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While flying their aircraft, World War I pilots were known to catch bullets fired from
enemy soldiers on the ground. Magicians who tried this trick were often seriously injured, or
worse. The bullets traveled about 120 miles per hour (mph). How were the pilots able to catch
bullets with their bare hands, but the magicians could not? By the time you finish working
through this chapter, you’ll know the answer.
Scientists often ask questions about things that most people accept as being “just the way
it is.” In the northern hemisphere, we have more hours of daylight during the summer than in the
winter. In the southern hemisphere, it’s just the opposite. Most people simply accept this fact.
However, scientists want explanations for even the simplest mysteries surrounding us.
We will begin our study of physics with a phenomenon that surrounds us from the
moment we are born—motion. For example, each dawn, we see the Sun in the east, and at dusk it
is in the west. For more than 1000 years, scientists believed that the Sun circled Earth every 24
hours. However now they are convinced that we live in a heliocentric (Sun-centered) solar system
in which Earth and all planets move in orbits around the Sun. What made scientists change their
understanding of Earth’s position and motion in the Solar system? The start of understanding
everyday phenomena such as this is a careful observation and description of the phenomena. In
this chapter, we learn to describe motion.
Jan focuses on a ball in her The two observers (Jan and Tim) see the ball
hands as she walks across the differently. With respect to Jan, the ball’s
room. Tim, sitting at a desk, position does not change. With respect to
also focuses on the ball. Tim, it does change.
Jan reaches the other side of
the room continually
focusing on the ball; her head
did not turn. Tim’s head has
turned in order to follow the
ball.
Ted on train A observes Ted sees Sue as stationary whereas Joan sees
Sue on train B. He does her as moving.
not turn his head to keep
his eyes on Sue. Joan
standing on the station
platform turns her head to
follow Sue.
Pattern
Different observers can describe the same process differently, including whether or not motion is occurring.
The pattern that we discovered by doing these observational experiments was that
different observers describe the same process differently. One person sees the ball moving while
another does not. They are both correct from their perspectives. In order to describe the motion of
something, we need to identify the observer.
Figure 1.1 (a)(b) Two observers see different reasons for the appearance of the Sun relative to Earth
Linear motion A process model of motion using the simplified assumption that an
object, considered as a point-like object, moves along a straight line.
Let’s say we want to construct a model for a car’s motion along a straight stretch of
highway. Since the car is small compared to the length of the highway, we can model it as a
point-like object (a model of an object). Since the highway is long and straight, we can model the
motion as linear motion (a model of a process).
If you think there is more going on, such as the effect the air has on the car, or the effect
that the road surface has on its tires, we agree! The road and the air definitely have important
effects on the motion of the car. They interact with the car. We will start constructing models of
interactions in Chapter 2. For now, we are interested only in the motion of the car and not why the
motion of the car is what it is.
Reference frames
At the beginning of the chapter, we constructed an explanation for how World War I
pilots were able to catch bullets. Specifying the observer before describing the motion is
Note that the coordinate axes are mutually perpendicular to each other. Each axis has a positive
direction, which runs one way along the axis, and a negative direction, which runs in the opposite
direction. The coordinates of the origin are ( x, y, z ) " (0, 0, 0) .
For the example of the World War I pilot catching the bullet, we could choose the object
of reference to be the pilot and the point of reference to be the palm of his hand. The coordinate
system could have the positive x-axis pointing in the direction of the front the plane, the positive
y-axis pointing to the pilot’s left, and the positive z-axis pointing straight up. The origin in time
could be the moment the bullet is beside the pilot. In this reference frame, the pilot is at rest, the
bullet is approximately at rest, and the bullet is located at his side.
(1) You gently push the bowling ball once and The diagram below represents with dots the locations of
let it roll on a smooth linoleum floor. Place the bags each second for the slow moving bowling ball.
beanbags each second beside the bowling ball.
The beanbags are evenly spaced.
(2) Experiment (1) is repeated except you In this diagram the dots are still evenly spaced but now
push the ball harder before you let it roll. The the distance between them is bigger.
beanbags are farther apart but are still evenly
spaced.
(3) You push the bowling ball and let it roll on In this dot diagram there is a decreasing distance between
a carpeted floor instead of a linoleum floor. the dots.
The distance between the beanbags decreases
as the ball rolls.
(4) You roll the ball on the linoleum floor and The dots on the diagram spread farther apart.
gently and continually push on it with a board.
The beanbag separation spreads farther apart
as the pushed ball rolls.
Pattern
! The spacing of the dots allows us to visualize motion.
! When the object travels without speeding up or slowing down, the dots are evenly spaced.
! When it slows down, the dots get closer together.
! When it moves faster and faster, the dots separate farther.
In the experiments above, the beanbags were an approximate record of where the ball
was located as time passed (Fig. 1.2a). The diagrams with dots allowed us to visualize the motion
of the ball. We can represent motion in even more detail by adding arrows to each dot that
indicate which way the object is moving and how fast it is moving as it passes a particular
position. Such a diagram for the first experiment in Observational Experiment Table 1.2 is shown
in Fig. 1.2b. The dots in the diagram indicate the approximate position of the moving object at
equal time intervals (for example, each consecutive second). The arrows represent the direction of
motion and how fast the object is moving. They are called velocity arrows. The longer the arrow,
the faster is the motion. The tiny arrow above the letter v indicates that this characteristic of
motion has a direction as well as a magnitude—called a vector quantity. For the motion in Fig.
1.2b, the dots are evenly spaced, and the velocity arrows all have the same length and point in the
Figure 1.2 (a)Person dropping bags as ball rolls (b)(c) Motion diagrams for steady motion (d)(e) and
changing motion
!
Figure 1.4 A motion diagram that includes #v arrows
!"
#" v
!" !" !"
""v v" v"
!"
!"Draw a velocity change #" v arrow to indicate how the
3.
v
"" arrows are changing between adjacent positions.
Tip! When drawing a motion diagram always specify the observer with respect to whom a
particular motion occurs.
Below is a conceptual exercise—a practice example that involves the skill that you have
just learned. When working on a conceptual exercise, first read it several times. Next, visualize
the situation and draw a sketch of what is happening. Then, construct a physics representation (in
this case, a motion diagram) for the process.
Conceptual Exercise 1.1 Driving in the city A car at a traffic light initially at rest speeds up
when the light turns green. The car reaches the speed limit in 4 seconds, continues at the speed
limit for 3 seconds, then slows down and stops in 2 seconds while approaching the next stoplight.
Finally, the car is at rest for 1 second until the light turns green. Meanwhile, a cyclist approaching
the first green light keeps moving without slowing down or speeding up. She reaches the second
stoplight just as it turns green. Draw a motion diagram for the car, and another for the bicycle as
seen by the observer on the ground. If you place one diagram below the other, it will be easier to
compare them.
Sketch and Translate Visualize the motion for the car and the bicycle as seen by the observer on
the ground. The car trip has four distinct parts:
(1) starting at rest and moving faster and faster for 4 seconds;
(2) moving at a constant rate for 3 seconds;
(3) slowing down to a stop for 2 seconds; and
(4) sitting at rest for 1 second.
Try It Yourself: Two bowling balls are rolling along a linoleum floor. One of them is moving
twice as fast as the other. At time zero, they are next to each other on the floor. Construct motion
diagrams for each ball’s motion during a time of four seconds, as seen by an observer on the
ground. Indicate on the diagrams the locations at which the balls were next to each other at the
same time. Indicate possible mistakes that a student can make answering the question above.
Answer: See Fig. 1.6. They are side-by-side only at time zero—the first dot for each ball. It looks
like they are side-by-side when at the 2-m position, but the slow ball is at the 2-m position at 2 s
and the faster ball is there at 1 s. Similar reasoning applies for the 4-m positions - they are not
side-by-side when at the 4-m position as they reach that point at different times.
Time and time interval Time (clock reading) t is the reading on a clock or some other time
measuring instrument. Time interval ( t2 – t1 ) or #t is the difference of two times. In the SI
system (metric units), the unit of time and of time interval is the second. Time and time interval
are both scalar quantities. They can be measured in other units such as minutes, hours, days, and
years.
Position, displacement, distance, and path length The position of an object is its
location with respect to a particular coordinate system (usually indicated by x or y). The
!
displacement of an object, usually indicated by d , is an arrow (a vector) from an object’s initial
position to its final position. The magnitude (length) of the displacement vector is called distance.
The path length is how far the object moved as it traveled from its initial position to its final
position. Imagine laying a string along the path the object took. The length of string is the path
length.
necessarily the same points! The path length is the distance from xi to 0 plus the distance from 0
to x f (Fig. 1.7b). The displacement for the whole trip is a vector that points from the starting
position at xi to the final position at x f (Fig. 1.7c). The distance for the trip is the magnitude of
the displacement (always a positive value); note that it does not equal the path length.
Tip! The subscripts 1, 2, 3, or i (initial) and f (final) for times and the corresponding positions
sometimes communicate a sequence of different and distinguishable stages in a process involving
the motion of an object. For us the process starts at the beginning of observations of motion and
stops at the end; however, the actual motion occurs before we start observing it and continues
after we stop.
Figure 1.7 Position, path length, displacement and distance for short car trip.
We will use the notation x(t ) when dealing with the functional relationship. However,
when we need to note a specific value of position x at a specific clock reading t1 , instead of
writing x(t1 ) we will write x1 . The same applies to xi , x f , etc. The displacement vector points
The quantity that we determine through the operation x f % xi is called the x scalar
component of the displacement vector and is abbreviated d x (usually we will drop the term
‘scalar’ and just call this the x-component of the displacement). Figure 1.9a shows that the initial
position of person A is xAi " $3.0 m and the final position is xAf " $5.0 m ; thus the x-
component of person A’s displacement is d A x " xAf – xAi " ($5.0 m) % ($3.0 m) = +2.0 m ;
the displacement is positive since the object moved in the positive x-direction. In Fig. 1.9b, person
B moved in the negative direction from initial position of +5.0 m to the final position of +3.0 m;
thus the x-component of displacement of person B is
d B, x " xBf – xBi " ($3.0 m) – (+5.0 m) = – 2.0 m and is negative. To learn more about the
vectors and their components, see Appendix 1.
Tip! The quantities used to describe motion have no meaning unless the reference frame is
specified.
1.5 Representing motion with Table 1.3 Time-position data for linear motion.
data tables and graphs Clock reading (time) Position
So far, we have learned how to t0 = 0.0 s x0 = 1.00 m ALG 2.1.1;
represent motion with motion diagrams, t1 = 1.0 s 2.1.2
x1 = 2.42 m
and developed precise definitions for t2 = 2.0 s x2 = 4.13 m
position, time, and other related concepts. t3 = 3.0 s x3 = 5.52 m
In this section, we learn to represent
t4 = 4.0 s x4 = 7.26 m
constant linear motion with data tables
t5 = 5.0 s x5 = 8.41 m
and graphs.
t6 = 6.0 s x6 = 10.00 m
Imagine walking across the front
Figure 1.12
The role of a reference frame
Always keep in mind that representations of motion (motion diagrams, tables, kinematics
graphs, equations, etc.) depend on the reference frame chosen. Let’s look at the representations
of the motion of a cyclist using two different reference frames.
Table 1.4 Time–position data for cyclist when using Table 1.5 Time–position data for cyclist when using
reference frame 1. reference frame 2.
Sketch and Translate Table 1.4 indicates that the observer in reference frame 1 sees the cyclist at
time t0 " 0.0 s at position x0 " 40.0 m and at t4 " 4.0 s at position x4 " 0.0 m . Thus, the
cyclist is moving in the negative direction relative to the coordinate axis in reference frame 1.
Meanwhile, the observer in reference frame 2 sees the cyclist at time t0 " 0.0 s at position
x0 " 0.0 m and at time t4 " 4.0 s at position x4 " 40.0 m . Thus, the cyclist is moving in the
positive direction relative to reference frame 2.
Simplify and Diagram Since the size of the cyclist is small compared to the distance he is
traveling, we can represent him as a point-like object. A motion diagram for the cyclist is also
shown in Fig. 1.13a. Using the data in the tables, we plot position-versus-time kinematics graphs
for each observer—see Fig. 1.13b and c. Although the graph in Fig. 1.13b looks very different
from the one in Fig. 1.13c, they represent the same motion. The graphs look different because the
reference frames are different.
Notice that in reference frame 1, the cyclist is initially at x0 " 40 m and is moving left
toward the origin—toward smaller values of x, shown as a downward-sloped line in Fig. 1.13b.
However in reference frame 2, the positive direction of the axis points left and its origin and the
cyclist’s initial position x0 " 0 are at the same place. Using this axis, the cyclist is moving to the
left, away from the origin and toward larger values of x. Both graphical descriptions are correct
relative to the reference frames used.
Try It Yourself: A third observer recorded the following values for the time and position of the
same cyclist. Describe the reference frame of this observer.
Figure 1.14
Pattern
It looks like a straight line is the simplest reasonable choice for the best-fit curve in both cases (the data
points do not have to be exactly on the line). The slope of the line representing the motion of car B is
greater than the slope of the line representing the motion of car A. What is the physical meaning of this
slope?
Velocity and speed for constant velocity linear motion For constant velocity linear motion,
the component of velocity vx along the axis of motion can be found as the slope of the
position-versus-time graph or the ratio of the component of the displacement of an object
x2 % x1 during any time interval t2 % t1 :
x2 % x1 #x
vx " " (1.1)
t2 % t1 #t
Examples of units of velocity are: m/s, mi/h, and km/h. Speed is the magnitude of the
velocity and is always a positive number.
Tip! In Eq (1.1) you can use any change in position divided by the time interval during which that
change occurred and obtain the same number—as long as the position-versus-time graph is a
straight line, or the object is moving at constant velocity. Later in the chapter, you will learn how
to modify this equation to find the velocity of an object if the velocity is not constant.
Note that velocity is a vector quantity. If we write the definition in a vector form for the
!
! d
motion at constant velocity, it is v " . Here we divide a vector by a scalar. According to the
#t
operations with vectors (see more in appendix), the resultant vector has the same direction as the
displacement vector – thus the direction for the velocity vector shows the direction of motion
(same as the direction of the displacement vector) and the magnitude shows the speed. But as it is
difficult to operate mathematically with vectors, we will work with components.
Also note that the velocity and speed of an object depend on the observer. Think of a stop
sign on the road. A bus driver approaching the stop sign will say that the velocity and the speed of
the stop sign are non-zero relative to the driver while a person standing at the stop sign would say
its velocity and speed are zero.
x2 " x1 $ vx & t2 % t1 ' . If we apply this equation for time zero ( t0 " 0 ) when the initial position is
x0 , then the position x at any later position time t can be written as follows.
Position equation for constant velocity linear motion
x " x0 $ vx t (1.2)
where x is the function x(t ) , position x0 is the position of the object at time t0 " 0 with
respect to a particular reference frame, and the (constant) x -component of the velocity of
the object vx is the slope of the position-versus-time kinematics graph.
Below you see a new type of task—a quantitative exercise. The purpose of quantitative
exercises is to help you apply the mathematical representations you have just learned to analyze a
different physical situation. They have different steps than conceptual exercises. These steps
focus on constructing mathematical representations of the situation, answering the mathematical
question being asked, and evaluating the result.
Quantitative Exercise 1.3 A cyclist In Conceptual Exercise 1.2, you constructed graphs (Figs.
1.13b-c) for the motion of a cyclist using two different reference frames. Now construct
mathematical representations (equations) for the cyclist’s motion for each of the two graphs. Do
the equations indicate the same position for the cyclist at time t " 6.0 s ?
Represent Mathematically The cyclist moves at constant velocity; thus the general mathematical
x2 % x1
description of her motion is x " x0 $ vx t , where vx " .
t2 % t1
Solve and Evaluate Using reference frame 1 and the graph in Fig. 1.13b, we see that the biker’s
initial position is x0 " $40 m . The velocity along the x-axis (the slope of the graph line) is
0 m - 40 m
vx " " %10 m s
4s-0s
The minus sign in front of the cyclist’s speed indicates that the velocity points in the negative x-
direction (toward the left) relative to that axis. The motion of the bike with respect to reference
frame 1 is described by the equation:
x " x0 $ vx t " 40 m $ & %10 m s ' t
Using reference frame 2 and the graph in Fig. 1.13c, we see that the cyclist’s initial
position is x0 " 0 m . The x-component of the velocity along the axis of motion is
Try it yourself: Use the data for the motion of the cyclist as seen by the third observer in the Try It
Yourself part of Example 1.2 to write the equation of motion. Why is the magnitude of the
cyclist’s velocity different compared to 10 m/s in the example above?
Answer: x " (0 m) $ (%20 m/s)t . The observer is moving with respect to the earth at the same
speed in the direction opposite to the cyclist.
Let’s try an example that is a little more complex. We will use the same steps to solve the
rest of the examples.
Example 1.4 You chase sister Your young sister is running at 2.0 m/s toward a mud puddle that
is 6.0 m in front of her. You are 10.0-m behind her running at 5.0 m/s to catch her before she
enters the mud. Will she need a bath?
Represent Mathematically Use Eq. (1.2) to construct mathematical representations for your and
your sister’s motion. The form of the equation is the same for both ( x " x0 $ vx t ); however, the
values for the initial positions and the components of the velocities along the axis are different.
Sister: xS " &10.0 m ' $ & 2.0 m s ' t
You: xY " & 0.0 m ' $ & 5.0 m s ' t
From the graphs we see that the distance between you and your sister is shrinking with time; do
the equations tell the same story? For example, at time t " 2.0 s , your sister is at position
xS (2 s) " &10.0 m ' $ & 2.0 m s '& 2.0 s ' " 14.0 m and you are at
xY (2 s) " & 0.0 m ' $ & 5.0 m s '& 2.0 s ' " 10.0 m . You are catching up to your sister.
&10.0 m ' $ & 2.0 m s ' t " & 0.0 m ' $ & 5.0 m s't
Rearrange the above to determine the time t when you are both at the same position:
& 2.0 m s ' t % & 5.0 m s ' t " & 0.0 m ' % &10.0 m '
& %3.0 m s ' t " % &10.0 m '
t " 3.33333333 s
The 3.33333333 s number produced by our calculator has many more significant digits
than the givens. Should we round it to have the same number of significant digits as the givens?
The rule of thumb is that if it is the final result, you need to round this number to 3.3, as the
answer cannot be more precise than the given information. However, if the number is instead a
result of an intermediate calculation, do not round it; use it as is to calculate the next value, and
then round the final result.
Sister: xS (t ) " &10.0 m ' $ & 2.0 m s ' (3.33333333 s) " 16.7 m
You: xY (t ) " & 0.0 m ' $ & 5.0 m s ' (3.33333333 s) " 16.7 m
Note that if you used the rounded number 3.3 s, you would get 16.5 m for your sister and 16.6 m
for you. These would be slightly less than the result calculated above. However, for our purposes
it does not matter, as the goal of this example was to decide if you could catch your sister before
she reaches the puddle. Since you caught her at a position of about 16.7 m, with the uncertainty of
about 0.1 m, this position is greater than 16.0 m distance to the puddle. Therefore your sister
reaches the puddle before you. This answer seems consistent with the graphical representation of
their motion shown in Fig. 1.18b.
Try It Yourself: Describe the problem situation using a reference frame with the sister (not the
earth) as the object and point of reference, and the positive direction pointing toward the puddle.
Answer: With respect to this reference frame, the sister is at position 0 and at rest; you are
initially at –10.0 m and moving toward your sister with velocity $3.0 m s ; and the mud puddle
is initially at +6.0 m and moving toward your sister with velocity %2.0 m s (Fig. 1.18c).
Figure 1.18(c)
reference)? You are moving at a constant velocity whose x component is vx " $5 m/s , and your
sister at +2.0 m/s. Put clock readings on the horizontal axis
and the x-component of your and your sister’s velocities on
the vertical axis; then plot points for these velocities at each
time (see Fig. 1.19a). The best-fit curve for each person is a
horizontal line, which makes sense since the velocity is not
changing. For you the equation of the best-fit line is
vY x & t ' " $5.0 m s and for your sister vS x & t ' " $2.0 m s ,
where vx (t ) represents the x component of velocity as a
function of time. Figure 1.19(a) V vs t graph lines
with Earth as object of reference
Do you think these graph lines will be different if instead we choose your sister as the
object of reference? Her velocity with respect to herself is zero; so the best-fit curve will again be
a horizontal line, but it will be at a value of 0.0 m s instead of +2.0 m/s. With her as the object
of reference, your velocity is +3.0 m/s (see Fig. 1.19b) and the mud velocity is –2.0 m/s. The
Tip! Notice that a horizontal line on a position-vs-time graph means that the object is at rest (the
position is constant with time). The same horizontal line on the velocity-vs-time graph means that
the object is moving at constant velocity (it does not change with time).
Displacement is the area between a velocity-versus-time graph line and the time axis For
motion with constant velocity, the displacement x2 % x1 of an object during a time interval from
t1 to t2 is the area between a velocity-versus-time graph line and the time axis between those two
clock readings. The displacement is positive for areas above the time axis and negative for areas
below the time axis.
Figure 1.22
Because velocity is a vector quantity and the acceleration shows how quickly the velocity
changes as time progresses, acceleration is also a vector quantity. We can define acceleration in a
more general way. The average acceleration of an object during a time interval is:
! ! !
! v2 – v1 #v
a" "
t2 – t1 #t
You can see that to determine the acceleration, we need to determine the velocity change
!
vector #v . Remember that the capital delta # means “final value minus initial value”, or in this
case, the velocity of the object at a later time t2 minus the velocity of the object at an earlier time
! ! !
t1 ( #v " v2 % v1 ). This equation involves the subtraction of vectors. However, it is possible to
Acceleration An object’s average acceleration during a time interval #t is the change in its
!
velocity #v divided by that time interval:
! ! !
! v – v #v
a" 2 1 " (1.3)
t2 – t1 #t
If #t is very small, then the acceleration given by this equation is the instantaneous
acceleration of the object. For one-dimensional motion, the component of the acceleration
along a particular axis (for example, for the x axis) is:
v 2x – v1x #vx
ax " "
t2 – t1 #t . (1.4)
2
The unit of acceleration is (m/s)/s = m/s .
Note that if an object has an acceleration of +6 m/s 2 , it means that its velocity changes by
+6 m/s in 1 s, or by +12 m/s in 2 s [ (+12 m/s)/(2 s) = + 6 m/s2 ].
Tip! If it is difficult for you to think about velocity and acceleration in abstract terms, try
calculating the acceleration for simple integer velocities, as done above.
Note that is possible for an object to have a zero velocity and a non-zero acceleration –
for example when an object starts moving from rest – zero initial velocity and speeds up as it time
For one-dimensional motion, the directions of the vector components ax , vx , and v0x are
indicated by their signs relative to the axis of motion—positive if in the positive x- direction and
negative if in the negative x-direction.
Example 1.6 Car’s changing velocity Suppose that in a 2.0-s time interval, the velocity of a car
changes from –10 m/s to –14 m/s. Describe the motion of the car and determine its acceleration.
Sketch and Translate The process is represented in Fig. 1.24a. The car is moving in the negative
direction with respect to the chosen reference frame. The components of the car’s velocity along
the axis of motion are negative: v0 x " –10 m/s at time t0 " 0.0 s and vx " –14 m/s at
t " 2.0 s . The speed of the car (the magnitude of its velocity) increases. It is moving faster in the
negative direction.
!
Simplify and Diagram A motion diagram for the car is shown in Fig. 1.24b. Note that #v points
in the negative x-direction.
During the second 1-second time interval, the velocity changed by another –2 m/s and was now
(–12 m/s) + (–2 m/s) = (–14 m/s) . In this example, the car was speeding up by 2 m/s each
second in the negative direction.
Try It Yourself: What is the car’s acceleration if its velocity changes from +14 m/s to +10 m/s
in 2.0 seconds?
Answer: ax " (–2.0 m/s)/s " –2.0 m/s2 . The car’s velocity in the positive x-direction is
decreasing 2.0 m/s each second.
Tip! When an object is speeding up, the acceleration is in the same direction as the velocity, and
the velocity and acceleration have the same sign. When an object slows down, the acceleration is
in the opposite direction relative to the velocity; they have opposite signs. For example, when an
object is moving in the negative direction and slowing down, its acceleration is in the positive
direction and has a positive sign.
Displacement from a v-vs-t graph The displacement x2 % x1 of an object during a time ALG
interval t2 % t1 is the area between the velocity-versus-time curve and the time axis between 2.1.7,
2.1.8
those two clock readings. The displacement is negative for areas below the time axis and
positive for areas above.
Figure 1.25
We can find the area between this curve and the time axis by breaking the area into a
1
triangle on top and a rectangular below (Fig. 1.26b). The area of a triangle is * base * height .
2
The base of the triangle is t % 0 and the height is vx % v0x . So, the area of the triangle is
1 1 1
Atriangle " & t % 0 '& vx % v0 x ' " & t '& axt ' " axt 2 ,
2 2 2
where we substituted vx % v0 x " ax t from Eq. (1.5) into the above. Note that vx is the value of the
x- component of the velocity at time t .
The area of the rectangle equals its width times its height:
Arectangle " vx 0 & t % 0 '
The total area under the curve (the displacement x % x0 of the object) is
1
x % x0 " Arectangle $ Atriangle " v0 xt $ ax t 2
2
1
+ x " x0 $ v0 xt $ ax t 2
2
(Note that the symbol + means that this equation follows from the previous equation.) Does the
above result make sense? Consider a limiting case, for example when the object is traveling at a
constant velocity (when ax " 0 ). In this case the equation should reduce to the result from our
investigation of linear motion with constant velocity ( x " x0 $ vx 0t ). It does. We can also check
the units of each term in this equation for consistency (when terms in an equation are added or
subtracted, each of those terms must have the same units). Each term has units of meters, so the
units also check.
Position of an object during linear motion with constant acceleration For any initial
position x0 at clock reading t0 " 0 , we can determine the position x of an object at any later
time t , provided we also know the initial velocity v0 x of the object and its constant
acceleration ax :
1
x " x0 $ v0 x t $ ax t 2 (1.6)
2
Example 1.7 Acceleration during a car collision A car traveling at 45 mi/h collides head-on
with a concrete pillar. During the collision, the front of the car compresses 1.0 m. The driver, if
belted securely in the car, also travels about 1.0 m while stopping during the collision. Determine
the acceleration of the driver during the collision.
Figure 1.28(a)
Figure 1.28(b)
+ 2ax & x % x0 ' " & 2vx 0 vx % 2vx20 ' $ & vx2 % 2vx vx 0 $ vx20 '
+ 2ax & x % x0 ' " vx2 % vx20
vx2 % vx20
+ ax "
2 & x % x0 '
Solve and Evaluate Now we can use the above equation to solve for the acceleration. We also
need to convert the initial speed of the car in mi/h to m/s:
In the Represent Mathematically step above, we developed a new equation for the
acceleration by combining Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6). This useful equation is rewritten and described
briefly below.
Figure 1.29
Represent Mathematically Now construct equations to represent Jim’s and Sarah’s motion:
Jim: x " $4.0 m +(2.0 m/s)t
Sarah: X " $10.0 m $ (–1.5 m/s)t
Solve and Evaluate We were not asked to solve for any quantity. We will do it in the following
Try It Yourself exercise.
Try It Yourself: Determine the time when Jim and Sarah are at the same position, that is, when
x " X and where is that position?
Answer: They are at the same position when t " 1.7 s and when x " X " 7.4 m .
Tip! Note that in the last example we indicated the positions and velocities of Jim and of Sarah
using different symbols. Using the same x and v for each would be confusing.
Conceptual Exercise 1.9 Equation Jeopardy The following equation describes an object’s
motion:
x " & 5.0 m ' $ & %3.0 m s ' t
Construct a sketch, a motion diagram, kinematics graphs, and a verbal description of a situation
that is consistent with this equation. There are many possible situations that the equation
describes equally well.
Sketch and Translate This equation looks like a specific example of our general equation for the
linear motion of an object with constant velocity: x " x0 $ v0 x t . The minus sign in front of the
3.0 m/s indicates that the object is moving in the negative x-direction. At time zero, the object is
located at position x0 " $5.0 m with respect to some chosen object of reference. Let’s imagine
that this chosen object of reference is a running person (the observer) and the equation represents
the motion of a person sitting on a bench (object of interest) as seen by the runner. (You can
probably think of easier possible processes described by the equation.) A labeled sketch of this
possible situation is shown in Fig. 1.30a. The positive axis points from the observer (the runner)
towards the bench and the person sitting on it is 5.0 m in front of the runner and coming closer to
the runner as time elapses.
Figure 1.30(a)
Simplify and Diagram We are modeling the object of interest as a point-like object. A motion
diagram for the situation is shown in Fig. 1.30b. The equal spacing of the dots and the equal
lengths of velocity arrows both indicate that the object of interest is moving with constant
velocity with respect to the observer.
Figure 1.30(b)
Figure 1.30(c)(d)
Try It Yourself: Suppose we switch the observer and object of reference roles in the last example.
Now the person on the bench is the object of reference and observes the runner. We choose to
describe the process by the same equation as in the example:
x " & 5.0 m ' $ & %3.0 m s ' t
Construct an initial sketch and a motion diagram that are consistent with the equation and with
the new observer and new object of reference.
Answer: Figure 1.31a is an initial sketch for this process and Fig. 1.31b is a consistent motion
diagram. The kinematics graphs for this process are the same as in the example.
We’ve just learned how to analyze linear motion with constant velocity (zero
acceleration). Let’s apply what we’ve learned to analyze linear motion with constant (non-zero)
acceleration.
Example 1.10 Equation Jeopardy Problem A process is represented mathematically by the ALG
following equation: 2.2.2-
2.2.7;
x " & %60 m ' $ &10 m s ' t $ &1.0 m s 2 ' t 2 , 2.2.9
Use the equation to construct an initial sketch, a motion diagram, and words to describe a process
that is consistent with this equation.
Sketch and Translate The above equation appears to be an application of Eq. (1.6), which we
constructed to describe linear motion with constant acceleration, if we assume that 1.0 m/s 2 in
front of t 2 is the result of dividing 2.0 m/s 2 by 2:
1
x " x0 $ v0 x t $ ax t 2 .
2
1
x " & %60 m ' $ &10 m s ' t $ & 2.0 m s 2 ' t 2
2
It looks like the initial position of the object is x0 = –60 m , its initial velocity is v0 x = +10 m/s ,
and its acceleration is ax = +2.0 m/s 2 . Let’s imagine that this equation describes the motion of a
car passing a van in which you, the observer, are riding in the van on a straight highway. The car
is 60 m behind you and moving 10 m/s faster than your van. The car speeds up at a rate of
2.0 m/s 2 with respect to the van. The object of reference is you in the van; the positive direction
is the direction in which the car and van are moving. A sketch of the initial situation with the
known information is shown in Fig. 1.32a.
Simplify and Diagram The car can be considered as a point-like object—much smaller than the
dimensions of the path it travels. The car’s velocity and acceleration are both positive. Thus, the
car’s speed in the positive x-direction is increasing as at moves toward the van (toward the
origin). A motion diagram for the car’s motion as seen from the van is shown in Fig. 1.32b. The
successive dots in the diagram are spaced increasingly farther apart as the velocity increases; the
velocity arrows are drawn increasingly longer. The velocity arrow (and the acceleration) point in
the positive x-direction, that is, in same direction as the velocity arrows.
Figure 1.32(b)
Represent Mathematically We were given the mathematical representation of the situation at the
start of the Equation Jeopardy Problem.
Solve and Evaluate To evaluate what we have done, we can check the consistency of the different
representations. For example, we can check if the initial position and velocity are consistent in the
equation, the sketch, and the motion diagram. In this case, they are.
Try It Yourself: Describe a different scenario for the same mathematical representation.
Answer: This could be a mathematical representation of the motion of a cyclist moving on a
straight path as seen by a person standing on a sidewalk 60 m in front of the cyclist. The positive
direction is in the direction the cyclist is traveling. When the person starts observing the cyclist,
he is moving at an initial velocity of v0 x = +10 m/s and speeding up with acceleration
ax = +2.0 m/s 2 .
Sketch and Translate: From the graph, we see that the car’s velocity at time
! Sketch the situation described in the problem. zero is v0 x " $14 m/s . The object of reference is the
! Include an object of reference, a coordinate ground. The plus sign means it is moving in the
system and indicate the origin and the positive positive x-direction. From the graph, we see that the
direction. car’s velocity in the positive x-direction decreases by
! Label the sketch with relevant information. 2.0 m/s for each second; thus the slope of the graph
#vx
is (–2.0 m/s)/s . A labeled initial situation
#t
sketch is shown below. The car’s initial position is
unknown—we’ll choose to place it at position x0 " 0
at t0 " 0 .
Simplify and diagram: We will model the car as a point-like object moving
! Decide how you will model the moving object along a straight line. A motion diagram for the car is
(for example, as a point-like object) shown below. The velocity arrows get increasingly
! Can you model the motion as constant velocity or smaller since the acceleration arrow points opposite
constant acceleration? the velocity arrows.
! Draw motion diagrams and kinematics graphs if
needed.
Try It Yourself: A cyclist is moving in the negative x-direction at a speed of 6.0 m/s (the positive
direction points to the right). The cyclist sees a red light and stops in 3.0 seconds. What is the
cyclist’s acceleration?
Answer: ax " $3.0 m/s 2 . Why is the acceleration positive even though the cyclist’s speed
decreased? Hint: Draw a motion diagram and think about the direction of the velocity change
arrow and the acceleration arrow relative to the chosen positive direction.
Example 1.12 Stopping for a cross walk You are driving at a moderate speed of 8.0 m/s (18
mph). Suddenly, you become distracted and fail to notice a crosswalk until you are 3.0 m from
the crosswalk (you are supposed to stop at or before the crosswalk). You hit the brakes and slow
down at a rate of 8.0 m/s each second. What is time interval needed for the car to reach the
crosswalk, and how fast is the car moving at that instant?
Sketch and Translate From the text of the problem we see that the motion is described with
respect to the ground. Let’s choose a coordinate axis that points toward the right, opposite your
Figure 1.34(a)
Simplify and Diagram A motion diagram for the car is shown in Fig. 1.34b. Note that the velocity
arrows pointing in the negative direction are getting shorter as the car moves toward the left.
Recall that earlier in the chapter, we saw that the velocity change arrow and the acceleration
arrow point opposite the direction of the velocity when an object’s speed is decreasing. This
means the acceleration points in the positive direction and is positive.
Figure 1.34(b)
Solve and Evaluate To determine the time when the position is zero, we need to solve the last
equation for the unknown time t. Notice that it is not a linear equation, but a quadratic equation.
Evidently the car continued to slow down in the negative direction until t " 1.0 s and when 1.0
m beyond the start of the crosswalk. Because of the positive acceleration, the car unrealistically
moved backward in the positive direction reaching the cross walk stop sign again at 1.5 s.
Review Question 1.8 A car’s motion with respect to the ground is described by the following
function:
x " & %48 m ' $ &12 m s ' t $ & %2.0 m s 2 ' t 2
We can represent the motion of a falling ball mathematically using the equations of
motion for constant acceleration [Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6)] with a y " g = 9.8 m/s 2 :
1
y " y0 $ v0 y t $ (9.8 m/s 2 ) t 2 . (1.9)
2
where y0 and v0 y are the position and instantaneous velocity of the object at the clock reading
t0 " 0 . These equations apply if the positive y direction is down. If using an upward pointing y-
axis, a minus sign is placed in front of the 9.8 m/s2. The magnitude of the object’s acceleration
while falling without air resistance is given a special symbol g " 9.8 m/s 2 .
If we videotape a small object thrown upwards and then use the data to construct a velocity-
versus-time graph, we find that its acceleration is still the same at all clock readings. Using an
upward pointing axis, its acceleration is –9.8 m/s 2 on the way up; –9.8 m/s 2 on the way down;
and even –9.8 m/s 2 at the instant when the object is momentarily at rest at the highest point of its
motion. At all times during the object’s flight, its velocity is changing at a rate of –9.8 m/s each
second. A motion diagram and the graphs representing the position-versus-time, velocity-versus-
time and acceleration-versus-time are shown in Fig. 1.39. The positive direction is up. Notice that
when the position-versus-time graph is at its maximum (object is at maximum height), the velocity
is instantaneously zero (the slope of the position-versus-time graph is zero). The acceleration is
never zero, even at the moment when the velocity of the object is zero.
Tip: It might be tempting to think that at the instant an object is not moving, its acceleration must
be zero. This is only true for an object that is at rest and remains at rest. In the case of an object
thrown upward, if its acceleration at the top of the flight is zero, it would never descend (it would
remain at test at the very top of the flight).
Another tip! Physicists say that an object is in a state of free fall even when it is thrown upward,
as its acceleration is the same on the way up as on the way down. The acceleration points down in
the vertical y direction. When the y -axis points down, the y-component of the acceleration
g y " 9.8 m/s 2 ; when the y -axis points up g y " %9.8 m/s 2 .
Galileo
Galileo Galilee was a founder of the contemporary practice of science—science that is
based on making careful observations, finding patterns, proposing hypotheses/explanations for
these patterns, and testing these explanations by predicting the outcomes of new experiments. He
was the first scientist to write his papers in his native language rather than in Latin. He was the
first to point a telescope at the Moon and see the craters there. He was the first to observer the
moons of Jupiter—four satellites that are now called the Galilean moons of Jupiter. Jupiter has
many more moons than just four, but only the largest were visible to Galileo with his telescope.
He got in trouble for his study of sunspots. At the time it was believed the Sun was not supposed
to have any spots at all. He not only saw sunspots, but he saw that they moved across the face of
the Sun. His hypothesis was that the Sun rotated, which turned out to be correct (read more about
sunspots in Chapter 17). His discoveries were evidence that Earth was just one planet out of
Example 1.13 Research rocket test flight The European REXUS 3 research rocket is used to test
electronic parts, which will be used on future spaceflights. In April 2006, the engine fired during
takeoff for 25.0 seconds, giving the rocket an average acceleration of about 60 m/s2. After the
rocket’s engine shut off, the rocket continued upward into the atmosphere at decreasing speed (like
an upward thrown ball slowing down after it leaves the thrower’s hand). Determine (a) the
REXUS 3’s height above Earth’s surface at the end of the 25.0 s fuel burn, (b) its speed at that
time, and (c) the height of REXUS 3 above Earth’s surface when it reached its highest altitude.
Sketch and Translate We choose the earth as the object of reference. The point of reference is the
initial position of the rocket. The positive direction is upward. We need to analyze the rocket’s
motion in two parts because there are two different values for acceleration. During the first part of
the rocket’s motion, the engine is firing and the rocket has a constant acceleration of $60 m/s 2 .
During the second part of the rocket’s motion, the engine is off and its acceleration is –9.8 m/s 2 .
For (a) and (b), we need to find the rocket’s height y1 and speed v1 y at the end of part I of the
motion. For (c), we need to find the highest point of the rocket, or
y2 at the end of part II. After this, the rocket’s velocity becomes
negative, and it begins falling back toward Earth. The process is
pictured in Fig. 1.40a.
Simplify and Diagram We make several assumptions: 1) the
rocket is a point-like object, 2) the acceleration of the rocket
during part I is constant at +60 m/s 2 , and 3) the acceleration
during part II is constant at –9.8 m/s 2 . Assumptions 2) and 3)
are questionable. The rocket will be traveling at increasing speed
and very rapidly; air resistance is likely to have a changing effect
on the rocket motion, making its acceleration vary. But, if we do
not make these assumptions, we will not be able to apply our
model of constant acceleration motion. Figure 1.40b shows a
motion diagram for both parts of the rocket’s motion. Notice the
acceleration vectors. Figure 1.40 Rocket flight
Represent Mathematically The standard kinematics equations for constant accelerated motion will
be adapted for each part of the motion:
v y " v0 y $ a y t (1.5)
1
y " y0 $ v0 y t $ a y t 2 (1.6)
2
Solve and Evaluate We start by applying the above for the fuel burn.
acceleration during fuel burn aIy " $60 m/s 2 , and the time at the end of the burn t " 25 s . The
speed of the rocket at the end of the burn is determined using Eq. (1.5):
v1 y " v0 y $ aIy t1 " 0 $ & 60 m s 2 ' & 25.0 s ' " 1500 m s " 1.5 * 103 m s .
We’ve switched to scientific notation here because when we wrote 1500 m s , it was not possible
to indicate how many significant digits there were. Are there two, three, or four? There are two,
because the acceleration has just two significant figures. Use Eq. (1.6) to determine the position
of the rocket at the end of the fuel burn):
1 1
y1 " y0 $ v0 y t $ aIy t 2 " 0 $ 0 $ & 60 m s 2 ' & 25.0 s ' " 2.0 * 104 m
2
2 2
Part II (after the rocket burn): The end of part I is the beginning of part II, so the position and
velocity of the rocket at the end of part I is the position and velocity of the rocket at the beginning
of part II. At the end of part II, the rocket is at its highest point and has zero velocity for a brief
instant (it had a positive velocity a moment earlier, and will have a negative velocity a moment
later.) This means that v2 y " 0 . We use Eq. (1.7) to find the height of the rocket at the end of part
II:
v22 y " v12y $ 2aIIy & y2 % y1 '
Drivers count on their ability to apply the brakes in time if the car in front of them suddenly
slows. However, this is not always possible. Factors affecting the possibility of a collision due to
tailgating include:
! Car decelerations (‘deceleration’ is a term used to describe acceleration that is opposite
the direction of motion).
! Driver reaction time (the time interval it takes for a driver to respond by applying the
brakes from the time he or she sees the need to slow down).
! The cruising speeds of the cars before they start applying their brakes.
! The distance between the lead and tailgating car.
Let’s look at motion of two vehicles in what appears to be a safe driving situation.
Example 1.14 An accident involving tailgating A sports car follows about two car lengths (10.0
m) behind a van. At the beginning of the process, both vehicles are traveling at a conservative 25
m/s speed (56 mph). The driver of the van suddenly slams on the brakes decelerating at 9.0 m/s2
to avoid an accident. The car’s driver’s reaction time is 0.80 s and the car’s maximum
deceleration is 9.2 m/s 2 . Will the car be able to stop before hitting the van?
Sketch and Translate Figure 1.41a represents this situation for each vehicle. We’ll use capital
symbols to indicate quantities referring to the van and lower case symbols for quantities referring
to the car. We use the coordinate system shown in Fig. 1.41a with the origin of the coordinates at
the initial position of the sports car’s front bumper. The positive direction is in the direction of
motion.
The process starts when the van starts braking (constant negative acceleration). It moves
at constant acceleration throughout the problem situation. The motion of the car is broken into
two parts: 1) the motion before the driver applies the brakes (constant velocity), and 2) its motion
after driver starts braking (constant negative acceleration).
Simplify and Diagram We model each vehicle as a point-like object, but since we are trying to
determine if they collide, we need to be more specific about their locations. The position of the
car will be the position of its front bumper. The position of the van will be the position of its rear
bumper. We look at the motion of each vehicle separately. If the car’s final position is greater
than the van’s final position, then a collision has occurred at some point during their motion.
Assume that the vehicles have constant acceleration so that we can apply our model of motion
acceleration A = –9.0 m/s 2 . Its initial position is two car lengths in front of the front of the car,
so X 0 " 2 * 5.0 m " 10 m . The final position of the van is:
02 % & 25 m s '
2
Vx2 % V02x
X" $ X0 " $ 10 m " 45 m.
2 Ax 2 & %9.0 m s 2 '
The car’s initial position x0 " 0 , its initial velocity is v0 x " 25 m/s , its final velocity
v2 x " 0 , and its acceleration when braking is ax " –9.2 m/s 2 . The car’s final position is:
02 % & 25 m s '
2
v2 % v2
x2 " 2 x 1x $ (x0 $ v0xt1 ) " $ [0 m $ & 25 m s '& 0.8 s '] " 54 m.
2ax 2 & %9.2 m s 2 '
The car would stop about 9.0 m beyond where the van would stop. There will be a collision
between the two vehicles. Another way to solve this problem is to switch to a reference frame
associated with the van. In this reference frame the van is at rest and car approaches it. If it
reaches the van while moving, the collision occurs.
This analysis illustrates the reason why tailgating is such a big problem. The car traveled
at a 25-m/s constant velocity during the relatively short 0.80 s reaction time. During the same
0.80 s, the van’s velocity decreased by (0.80 s)(–9.0 m/s 2 ) = 7.2 m/s from 25 m/s to about 18
m/s. So, the van was moving somewhat slower than the car when the car finally started to brake.
Since they were both decelerating at about the same rate, the tailgating vehicle’s velocity was
always greater than that of the vehicle in front (see Fig. 1.41b)—until they hit.
Try It Yourself: Two cars, one behind the other, are traveling at 30 m/s (13 mph). The front car
hits the brakes and has a 10-m/s2 deceleration—the same as that of the back car. The driver of the
second car has a 1.0 s reaction time. The front car’s speed has decreased to 20 m/s during that 1.0
s. The back car traveling at 30 m/s starts braking. How far behind the front car should the back
car be so it does not hit the front car?
Answer: The back car should be at least 25 m behind the front car.
If a drivers’ reaction time were 0.1 s instead of 0.8 s, then tailgating might not be such a
problem, but such short reaction times are extremely rare. Many tailgating accidents occur when
we are not alert, either while eating, talking on a cell phone, or looking at the GPS unit. As a
x % x0 "
2ax (1.7)