1.

0 INTRODUCTION

Scanning is considered as electronics imaging. An electronic imaging system usually consists of

an input scanner which converts an optical image into electrical signal. This is followed by
electronic hardware and software for processing or manipulation of the signal and for storage
and/or transmission to an output scanner. The latter converts the final version of the signal back
into optical (visible) image, typically for transient (softcopy) or permanent (hardcopy) display to
a human observer. The scanning system can be divided by using infrared technology and radio
frequency technology.

1.1 Wireless Communication / RF Technology

Wireless communication systems require frequency signals for the efficient transmission of
information. Since the signal frequency is inversely related to its wavelength, antennas operating
at RFs and microwaves have higher radiation efficiencies. Radio Frequency (RF) refers
specifically to the electromagnetic field, or radio wave, that is generated when an alternating
current is input to an antenna. This field can be used for wireless broadcasting and
communications over a significant portion of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum from about
9 kilohertz (kHz) to thousands of gigahertz (GHz). As the frequency is increased beyond the RF
spectrum, electromagnetic energy takes the form of infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and
gamma rays.

Further, their size is relatively small and hence convenient for mobile communication. Another
factor that favors RFs and microwaves is that the transmission of broadband information signals
requires a high-frequency carrier signal. Wireless technology has been expending very fast. In
addition to the traditional applications in communication, such as radio and television. RF and
microwaves signal are being used in works and personal communication service. Keyless door
entry, radio frequency identification (RFID), monitoring of patients in hospital or a nursing
home, cordless keyboards for computers are and many measuring and instrumentation systems

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used in manufacturing some of the other areas where RF technology is being used and operate at
infrared or visible light frequencies.

The RF spectrum is divided into several ranges, or bands. Each of these bands, other than the
lowest frequency segment, represents an increase of frequency corresponding to an order of
magnitude (power of ten). The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic
waves arranged according to frequency and wavelength. Electromagnetic radiation is classified
into types according to the frequency and length of the wave. Visible light that comes from a
lamp in your house or radio waves transmitted by a radio station are just two of the many types
of electromagnetic radiation. An electromagnetic wave consists of the electric and magnetic
components. These components repeat or oscillate at right angles to each other and to the
direction of propagation, and are in phase with each other.

Figure 1 : An electromagnetic waves

These frequencies make up part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum such as below:

• Ultra-low frequency (ULF) -- 0-3 Hz

• Extremely low frequency (ELF) -- 3 Hz - 3 kHz
• Very low frequency (VLF) -- 3kHz - 30 kHz
• Low frequency (LF) -- 30 kHz - 300 kHz

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 • Medium frequency (MF) -- 300 kHz - 3 MHz
• High frequency (HF) -- 3MHz - 30 MHz
• Very high frequency (VHF) -- 30 MHz - 300 MHz
• Ultra-high frequency (UHF)-- 300MHz - 3 GHz
• Super high frequency (SHF) -- 3GHz - 30 GHz
• Extremely high frequency (EHF) -- 30GHz - 300 GHz

1.2 Radio waves

Radio waves can propagate from transmitter to receiver in four ways: through ground waves, sky
waves, free space waves, and open field waves. Ground waves exist only for vertical
polarization, produced by vertical antennas, when the transmitting and receiving antennas are
close to the surface of the earth. The transmitted radiation induces currents in the earth, and the
waves travel over the earth's surface, being attenuated according to the energy absorbed by the
conducting earth. The reason that horizontal antennas are not effective for ground wave
propagation is that the horizontal electric field that they create is short circuited by the earth.

Figure 2 : Geometry of Tropo-Scatter Signal Propagation

Ground wave propagation is dominant only at relatively low frequencies, up to a few MHz, so it
needn't concern us here. Sky wave propagation is dependent on reflection from the ionosphere, a
region of rarified air high above the earth's surface that is ionized by sunlight (primarily
ultraviolet radiation). The ionosphere is responsible for long-distance communication in the

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high-frequency bands between 3 and 30 MHz. It is very dependent on time of day, season,
longitude on the earth, and the multiyear cyclic production of sunspots on the sun. It makes
possible long-range communication using very low power transmitters. Most short-range
communication applications that we deal with in this chapter use VHF, UHF, and microwave
bands, generally above 40 MHz. There are times when ionospheric reflection occurs at the low
end of this range, and then sky wave propagation can be responsible for interference from signals
originating hundreds of kilometers away.

The most important propagation mechanism for short-range communication on the VHF and
UHF bands is that which occurs in an open field, where the received signal is a vector sum of a
direct line-of-sight signal and a signal from the same source that is reflected off the earth. Later
we discuss the relationship between signal strength and range in line-of-sight and open field
topographies. The range of line-of-sight signals, when there are no reflections from the earth or
ionosphere, is a function of the dispersion of the waves from the transmitter antenna. In this free-
space case the signal strength decreases in inverse proportion to the distance away from the
transmitter antenna.

2.0 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a system that facilitates the tracking of objects,
primarily for inventory tracking, via a three-part technology comprised of a reader, a transceiver
with decoder and a transponder (RF Tag). RFID is a wireless system that works in conjuction
with an organization’s information technology infrastructure to improve business processes such
as inventory management and efficiency in supply chain management.

The RFID is not a new technology. For example, the principles of RFID were employed by the
British in World War II to identify their aircraft using the IFF system (Identify Friend or Foe).
Later, work on access control that is more closely related to modern RFID, was carried at Los
Alamos National Laboratories during the 1960s, RFID tags incorporated in employee badges
enabled automatic identification of people to limit access to secure areas, and had the additional
advantage that it made the badges hard to forge. For many years this technology has been
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relatively obcure, although it has been adopted in various niche domains, such as to identify
animals, make toys interactive, improve car-key designs, label airline luggage, time marathon
runners, prevent theft, enable automatic toll-way billing (smart tag), and many forms of ID badge
for access control. Today, it is even being applied to validate money and passports, and as a
tamper safeguard for product packing.

Figure 3: RFID chip

2.1 RFID Topology

An RFID system consists of a tag made up of a microchip with an antenna, and an interrogator or reader
with an antenna. The reader sends out electromagnetic waves. The tag antenna is tuned to receive these
waves. A passive RFID tag draws power from the field created by the reader and uses it to power the
microchip's circuits. The chip then modulates the waves that the tag sends back to the reader, which
converts the new waves into digital data. In its minimalist configuration the micro-topology requires
just four sub-systems, as follows:

i. Tag
ii. Reader
iii. Air Interface
iv. Computer Communication and Control

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The most demanding macro-topology involves pervasive tagging where sophisticated Readers
are simultaneously interrogating multiple tags in a dynamic environment. In this scenario, anti
collision algorithms are required in addition to data handling processes for large velocity data
streams.

Figure 4 :Basic RFID system consists of three components

a. Tags

The basic RFID building blocks are miniature electronic devices known as Tags which talk to
Readers. The RFID tags, also known as transponder, are usually small pieces of material,
typically comprising three components: an antenna, a microchip unit containing memory storage
an encapsulating material. Tag are embedded or attached to an item. The Tag has memory which
stores information as either read only, write once or unlimited read/write. Tags typically range in
size from a postage stamp to a book, depending on read distance and features. RFID tags come in
a wide variety of shapes and sizes.

Implementation of tags is animal tracking tags, inserted beneath the skin, can be as small as a
pencil lead in diameter and one-half inch in length. Tags can be screw-shaped to identify trees or
wooden items, or credit-card shaped for use in access applications. The anti-theft hard plastic
tags attached to merchandise in stores are RFID tags. In addition, heavy-duty 5- by 4- by 2-inch
rectangular transponders used to track intermodal containers or heavy machinery, trucks, and
railroad cars for maintenance and tracking applications are RFID tags.

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 Figure 5 : RFID Tags

RFID tags are categorized into active and passive. They are fundamentally distinct technologies
with substantially different capabilities. Both of the technology use radio frequency energy to
communicate between a tag and a reader, the method of powering the tags is different. Active
RFID tags are powered by an internal battery or internal power source continuously power the
tag and its RF communication circuitry and are typically read/write, i.e., tag data can be rewritten
and/or modified.

While passive RFID tags operate without a separate external power source and obtain operating
power generated from the reader. The passive RFID relies on RF energy transferred from the
reader to be tag to power the tag. Passive tags are consequently much lighter than active tags,
less expensive, and offer a virtually unlimited operational lifetime.

Item Active RFID Passive RFID

Tag power source Internal to tag Energy transferred from reader via
RF
Tag battery Yes No
Availability of Tag Power Continuous Only within field of reader
Required signal strength from reader Low High (must power the tag)
to Tag
Available signal strength from tag to High Low
Reader

Table 1 : Technical differences between Active and Passive RFID technologies

While this distinction may seem minor on the surface, its impact on the functionality of the
system is significant. Passive RFID either 1) reflects energy from the reader or 2) absorbs and
temporarily stores a very small amount of energy from the reader’s signal to generate its own
quick response. In either case, passive RFID operation requires very strong signals from the
reader, and the signal strength returned from the tag is constrained to very low levels by the
limited energy.

Active RFID Passive RFID

Communication range Long range (100m and above) Short or very short range (3m
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 or less)
Multi-tag collection i. Collect 1000s of tags over a i. Collect’s hundreds
7 acre region from a single of tags within 3
reader. meters from a
single reader.
ii. Collects 20 tags moving at
more than 100 mph ii. Collects 20 tags
moving at 3 mph or
slower.
Sensor capability Ability to continuously monitor Ability to read and transfer
and record sensor input; data/time sensor values only when tag is
stamp for sensor events powered by reader; no
date/time stamp

Data storage Large read/write data storage Small read/write data storage
(128kb) with the sophisticated data (e.g. 128 bytes)
search and access capabilities
available

Table 2 : Functional capabilities of Active and Passive RFID technologies

Item Characteristics Technology

Boxes individual luggage Structured, orderly process for loading Passive RFID
Unit Load Device • Unstructured movement throughout airport Active RFID
facility

• Security requirements
Boxes Cartons Individual Structured, orderly process for loading-dedicated Passive RFID
Items loading stations conveyors
Pallet Structured or unstructured movement, depanding Passive RFID
on situation or Active
RFID

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Intermodal Container • Security requirements Active RFID

• Area monitoring within ports, terminals

• Roadside monitoring
Chassis, rail car, other • Area monitoring within ports, terminals Active RFID
conveyance • Roadside monitoring

• Intransit visibility

Table 3 : Complementary use of Active and Passive RFID

As usual every electrical applicant has their own problem of implementation. Such as the RFID
tags with the tag collision. Tag collision occurs when more than one transponder reflects back a
signal at the same time, confusing the reader. Different vendors have developed different systems
for having the tags respond to the reader one at a time. These involve using algorithms to
"singulate" the tags. Since each tag can be read in milliseconds, it appears that all the tags are
being read simultaneously.

b. Reader

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The Reader is able to talk to the Tag using radio waves over the air to send or receive
information. The distance between the Tag and Reader for the radio waves to be strong enough
for the devices to talk with each other is an important specification in building a reliable RFID
system. Once you have reliable radio communications between the Tag and the Reader the
system may take action based on results of their communication. RFID may send information
downstream to your legacy systems or update digital information stored on the Tag. This wide
range of options and the real time capability of RFID give it exciting new capabilities, distinct
advantages and specific costs to build its infrastructure. Types of ActiveWave RFID Readers.
There are several types of Readers available. Please refer to data sheets for more details.

Fixed Reader AC Power 120/230 Volts AC

Fixed Reader DC Power 12 Volt DC

PC-Card Reader For use with portable devices in trucks, forklifts, etc.

Handheld Reader Has a wireless link to standard ActiveWave RFID readers

The disadvantage of the reader is the RFID reader overlaps with another reader called reader
collision. This causes two different problems:

i. Signal interference

The RF fields of two or more readers may overlap and interfere. This can be solved by having
the readers programmed to read at fractionally different times. This technique (called time
division multiple access - TDMA) can still result in the same tag being read twice.

ii. Multiple reads of the same tag

The problem here is that the same tag is read one time by each of the overlapping readers. The
only solution is to program the RFID system to make sure that a given tag (with its unique ID
number) is read only once in a session.

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 Figure 6 : RFID reader

c. Frequencies

RFID systems are also distinguished by their frequency ranges. Low-frequency (30 KHz to 500
KHz) systems have short reading ranges and lower system costs. They are most commonly used
in security access, asset tracking, and animal identification applications. High-frequency (850
MHz to 950 MHz and 2.4 GHz to 2.5 GHz) systems, offering long read ranges (greater than 90
feet) and high reading speeds, are used for such applications as railroad car tracking and
automated toll collection. However, the higher performance of high-frequency RFID systems
incurs higher system costs.

Different countries have allotted different parts of the radio spectrum for RFID, so no single technology
optimally satisfies all the requirements of existing and potential markets. The industry has worked
diligently to standardize three main RF bands: low frequency (LF), 125 to 134 kHz; high frequency (HF),
13.56 MHz; and ultrahigh frequency (UHF), 860 to 960 MHz. Most countries have assigned the 125 or
134 kHz areas of the spectrum for low-frequency systems, and 13.56 MHz is used around the world for
high-frequency systems (with a few exceptions), but UHF systems have only been around since the mid-
1990s, and countries have not agreed on a single area of the UHF spectrum for RFID.

Country Table 4 : Country frequency range for RFID

Frequency
European Union UHF bandwidth ranges from 865 to 868 MHz with interrogators able to transmit at
maximum power (2 watts ERP) at the center of that bandwidth (865.6 to 867.6
MHz)
North America UHF bandwidth ranges from 902 to 928 MHz with readers able to transmit at
maximum power (1 watt ERP) for most of that bandwidth
Australia UHF RFID ranges from 920 to11926 MHz
European Maximum of 200 kHz in bandwidth
North America 500 kHz
China Ranges from 840.25 to 844.75 MHz and 920.25 to 924.75 MHz ranges for UHF tags
and interrogators used in that country
 d. An RFID antenna

Connected to the RFID reader, can be of various size and structure, depending on the
communication distance required for a given system’s performance. The antenna activates the
RFID tag and transfers data by emitting wireless pulses.

e. An RFID station

Made up of an RFID reader and an antenna. It can read information stored into the RFID tag and
also update this RFID tag with new information. It generally holds application software
specifically designed for the required task. RFID stations may be mounted in arrays around
transfer points in industrial processes to automatically track assets as they are moving through
the process.

2.2 Potential Uses of RFID Technology

Many public and private sector organizations are either using or planning to use RFID
technology. Because the technology basically turns an inert object into one capable of
communicating, the potential for use is enormous and limited only by our imagination and the
capabilities of the technology involved. Potential uses include:

a. Supply Chain Management (monitoring and controlling the flow of goods from raw
materials through to finished product, from manufacturer to consumer);

b. Product Integrity (ensuring that products (e.g., pharmaceuticals) are authentic and have
not been altered in any way);

c. Warranty Services (marking durable goods with a tag incorporating a product registration
code to facilitate warranty services);

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d. ID, Travel, and Ticketing (providing a means to verify the identity of the traveler and to
ensure that the documents are genuine);

e. Baggage Tracking (monitoring and controlling the movement of baggage from check-in
to loading on an airplane); and

f. Patient Care and Management (providing a means to rapidly and accurately verify
information concerning patient allergies, prescription history, etc. to prevent surgical
errors).

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 Figure 7 : Usage application of RFID
Operating frequency Advantage
Low freq. Widely deployed, broad
global, frequency
125kHz – 134 kHz deployment, metal
interferes minimal
High Freq. 13.56 Widely deployed, broad
MHz global frequency
deploy, minimally
affected by moisture
Ultra High Freq. Widely deployed, read
range is significantly
868 mHz – 928 MHz greater than other
standards
Microwave Read range is
significantly greater
2.45 GHz than other standard.
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Liabilities Applications
Read range limited to Animal tracking,
less than 1.5 meters container tracking,
antitheft system
Read range limited to Library asset tracking,
less than 1.5 meters; access control,
metal poses serious baggage tracking,
interference problem retail product tracking
Adversely affected by Pallet, container
moisture; not tracking, vehicle
liciensed for use in tracking
Japan; adjacent tags
cause detuning
Not widely deployed; Vehicle access control
complex
implementation; not
licienced in parts of
Europe
 Table 5 : Common usage of RFID

2.3 Privacy Concerns

Notwithstanding the current state of RFID technology or current practices, certain aspects of the
technology – notably the small size of the tags and the ability to uniquely identify an object –
pose potential threats to individual privacy. These include, but are not necessarily limited to the
following:

a) Surreptitious collection of information. RFID tags are small and can be embedded into/onto
objects and documents without the knowledge of the individual who obtains those items. As
radio waves travel easily and silently through fabric, plastic, and other materials and are not
restricted to line of sight, it is possible to read RFID tags sewn into clothing or affixed to objects
contained in purses, shopping bags, suitcases, and more. Tags can be read from a distance, by
readers that can be incorporated invisibly into nearly any environment where human beings or
items congregate. It may not, therefore, be readily apparent that RFID technology is in use,
making it virtually impossible for a consumer to know when or if he or she is being "scanned”;

b) Tracking an individual’s movements. If RFID tags are embedded in clothing or vehicles, for
example, and if there is a sufficiently dense network of readers in place, it becomes possible to
track those tags in time and space. Applications to do just this, using a combination of RFID and
Global Positioning System technology, are being proposed by RFID vendors. If the tags can
then be associated with an individual, then by that association the individual’s movements can be
tracked. For example, a tag embedded in an article of clothing could serve as a de facto
identifier for the person wearing it. Even if information about the tagged item remains generic,
identifying items people wear or carry could associate them with, for example, particular events
like political rallies or protests. For Malaysia government, we are applying the RFID technology
for the Malaysian hajj at Mecca. They are supplied with hand tag to trace them especially if they
are lost during hajj season;

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c) Profiling of individuals. RFID technology potentially enables every object on earth to have its
own unique ID (i.e., each bottle of water would have a unique identifier). The use of unique ID
numbers could lead to the creation of a global item registration system in which every physical
object is identified and linked to its purchaser or owner at the point of sale or transfer. If these
unique identifiers are associated with an individual (by linking through a credit card number, for
example), then a profile of that individual’s purchasing habits can easily be created. The example
of RFID profiling of individual such as China to issue over a billion identification cards - one to
every citizen. An example ID badge from Intermec Technologies, currently used for expedited
border crossings between the U.S. and Candada, is shown below by using the RFID technology.

Figure 9 : Intellitag ID

d) Secondary use (particularly in the sense of limiting or controlling such use). The creation of
profiles and the tracking of movement can reveal a great deal of additional information. For
example, the revelation of personal information such as medical prescription or personal health
histories could have an impact on the availability of insurance or employment such as The
Federal Drug Administration has approved a final review process to determine whether hospitals
can use VeriChip RFID tags to identify patients. The 11-millimeter RFID tags will be implanted
in the fatty tissue of the upper arm. The estimated life of the tags is twenty years.

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 Figure 8 : VeriChip RFID

The VeriChip is a radio frequency identification (RFID) device that is injected just below the
skin; the subdermal RFID tag location is invisible to the naked eye. A unique verification number
is transmitted to a suitable reader when the person is within range.

e. Automatic Tracking System – Active tags can be programmed with contents and assigned
locations and then placed on containers and pallets that are stored in a warehouse.
Additional information can be collected and added to the RFID tags as the pallets move
through the warehouse. The tracking system can identify unscheduled movement, so
managers and security can be alerted to possible theft. Automatic tracking system can
identify and keep track of goods that are located anywhere in the warehouse or in any
other part of the building when is RFID is aplied. The amount of idle inventory tied up in
storage can be greatly reduced through effective use of the information provided by the
system. This technology reduce the time and cost for counting stock as it enters the
warehouse by collecting the data automatically and virtually eliminating the need for
manual intervention.
f.

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 Figure 9 : Keeping Pallets Intact

2.4 Advantage of RFID

a. No line of sight requirement.

b. The tag can stand a harsh environment.
c. Long read range. Larger area of coverage. Up to several feet.
d. Portable database
e. Multiple tag read/write.
f. Tracking people, items, and equipment in realtime. Non-line of sight
identification of tags
g. Unattended operations are possible, minimizing human errors and high cost.

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 h. Ability to identify moving elements that have tags embedded.
i. Can be used in diverse environments, including live stock, military, and scientific
areas.
j. RFID can be used in addition to Bar Code. These two technologies can be
complementing each other.
k. Automatic integration with back end software solutions provide end to end
integration of data in real time.
l. Labor reduction
m. Enchanced visibility and forecasting
n. Improved inventory management.
o. Simultaneous automatic reading.

Figure 10 : Multipurpose usage of RFID

2.5 Disadvantage of RFID

a. Bulkier, due to embedding of electronic components in the tag. However, with

advanced techniques, it is possible to reduce the size, and weight of the tags to a
large extent.

b. Prone to physical/electrical damage due to environmental conditions. For

example, tags that are subjected to space exploration may encounter extreme
temperatures. The tags required to be designed for a given application, and may
be costly when designed for use under extreme environmental conditions.

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c. Dead areas and orientation problems - RFID works similar to the way a cell phone or
wireless network does. Just like these technologies, there may be certain areas that have
weaker signals or interference. In addition, poor read rates are sometimes a problem
when the tag is rotated into an orientation that does not align well with the reader. These
issues can usually be minimized by properly implementing multiple readers and using
tags with multiple axis antennas.

d. Security concerns - Because RFID is not a line of sight technology like barcoding, new
security problems could develop. For example, a competitor could set up a high gain
directional antenna to scan tags in trucks going to a warehouse. From the data received,
this competitor could determine flow rates of various products. Additionally, when RFID
is used for high security operations such as payment methods, fraud is always a
possibility.

e. Ghost tags - In rare cases, if multiple tags are read at the same time the reader will
sometimes read a tag that does not exist. Therefore, some type of read verification, such
as a CRC, should be implemented in either the tag, the reader or the data read from the
tag.

g. Proximity issues - Tags cannot be read well when placed on metal or liquid objects or
when these objects are between the reader and the tag. Nearly any object that is between
the reader and the tag reduces the distance the tag can be read from.
h. High cost - Because this technology is new, the components and tags are expensive
compared to barcodes. In addition, software and support personnel that are needed to
install and operate the RFID reading systems (in a warehouse for example) may be more
costly to employ.
i. Unread tags - When reading multiple tags at the same time, it is possible that some tags
will not be read and there is no sure method of determining this when the objects are not
in sight. This problem does not occur with barcodes, because when the barcode is
scanned, it is instantly verified when read by a beep from the scanner and the data can
then be entered manually if it does not scan.

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 j. Vulnerable to damage - Water, static discharge or high power magnetic surges (such as
from a close lightning strike) may damage the tags.

3.0 Barcode Technology

A barcode is a sequence of dark bars on a light background, or the equivalent of this with the
respect to the light-reflecting properties on the surface. The coding is contains in the relative
widths or spacings of the dark bars and light spaces. Perhaps the most familiar barcode is the
universal product code (UPC) which appears on nearly all of the grocery items in supermarket
today.

A barcode scanner is an optical device that reads the code by scanning a focused beam of light,
generally a laser beam, across the bar code and detecting the variations in reflected light. The
scanner converts these light variations into electrical variations that are subsequently digitized

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and fed into the decoding unit, which is programmed to convert the relative widths of the
digitized dark/ light spacings into numbers and/or letters.

The concept of barcode scanning for automatic identification purposes was first proposed by N.J.
Woodland and B. Silver in a patent application field in 1949. The barcode scanners can be
classified into two main categories. They are contact readers and non contact readers. Contact
readers: These devices are normally held in the hands. To read a barcode this type of readers
must either touch the code or come close to it. Non-contact readers: These devices need not be
close to the barcode to read the code. These scanners use either a moving beam or a stationary
beam, but mostly they have a moving laser light beam. These scanners come in both handheld
and fixed mount configurations.

In barcode scanning, depth of field is the distance along the laser beam, centered around the focal
point of the scanner, over which the barcode can be successfully scanned. The depth of field of a
barcode scanner is established by the beam diameter at the focal point of the scanner, the
wavelength of the laser light source, and the size of the minimum bar width in the barcode being
read. Holographic scanning disks used in barcode scanners are frequently designed to be
illuminated with a collimated beam incident normal to the surface of the holographic disk. How
does the barcode scanner read the image? Well, there is a linear photodiode within the scanner
head. This photodiode can read the reflected light off the lines on the barcode. This reflection is a
digital image that is then scanned electronically within the devise. When the image is scanned
electronically, each bar on the barcode is converted to the corresponding number or letter.

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 Figure 11 : Barcode technology

Linear bar codes are used in many applications where the use of a simple numeric or alpha-
numeric code can provide the key to a database of "products". The most obvious limitation is the
amount of data that can be stored in a linear bar code, though other problems can exist with the
substrate that the bar code is printed on providing insufficient contrast or poor ink receptivity
which can cause the quality of the bar code to be less than ideal.

3.1 Advantage of barcode technology

i. Use of barcodes provides a fast, easy and accurate mechanism to enter data into a
computer system for data collection or data lookup
ii. Accelerates workflow efficiency and speed ups throughput process
iii. Eliminate data entry errors
iv. Achieve data accuracy in backend host application
v. The barcode scanner interprets a unique identity of every product.
vi. The occurrence of errors is almost zero.
vii. The process is time and cost-effective.
viii. Access to total production costs is possible.

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 ix. There is a huge saving in the terms of labor effort.
x. Established quality standard
xi. Easy to use
xii. Mature and proven technology
xiii. Affordable

3.2 Disadvantage of barcode technology

a. Optical line-of-sight scanning
b. Limited visibility
c. Incapable of item level tracking
d. Labor intensive
e. Susceptible to environment damage.
f. Prone to human error.

4.0 RFID technology versus Barcode Technology

Given below are the brief differences between the Barcode technology and RFID:

Parameter Bar Code RFID

Frequencies used Optical frequencies Radio frequencies
for tag reading
Type of Line of sight communication Non-line of sight
communication communication
Data Volume Physical limitation exists. It is Can carry relatively
very difficult to read a very large volume of data.
long barcode.
Range of data Very limited range, less than a Can be read up to
readability feet or two. several feet.
Cost Cheap Expensive, but likely
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Physical Size Large
Lifespan Unlimited
Counterfeiting Bar Codes may easily be duplicated
and attached to products and are,
therefore, easily counterfeited
Dynamic Updates Once a Bar Code is printed it remains
frozen. The Code and the process of
attaching the BC is not supportive of
real time updates. It is a labor
intensive process to update any
information on a BC once printed.
Scanning Bar Code must be presented to the
scanner in an orientation and distance
that is very limited. Individual
reading requires that each box on a
pallet be opened and the item pulled
for presentation to the scanner.
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to cost less as more
industries adopt the
technology.
Small
Multi-year lifespan
Tags are produced with a
unique identity code (UIC) or
serial number from the
manufacturer. This is
embedded digitally on the
microchip and may not be
changed, therefore, making
them extremely resistant to
counterfeiting
Tags may be written to and
offer on board memory to
retain information. This
feature may be used to store a
product calibration history,
preventive maintenance, etc.
Updates may be made within
the blink of an eye and
automatically without human
intervention.
Offers a range from inches to
hundreds of feet and does not
require line of sight. This
means that individual Tags
placed within a carton,
packed in a box and stored on
a pallet may be read. You do
 not have to open each box
and present the individual
item.

Simultaneous Scanning Standards have algorithms to support Limited to one bar code at a
simultaneous reading of Tags at one time. Unable to support
time. simultaneous reads.

Reusable Yes No

5.0 Other scanning technologies available

Besides barcode and RFID technology, there are few of scanner systems which is used in several
field.

a. EBT Scanning Technology

Electron Beam Tomography (EBT) is the only imaging technology approved by the FDA for the
early detection of heart disease.

It uses a high-speed electron beam to scan the heart, non-invasively, for the presence of calcium
deposits. Calcium is a marker for plaque formation, also called atherosclerosis. By measuring the
amount of calcium present in and around your coronary arteries, it can provide an accurate
picture of how much plaque you have accumulated. That's important, because the more plaque
you have, the more likely you are to have a heart attack.

EBT captures images at 1/20th of a second – far faster than imaging technologies such as CT or
MRI. Speed is critically important, because your heart is in constant motion. EBT is the only

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non-invasive technology that's fast enough to create a clear picture of what's happening inside
your arteries.

i. EBT is the only scanning technology approved by the FDA to image calcified
plaque.
ii. Only EBT has the scientific validation of hundreds of research studies at major
institutions across the nation.
iii. UltraFast CT may expose you to up to ten times the amount of radiation you'd
receive from an EBT scan.
iv. EBT is highly targeted on the heart tissue.
v. EBT has proven to be extremely accurate.
vi. EBT is repeatable

b. Biometric scanning system

The main biometrics systems on the market work by scanning an individual's fingerprints, hands,
face, iris, retina, voice pattern, signature, or strokes on a keyboard. According to Hogan, finger
scanning accounts for 34 percent of biometric system sales, followed by hand scanning with 26
percent, face scanning with 15 percent, voice scanning and eye scanning with 11 percent each,
and signature scanning with 3 percent. Retinal scanning—which reads the blood vessels in the
back of the eye and requires the user to be within six inches of the scanning device—is the most
accurate system but also the least likely to enjoy widespread use because of people's natural
protectiveness toward their eyes.

When you present your fingerprint or iris, the biometric reader creates a digitised template which
will be used to recognise you in the future. The template is stored, either in a central system, or
on your card. Biometric scanning is already used in many workplaces, high-tech laptops, and on
passports in some European countries. It is also being proposed for the new Identity Cards which
could soon be compulsory in the UK. Biometric scanners are currently used to register asylum
seekers and monitor travellers passing through major airports.
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One benefit of biometrics is that it relieves people from the burden of remembering dozens of
different passwords to company computer networks, e-mail systems, Web sites, etc. In addition
to creating distinct passwords for each system they use or Web site they visit, people are
expected to change their passwords frequently. Employees who have trouble remembering their
passwords may be more likely to keep a written list in a desk drawer or posted on a bulletin
board, thus creating a security risk. But biometrics offers an easy solution to this problem.

A related problem with passwords is that they do not provide reliable security. In fact, hackers
can download password-cracking software for free on the Internet that will test the most obvious
combinations of characters for each user on a system and often find a way in. Electronic retailers
have found that their prospective customers are aware of the unreliable nature of password-based
security systems.

6.0 Conclusion

RFID technology is already replacing bar codes in niche applications. Pundits have high hopes
for this technology to be a universal replacement for the barcode. Just like photocopiers that
replaced carbon paper, RFID provides greater options and is rich with value add possibilities.
Since RFID uses digital electronics the cost is dropping dramatically while benefits improve. As
a result, RFID is creating new processes, markets and opportunities.

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