rectifiers are made of - permits flow of electrons in circuit
silicon reverse bias
- act as a gate that allows current to - diode is reverse biased when
pass in one direction and blocks - anode is connected to
current in other direction negative side of the source
- polarity of applied voltage - cathode is connected to
determines whether diode will positive side of the source
conduct or not (either
forward/reverse bias)

forward bias
- diode is forward biased when
- positive terminal of voltage
source is connected to
anode
- negative terminal connected
to cathode
- holes combine with electrons in -
n-type material; electrons combine - resistance to current flow
with holes in p-type material half-wave rectifier
- uses forward biased and reverse
biased diodes
full-wave rectifier
- uses two forward biased diode

-
DC Circuit Terminology
Schematic diagram
- components are represented by
graphic symbols
One-line diagram
- using single lines; not as much
detail as schematic diagrams; used
to show highly complex systems
without showing actual physical
connections
Block diagram
- used to show relationship between
groups or stages in a circuit
- shows path through a circuit from
input to output
Wiring diagram
- show wiring connections in easy to
follow manner; found in home
appliances and automobiles
Resistivity
-
Temperature coefficient of resistance (𝜶)
- + 𝜶 means R increases with temp
- - 𝜶 means R decreases with temp
- 𝜶 = 0 means R is constant
-
Basic DC Circuit Calculations

Series Resistance
-
Parallel Resistance

-
Voltage divider - series
Current divider - parallel

Voltage Polarity and Current Direction

Kirchoff’s Law

DC Circuit Analysis

note: delta is bigger than Y connection

DC Circuit Faults
Open circuit (series)
- must have complete path for
current to flow. (- to + side)
- only one path for current flow, if this
path is broken, no current flows and
circuit becomes open
Open circuit (parallel)
- has more than one path for current
flow
- if one of the paths is opened,
current will continue to flow in other
path
Short circuit (series)
- very large current will flow because
of absence of resistance
- short circuit is said to occur when
resistance is so low that current
increases to a point where damage
can occur to circuit components
short circuit (parallel)
- same effect as series
- note: parallel circuits are more likely
to develop damaging short circuit
because each load is connected
directly across power source
Module 3: DC Circuits
Inductance (L)

Inductor in circuits containing inductors, voltage

- units: H (henries) and current exhibit exponential increase
- stores electrical energy in the form and decay
of magnetic field
- tends to oppose change in current
flow
Lenz’s Law
- induced EMF opposes the EMF that
caused it
Three requirements for inducing an EMF
- conductor -
- magnetic field Inductive time constant
- relative motion between the two - TL = L/R
Capacitance

capacitor - capacitance depends on

- conductor plates are neutral - area of conductor plates
- dielectric is an insulating material - separation between the
plates
- dielectric constant of
insulating material

- Working voltage
- Because very few of the charges - for capacitors in series: working V is
can cross between the plates, the additive
capacitor will remain in the charged - for capacitors in parallel: working V
state even if the battery is removed. is the lowest V among the
so discharging: place a conductor capacitors
across the plates Capacitive Time constant
capacitance (unit: F for farad) - TC = RC
- C=Q/V
- dielectric constant (K) describes
ability of dielectric to store electrical
energy
Module 4: Battery
Battery Terminology
Battery Theory

chemical cell (or voltaic cell) consists of - an electrolyte solution which is

- two electrodes of different types of capable of conducting an electric
metals or metallic compounds current.
Battery Operations

Series Cells
- total V output is additive
- but current flow is the same for
ONE cell

-
Internal Resistance
- due to resistance of electrolyte
between electrodes
- - The internal resistance is in series
Parallel cells with the voltage of the battery,
- greater current carrying capacity causing an internal voltage drop
- total V output is the same for ONE - If a load is placed on the battery,
cell load resistance (RL) is in series with
internal resistance (Ri).
 -

Battery Types

Carbon-Zinc Cell - Ni(OH)2 -; Cd(OH)2 +

- oldest and most widely used - 1.25 V
- Carbon +; Zinc Edison Cell
- 1.5 V - Electrolyte: Alkaline
Alkaline Cell - Nickel and Nickel Hydrate +; iron -
- Alkaline electrolyte of KOH - 1.0 V
- Zinc -; MnO2 + Mercury Cell
- 1.5 V - 2 types
Nickel Cadmium Cell - flat cell; cylindrical
- secondary cell - 1.35 V
- electrolyte: KOH - long shelf lif
Battery Hazards

Battery temperature: should be in nominal band of 60-80oF

Module 5: DC Generators
DC Equipment Terminology

DC Equipment Construction

Armature
- rotated by external mechanical force (eg steam turbine)
DC Generator Theory
Copper losses
- power lost as heat in the windings
Eddy-Current Losses
- circulating currents within iron core
- to reduce eddy currents, armatures
and field cores are constructed
from laminated (layered) steel
sheets
Hysteresis Losses
- rotation of magnetic domains
(when armature rotates in magnetic
field) in iron causes friction and
heat
- to reduce hysteresis losses, use
heat treated silicon steel
Mechanical losses
- rotational loss; bearing friction,
brush friction on the commutator,
air friction(aka windage)
DC Generator Construction

- The voltage of an under-compounded DC generator decreases gradually with an

increase in load current
Module 6: DC Motors
DC Motor Theory
Types of DC Motor Theory
Shunt wound motor
- identical
- torque decreases when speed
increases
- @2.5X the rated speed, torque
sharply decreases
- for speed regulation
- automotive apps where precise
control of speed and torque are
requires
Series Wound motor
-
- armature and field currents are
- as speed decreases, torque
increases sharply
- for starting heavy loads
- for industrial cranes where heavy
loads must be moved slowly and
lighter loads more rapidly
Compounded motor
- combination
- greater torque than shunt motor
due to series field; fairly constant
speed due to shunt field
- for reciprocating machines
DC Motor Theory Operation

When starting a DC motor, current is very high (can cause damage). the only resistance
present is armature resistance which is very low. Thus, external resistance (starting
resistance) must be placed in series with armature resistance during starting)

Module 7: Basic AC Theory

AC Generation

AC Generation Analysis
- The time it takes for the generatore to complete one cycle is called the period.
- number of cycles per second is called the frequency (measured in hertz)
- Peak voltage and peak current is the maximum voltage or current for an AC sine wave
- Peak-to-peak value is the magnitude of voltage, or current range, spanned by the sine
wave.
- Effective value amount of AC that produces the same heating effect as an equal
amount of DC
- Root-mean-square (RMS) value is the average mean square of the currents
- Phase angle is the fraction of a cycle, in degrees, that has gone by since a voltage or
current has passed through a given value
Module 8: AC Basic AC Reactive Components
Inductance

Capacitance
Impedance

Resonance
Module 9: Basic AC POWER

Power Triangle
- In AC Circuit, current and voltage are normally out of phase and, as a result, not all the
power produced by the generator can be used to accomplish work.
- Power triangle equates AC power to DC power by showing the relationship between
generator output(S), usable power(P), and wasted or stored power(Q).
- The Phase angle represents the inefficiency of the AC circuit and corresponds to the
total reactive impedance(Z) to the current flow in the circuit.
- Apparent power(S) is the power delivered to an electrical circuit
- True power(P) power consumed by the resistive loads in an electrical circuit
- Reactive power(Q) power consumed in an AC circuit because of the expansion and
collapse of magnetic (inductive) and electrostatic (capacitive) fields.
- Total power delivered by the source is the apparent power
- Power factor(pf) ratio between true power and apparent power
Three Phase Circuits
- 3-phase system is a combination of three single-phase systems
- a 3-phase balanced system phasor sum of the three line or phase voltages is zero, and
the phasor sum of the three line or phase currents is zero.
Module 10 AC Generators
AC Generator Components

AC Generator Theory
- Simple AC generator consists of (a) a strong magnetic field, (b) conductor that rotate
through that magnetic field, and (c) a means by which a continuous connection is
provided to the conductors as they rotate
- Hysteresis losses occur when iron cores in an AC generator are subject to effects from
a magnetic field.
- Mechanical losses can be caused by bearing friction, brush friction on the
commutator, and air friction (called windage), which is caused by the air turbulence
due to armature rotation
AC Generator Operation
- Typical nameplate data for an AC generator: (1)Manufacturer, (2)Serial number and
Type number, (3)Speed (rpm), number of poles, frequency of output, number of
phases, and maximum supply voltage, (4)capacity rating in KVA and kW at a specified
power factor and a maximum output voltage, (5) armature and field current per phase,
(6)maximum temperature rise.
- Power rating are based on the ability of the prime mover to overcome generator losses
and the ability of the machine to dissipate the internally generated heat
- Current rating are based on the insulation rating of the machine
Module 11: Voltage Regulators
- Voltage regulator: AC generators require some auxiliary means of regulating output
voltage
Module 12: AC Motors
AC Motor Theory
- Breakdown torque is the maximum value of torque before the motor stalls and come
to a rapid stop

AC Motor Types
- Induction motor is made of a laminated cylinder with slots in its surface.
- the most commonly used is the “squirrel-cage” rotor
- this rotor is made of heavy copper bars that are connected at each end by a metal ring
made of copper or brass
- Synchronous motors use a wound rotor.
- may be started by a DC motor on a common shaft
- Pull-in torque is the torque required to pull the motor into synchronism
- Torque angle is the angle between the rotor and stator poles
Module 13: Transformers

Transformer Theory
- Primary winding is the coil of a transformer that is energized from an AC source
- Secondary winding is the coil that delivers the AC to the load
- Magnetic leakage is where the part of the magnetic flux that passes through either
one of the coils, but not through both
- The larger the distance between the primary and the secondary windings, the longer
the magnetic circuit and the greater the leakage.
- Counter-electromotive force (CEMF) is the voltage that opposes the voltage applied to
the primary winding
- Voltage ratio is the ratio of primary voltage to secondary voltage
- Current ratio is inversely proportional to the voltage ratio
- Copper loss is power lost in the primary and secondary windings of a transformer due
to the ohmic resistance of the windings
- Core loss are hysteresis losses and eddy current losses
- Hysteresis loss is energy lost by reversing the magnetic field in the core as the
magnetizing AC rises and falls and reverses direction
- Eddy current loss is the result of induced currents circulating in the core
Transformer Types
- Distribution transformer is rated 33kVA below
- Commonly-used methods of cooling are by using oil or some other heat-conducting
material
- Ampere rating increased = primary and secondary size increased
- Voltage rating increased = voltage rating of the insulation increased
- Power transformer is rated 33 kVA above, used for power plant voltage step-up
- Electronic power transformer is rated 300 volt-amperes and below
- normally provide power to the power supply of an electronic
- Electronic control transformer uses capacitors to minimize the variations in the output
- Electronic auto transformer consists of only one winding
- Instrument potential transformer steps down voltage of a circuit to a low value that
can be effectively and safely used for operation of instruments
- Instrument current transformer steps down the current of a circuit to a lower value
and is used in the same types of equipment as a potential transformer.
Module 14: Test Instruments & Measuring
Devices
Meter Movement

Voltmeter
- when a Voltmeter is connected in a circuit, it will draw current from that circuit. This
current causes a voltage drop across the resistance of the meter, which is subtracted
from the voltage being measured by the meter.
Ammeter
- Ammeter can be calibrated in amperes, milliamperes, or microamperes.
- increases the resistance of the circuit by an amount equal to the internal resistance of
the meter.

Ohmmeter
- Simple Ohmmeter consists of a battery, a meter movement calibrated in ohms, and a
variable resistor.

Wattmeter
- Wattmeter uses fixed coils to indicate current, while the movable coil indicates voltage.
- Total Power in a 3 phase circuit is the sum of the powers of the separate phases.
- can be measured by placing a wattmeter in each phase (not feasible since it is
impossible to break into the phase of a delta load)
Other Measuring Equipment
- Ampere-Hour Meter used to measure electricity usage in a house
- are digital indicators similar to the odometer used in automobiles
- subject to inaccuracies and cannot record the internal losses of a battery
- follow charge and discharge, but inherently do not indicate the correct state of charge
- Power factor Meter is a type of electrodynamometer movement when it is made with
two movable coils set at right angles to each other
- A change in power factor will cause the current of one potential coil to become more in
phase and the other potential coil to be more out of phase, so that the moving element
and pointer take a new position of balance to show the new power factor
- Ground Detector uses an ohm meter, or a series of lights, to detect the insulation
strength of an ungrounded distribution system
- Ohm meter method applies DC voltage. If a leakage exists, a current will flow through
the ground to the ohm meter proportional to the insulation resistance of the conductor
- Synchroscope will rotate at a speed corresponding to the frequency difference.
- If incoming frequency is higher than running frequency, it will rotate clockwise
- if incoming frequency is less than running frequency, it will rotate counterclockwise
- when the synchroscope indicates 0 deg phase difference, the pointer is at the “12
o’clock” position
Test Equipment
- Volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) most commonly used multimeter
- VOM has full scale current of 50 microA (sensitivity of 20Kohms/V)
- Megger consists of a hand-driven DC generator and a direct reading ohm meter
System Components and Protection Devices

Circuit Breaker
Motor Controller
Wiring Schemes and Grounding