One-dimensional Motion

motion of a body under gravity are examples of one-

1.1 OINTRODUCTION dimensional motion.
Mechanics is the branch of science which deals with the The motion which is confined to a plane is called two-
notion of bodies and the effect of force on stationary or dimensional motion or planar motion. This type of motion
noving bodies. can only be described by two-dimensional or three-

he branches of mechanics are as follows: dimensional coordinates. The motion of a planet around the
sun, a body revolving in a circle, a billiard ball moving over
Mechanics the billiard table etc. are the examples of two-dimensional
motion.
Dynamics Statics
The motion which is not confined to a plane is called three-
Kinematics Kinetics dimensional motion. This type of motion can only be
explained by three-dimensional coordinates. The examples
Dynamics: A branch of mechanics in which motion of a of three dimensional motion are the spiral motion of a
ody and the effect of force on the motion of the body are particle or the motion of an aeroplane.
iiscussed.
Kinematics: It is restricted to the study of motion and 1.2 REST AND MOTION
1ot the causes of motion.
Rest: When a body does not change its position with
Kinetics: It incorporates the study and analysis of the time, the body is said to be at rest. For example buildings,
notion of a body together with the causes of motion. Also, roads, trees, etc. appear to be in rest.
he mass of a body and effect of force on the mass are
Motion: When a body changes its position with
time,
tudied here.
the body is said to be in motion. A moving car, an aeroplane
. Statics: A branch of mechanics which deals with the flying in the air, the earth revolving around the sun, etc. are
quilibrium of a body under the action of a number of forces examples of moving objects.
ind studies the conditions of equilibrium.
Absolute rest: The earth revolves around the sun and
also simultaneously spins on its own axis. It is therefore
O1.1.1 One-dimensional,two-dimensional
three-dimensional motions:
and classified as a moving object. So the plants and buildings on
earth which seem to be at rest are actually in states of
Ne will be discussing only one-dimensional motion in this motion, with respect to the sun and other heavenly bodies.
hapter The motion which is confined to a straight line is The sun is also in motion with respect to other stars in our
talled one-dimensional motion or rectilinear motion. This galaxy. Different galaxies are also in motion with respect to
ype of motion can be explained by one-dimensional, two- one another. Hence, nothing can be identified to be in
limensional or three-dimensional coordinates (see section absolute rest in the universe. Rest is an apparent state of an
.3). The motion of a car moving in a straight line or the
object.
41
 study of rest and motion
lt may be
noted that. for the -

w i t h respect to
of any one of different reference fra
can be object. the choice
e f it exists)
physically obviously. every reference fra
allowed. But
body in absolute rest is For example, the sun may be
not equaly convenient.
t e motion toa of an object.| as the reference frame to study the motion of a caro
earth. But then. the study would be highly complicate
ions therefore the choice would be inmpractical.
Any state of rest or motion is relative. A body at rest i

abso- reference frame may be in motion with respect to an

frame of reference. This is in accordance with the com
HS O1
that. all motions in the universe are realtive, as there

no absolute rest or absolute motion.

NCE FRAME
Once a reference frame is conveniently chosen, we cor
of absolute rest and we may ha-
he concepts the task of measurements. For example,
physically meaningless As a measure the position, velocity, acceleration etc. of a m
of rest and motion of a body are this purpose, the refem
body at any instant of time. For
to some other body in the frame should initially be assigned with an origin,
pect
her body provides the frame of reference axes and some reference coordinates.
of use; accord-
assignment is different in different types
are classified as cartesian,
: For the study of the | the measuring systems
Loosely, the sys=
jects in nature, a number polar, spherical polar, cylindrical
etc.

irames are available. In every are called cartesian reference frame, polar reference t
to note that there are often diff-
f those reference frames is chosen etc.; but it is important
frame of reference.
determined by convenience and ways of representing the
same

rest and motion. A few examples

The sun is the most convenient
the sun is considered to be at
the earth and the other planets
1.3.1 CartesianFrame of Reference
The reference frame invented by the French mathemat-
Descartes is called cartesian reference frame or carte
coordinate system.

e to the sun. One-dimensional reference frame:

he earth: Here, the earth pro instantaneous position of a particle moving in a straights
be specified conveniently
nt stationary frame of reference.
can
----.

study the rest and motion of and sufficiently by the distance

P from a fixed
nd us that we observe in our x of the particle Fig. 1.1
as sta- point O along the straight path
stinctively take the earth OX [Fig. 1.1). The motion in such case is one-dimens
reference
>most advantageous motion and the line OX is one-dimensional fran
observations. When we say that
a

reference.
train is moving, the reference
th; we even feel it unnecessary Two-dimensional reference frame: To denot
ame at all. position ofa particle on a plane, two mutually perpendt
axes OX and OY are taken |Fig. 1.2]. In this case
train: The states of passen-
position of the particle P is uniquely expressed b
ide a train compartment can
as a station-
coordinates (x, y). The reference frame, constituted
g the train itself and Y axes, is called a two-dimensional frame of refer
 43
One-dimensional Motion
of rest and motion ofs tance of the particle P from the O
the line origin
ferent reference nesi
ifr
is
any instant,
01.3.3 Spherical Frame of Reference
every reference frame ?+ In this frame of reference, which is three dimensional, the
=
OP =
OA2+AP? =

e. the sun may be chos position of the particle P is denoted by the linear
of a ticle
partici on a fixed plane is called two-
motion ofa car on Aotion distancer of the particle from the origin or pole O, e the
dimension motion. The two-dimensional motion of a
highly conmplicated a angle between the line OP and
cannoot be described by less than two coordinates, x
ctical. particle the Z-axis and the angle o
t
we. A body at rest in o andy between OP (projection of OP
with respect to anothe on the XY plane) and X-axis
P(x.y) Plx.y2) Fig. 1.51. Hence the coordinates
lance with the conce- Y
of P are denoted by (r. 0, 6) , and
realtive, as there
exis they are called the spherical
polar coordinates. Note that
tly chosen, we come
A
while r is a linear coordinate, 0
mple, we may have X
O Fig. 1.5
Fig. 1.2 Fig. 1.3 and o are angular coordinates. 6
ration etc. of a movi
and o are called polar angle and azimuthal angle
purpose, the referen eThree-dimensional
hree-dimensionalreference frame: This is respectively. If it is necessary to define a unique set of
with an origin, som
ce coordinates. Thi
obcazined by drawing three perpendicular lines OX, oY and
a7 from a chosen origin O [Fig. 1.3]. The position of a
spherical coordinates for each point, one must restrict their
ranges. The ranges of the three coordinates are r> 0,
es of use; according narticle P in space is completely expressed by the 0°<< 180° (T radian), 0°< o< 360° (27T radian).
i as cartesian, plan nordinates (x y. z). This system is known as a three
Example: The latitude and longitude of a place on the earth
Loosely, the system
dimensional reference franme. The linear distance of a are the angular coordinates of that place. Actually. if the
bolar reference fram particle P from the origin 0, is given by r ? +?+ 22.
sphere of Fig 1.5 is the earth and the axis 0Z passes through
ere are often differe
Morion of a particle in a three dimensional space is called the north pole, then for a place P on the earth's surface,
reference.
three-dimensional motion. The three-dimensional motion latitude =90°-0 and longitude =o. The direction of the
of a particle cannot be described by less than three axis OX is defined in such a way that the longitude of
erence
coordinates, x, y and z. Greenwich, London is d = 0.
ench mathematicia
frame or cartesia 01.3.2 Polar Frame of Reference Section Related Questions
This is an alternative choice of frame for two-dimensional 1. Rest and motion are relative'. Explain.
Th
HS '01)
frame: motion of particles. 2. How should the position of a point be expressed in a
a straight line
ing in In this reference frame, the position of the particle P is three dimensional spherical frame of reference?
X determined in terms of its linear
distance r, from origin (or pole) O, P( )

Fig. 1.1
Fig.1.4) and the polar angle 6,
that the line
y 4 O APPLICATION OF CALCULUS IN PHYSICS
joining OP subtends with alculus is a very important branch of mathematics. In this
is one-dimension the polar axis OX. The of coordinates X branch, the main pillar is the infinitesimal magnitudes and
ensional framePare taken as (r, 6). If the Fig. 1.4 multitude of infinitesimal numbers. There is no better tool in
inates of P in cartesian frame of reference are (x, y), | mathematics than calculus to express any physical quantity
e: To denote t hen from Fig. 1.4 we can write, which is a quantitative propertyl in mathematical terms.
lally perpendicus Modern calculus was developed in the 17th century by Issac
In this case, t
X =
rcos0, y = rsin6
Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz independently.
expressed by t + and tan6 = Calculus is a Latin word; it means 'small pebble used in an
constituted of
polar coordinates of any point are related to the abacus for counting. The word calculus is also used in Latin
rame of referenc
cartesian 0ordinates by the above as a synonym of counting.
equations.
 chhaya PHYSICS XI Part1

SCCxdr In|secx+ tanx it The particles of an object under translatory

=
+ c =
In|tan verse equal lengths in equal intervals of tim mo
also move parallel to one another. As in
VE cosec xdx =In|cosecx- cots+ Fig, 1
c =
Intan+c BB'B" and CC'C" lines are parallel and
cos m +C qual pe

dr = sinm +C
m

ixsec?xdx =tanx+ c
cosec? xdx -cotx+ c =

Fig. 1.9
secxtan xdx = secx + c
it Lines joining any two particles of the body in
tra
cosecxcotxdx = - cosecX+C remain parallel to one another for any
position
object. Observe, the lines AB, A'B' and A"g"
Integrals of logarithmic and exponentialfunctions: allel to one another.
I n axdx = x(lnar - 1)+c The motion of any particle along a Curved line
can b
sidered as the aggregate of number of
e d x = e*+ c mx infinitesimall
iemxdx=+c m
translatory motions.

1.5 DIFFERENT KINDS OF M0TION: TRANS- Rotation: When an object moves in a

circul
LATION AND ROTATION about a fixed point axis, the motion is
or an
called
The axis is called the axis of rotation.Fig. 1.10 showw
Particle: In practical cases, when a body is in
motion itexamples of rotation. However, the axis
can rotate too. When a wheel is pushed, it moves forward.
may be
the same time it also rotates about an axis
Atoutside the object [Fig. 1.10(a)].
its centre.
through
A rain axis of
drop can vibrate while it falls. Representation of such axis a
rotation
motions are usually very complex. To avoid this complexity, rotation
an object is often taken as a geometrical point, ignoring its
shape or size. This geometrical point is called a particle. In
case of linear motion, the properties of the particle and of
the object are identical and so discussion about the motion (a) (b
axis of
of the particle is sufficient to describe the motion of the
rotation
object.
To describe the motion of objects, sometimes we consider a

body to be composed of many particles. In such cases, we do

not consider a geometrical point but the aggregation of

many particles. (c)

Translation: If a body moves along a straight line, its Fig. 1.100
motion is called translation. Motion of a freely falling body
o r the motion of a car along
a straight road, are examples of
Characteristics of rotation:

translational motion. Each constituent particle of a rotating body

Characteristics of translation: an equal angle in a fixed interval of time.

the iAxis of rotation always remains stationary.

iThe direction of motion remains same.
 49
object under translatory motio One-dimensional Motion
in equal intervals of time C o m p l e x motion: If a body exhibits translational as | measure the position of the object, and to express it in a
one another. As in Fig. 1.9, AA well as a rotational motion
simultaneously, then it is said to
well-defined manner, we have to
lines are parallel and equal. be in a state of complex motion.
N

Example:
The wheel of a running car executes a complex motion.
W
The wheel rotates around the axis through its centre
(rotation) and moves forward along the road (transla-

: tion).
Fig. 1.9
particles of the body in translas
e another for any position of
nes AB, A'B and A"B" are
e along a curved line can be
o
f number of infinitesimalysm
The earth rotates around its own axis and at the same
Fig. 1.11
choose a reference point, i.e., an origin-the point O is
time it revolves around the sun following an elliptical
this origin in Fig. 1.11
path. As the orbit is elliptical the earth sometimes
comes close to the sun and sometimes moves away i i measure the linear distance OA; and
from it. So, the earth also exihibits a complex motioon. Li specify the direction of A relative to the origin O.
Comparison between translation and rotation: This would always lead to statements like: 'the
object A is
Translation is motion in a straight line, whereas rotation situated 5 m east of the origin O, or 'the object B is 2 m
is a circular motion in a plane. north-east of O'. In short, we may write
I n translation, the direction of motion is fixed. In rota- OA 5 m towards east:
=
OB 2 m to the north-east.
=

tion, the axis of rotation is fixed. These statements define the positions of the objects at. A
Translation of each constituent particle ofthe body is and at B. It is important to note that, each statement
object moves in a circular p includes the
the same during the movement of the body. In rotation, magnitude of the linear distance, as well as the
xis, the motion is called rotatio direction, relative to the origin.
constituent particles of the body at larger distances
of rotation. Fig. 1.10 shows su
from the axis of rotation describe larger distances. Definition: The position of an object is defined as its
wever, the axis may be loca
linear distance as well as its direction with respect to
(a). Section Related Questions a
pre-assigned reference point.
of 1. Define rotation. What is axis of rotation?
axis of
ion
rotation 2. List the differences between translation and rotation.
Position is a vector quantity: As per the definition,
Analyse the motion of the earth in its ()
position is a physical quantity having both magnitude and
diurnal
direction. So it is a vector quantity (discussed in detail in:the
motion and (i) annual revolution around the sun.
chapter Vector). It is often called the position vector, and
3. What is complex motion? Give examples. denoted by the symbol r.
(b)
axis of
In the above examples, position of
rotation A:
r = 5
m
.6CO SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITIES RELATED
TO MOTION
east; position of B: r2 = 2 m north-east.

Another interesting point is that, to find the position of B

elative to a definite frame of reference, a body may be at relative to A (AB in Fig. 1.11), a simple numerical
est, in any form of motion like translation, rotation,
or
calculation, using the values 5 m and 2 m, is not sufficient.
ViDration etc. For the convenience of kinematical study of The directions to be considered well. This
rest and motion
are as technique
of a body. a few important physical leads branch in mathematics,
9. 1.10
quantities are defined. These are the essential
to a new known as vector
properties algebra (see the chapter Vector).
ion: at represent the states of rest and motion of a body, and
and dimension: The magnitude ofthe position
tneir measured
values furnish the exact physical state.
Units
le of vector is actually a distance. It has the units of length.
rotate
dinterval of time.body
a
rotating
1.6.1 Position C6Ssystem S
ean Unit
emains stationary. object be located at the point A (Fig. 1.ll). To cm n
 50 chhaya
PHYSICSXI Part
is in this case. Hence, it can be concluded
Similarly, the dimension of the position vector is that of zero
na
length, i.e., its dimension = L. displacement of a moving object may be zero in spit
travelling some distance.

1.6.2 Displacement Zero displacement is a null vector with magnitude zes Nume
to
has no fixed direction.
VDefinition: Displacement is defined as the change in A particle mov
Geometric representation of displacemen
position of a moving body in a fixed direction. 7 cm. Estimate
reference frame helps to measure the magnitude
In Fig. 1.12, A and B are two fixed points. Many paths may ment when the
exist between A and B. Three men move from A to B direction of a displacement. Let us
and ii) complet
wing different paths ACB, ADB and AEB. The lengths consider a two dimensional cartesian
OX and Solution: Circumfere
coordinate system where
se paths are different. But as the initial and final
and 0 is the 2 t r =2 x1
uons of the men are the same, their displacements are OY are the two axes

also the same. The length of the minimum distance between origin [Fig. 1.14]. Let a particle begin ---- When it cove-
A and B, i.e., the rectilinear O and reach the
path ADB is the measure of this its journey from
moves from.
displacement. point A(x, y). The length OA gives Hence, dist=
the magnitude of the displacement = 22
=
cm
of the particle OA =w2+ 2. Fig.1.14 is the length
D
Now, if OA makes an angle with the X AB i.e., the
tana = X. In this case we can say that thedirectiq circle. Hence
Fig. 1.12 is 2x7 = 14
displacement makes an angle a with the X-axis
Magnitude and direction of displacement: The a = tan-1Y. B (AB)
length of the straight line connecting the initial and the final On completi
Por any particle in three-dimensional space
positions of a moving body is the displacement is represented by the straight line joining circular path
N
magnitude of its displacement, and initial and the final the circumfe
W E positions of the particle [Fig. 1.151
its direction is from the initial As the partic
particle travels from the point
P^(X, y, 2) to the p
position to the final position along P2 2» 2 2), then PP2 represents its displacement placement i
the straight line joining them. In
5m 4m magnitude of the displacement is given 2EXAMPLE
Fig. 1.13, P and R are the initial A particle m-
and the final positions respectively
PP2(X2-X) +(V2-) +(22- 2) 10 m toward=
of a body and the paths followed by 3m final position tion of its
Q dis
Fig. 1.13
it are, PQ (3 m towards east) and PaX2» Y2 Z2)
QR (4 m towards north). As defined, the displacement is Solution: In this ca
PR and it is independent of the path followed. From the 22 The initial and t
initial
measurements shown, PR = 32 + 42 = 5 m is the pOsitionP , Z,) positions of the
are A and C respe
magnitude of displacement, and the direction is from P to
. The magnitude
R, shown by the arrowhead on PR.

Displacement is a vector quantity: Displacement placement,

has both magnitude and direction and, hence, it is a vector AC = NAB
Fig. 1.15
quantity. represented by PR in this case.
It is Unit and dimension of displacement: = 300

Zero displacement: If a moving object starting from a

a
straight line determines the magnitude of The leng 20 m
point comes finally back to its initial position, then its Hence, unit of
displace the
length is the unit of angle betwe-
displacement becomes zero. dimension is the dimension
displacemen
of length i.e., L. then, tanê BC
Example: A ball comes back to the hands of a thrower when A8
it is thrown vertically upwards. The displacement of the ball
CGS system This angle detern
Unit cm m
 51
One-dimensional Motion

Numerical Examples O1.6.3 Speed

Définition: The distance travelled by a body in unit time
E is called its speed.
A particle moves along a circular path of radius the
7 cm. Estimate the distance covered and displace always measured along the path travelled by
Distance is
moving body, irrespective of whether the path is straight
or
ment when the particle () covers half circular path
curved. Hence, if a body travels a length I in time t,
and (i) completes the total circular path once.
speed (v) =Istance travelled ()
olution: Circumference of the circular path time taken (t)

27r =2xx7 =44 cm. Speed is a scalar quantity.

Unit and dimension of speed in different systems

When it covers half the circumference, the particle
moves from A to B along the path ACB .Fig 1.16). of units:

Hence, distance covered Unit of speed = unitoflength of the path travelled

unit of time
= 2 2 cm. Displacement
is the lengh of straight line CGS system
Unit cm s- m s-l
AB i.e, the diameter of the a
circle. Hence, displacement
is 2 x7 = 14 cm from A to Dimension of speed = Qmension of distance = LT-1
dimension of time
B (AB).
Relation among diferent units:
On completion of the total Fig.1.16
1m s-l = 100 cm .s-l
circularpath ACBA, the distance covered is equal to In addition km h-l is also widely used.
the circumference of the circle = 44 cm.

As the particle comes back to its initial position, dis- 1 km h - l = 1000

placement is zero.
60 x 60
=
m.s,
For easy recall, 18 km h-l = 5 m.s-l.
EXAMPLE
A particle moves 10/3m towards east and then Average speed: Speed of a body can be uniform or
10 m towards north. Find the magnitude and direc variable. When a body travels equal distances in equal
tion of its displacement. intervals of time, its speed is uniform.
distances travelled in equal intervals of time' are
ion: In this case AB 10/3 m, BC = 10m [Fig. 1.17].When
unequal, the body moves with a variable speed.
initial and the final
C For convenience, the average speed is often calculated in
ions of the particle
and C respectively. W
case of motion with variable speed.
e magnitude of dis- Dividing the total distance travelled by the total time taken
S A10m
ment, to travel the distance, we get the average speed.

AC = NAB2 + BC2 Thus if , 2 l3 are the distances travelled by an object in

10 3m
-- o------'B
A- times . t2 and g respectively, then its average speed
300+ 100 Fig. 1.17
20 m total distancetravelled
total time taken to travel the distance
angle between AC and AB is 6, +2t 3
The average speed is not an average of speeds.
tan = = or, 0 =30°.
AB 10/3 Instantaneous speed: Speed of a moving body at any
agle determines the direction of displacement. instant is called its instantaneous speed.
 52 chhaya
PHYSICS XI Part -I
Let us consider that a running train travels 10 m in 0.5s. For | The change of position, i.e., the displacement is a
the motion of a train, this 0.5 s time is the displacement of
an object in
interval is very small. So. quantity. If s
this interval of time may be considered as an then,
instant. Dividing
the distance travelled )
by the train by that short interval of time velocity (v) =
aISplacement
gives the instantaneous speed of the train. Hence, the time ()

instantaneous speed of the train = 20 ms*, is also a vector quantity,

0.5 Velocity ike displacement,
Definition: The instantaneous speed of a particle at a Units and dimension of velocity: Since the
distance covered and that of displacement are the sa
given point is the limiting value of the rate of the distance
also the same.
travelled with respect to a time, when the time interval units of speed and velocity a r e
tends to zero. CGS system
Unit cm s-1 m.s-l
Following the rule of differential calculus, if At is the time in
which the distance travelled is al, then instantaneous
of displacement
speed is Dimension of velocity =dimension
dimension of timne

lim -LT-1
Therefore, the dimension of velocity is also identical
where, 1 is the distance or location of the particle along its

locus from a given fixed point. of speed

Uniform and non-uniform velocity: If the veloc
For a body moving with uniform speed, the instantaneous has a constant magnitude and a co
a particle
speed at any instant is equal to the uniform speed. direction it is called uniform velocity. On the otherha
the velocity of a particle changes with time, eith
For example, the speed moving car is measured by a
of a
At any moment, the speedometer reads the magnitude or in direction or in both, it is termed as a
speedometer.
instantaneous speed of the car. The pointer of the uniform velocity.
speedometer remains stationary
when the car runs with Due to gravity, the velocity of a falling body ince
uniform speed. That is, the instantaneous speed is equal
to
magnitude keeping its direction unchanged. Ther
the uniform speed of the car. The speedometer
fluctuates the velocity of the body is non-uniform. Again,
when the car moves with varying speed. moving with a constant speed along a curved path
non-uniform velocity due to its continuous chan
between average and instantaneous
Distinction direction.
speed:
A uniform circular motion is an example of a mottor
Average speed Instantaneous speed
uniform speed but non-uniform velocity. [see details
The rate of infinitesimal dis-
The total distance covered tance covered with respect
chapter Circular Motion)
bya body in a certain inter- to the corresponding infini Average velocity:
divided by the
val of time, tesimal time, is the instanta-
timeinterval is the average
Average velocity, (v) = total displacement (s)
neous speed. total time (1)
speed.
dividing the total displacement of a particle in
a
i.e.,
interval of time by the time interval, its average ve
O1.6.4 Velocity obtained.
body with time
of displacement of a A stone takes 4 s to reach the ground when droppeu
Definition: The rate
height of 80 m-this statement provides no in
is called its velocity.
of position of any object about the change in p
velocity of the stone along thecene
of change
words, the rate it can be said that the average downward displace
In other
to time is
its velocity.
with respect
 53
One-dimensional Motion
h sme ger seeumd iso 20m. So the
average velocity Speed is a scalar quantity. but velociry is a vector
S T l Sz
quantity
nsantaneous velocy: Velociny of a partice at
any An object
moving along a straight line with uniform
me aed stantaneous elocity The speed has a uniform velocity as well. ie.. uniform veloc-
s nes eioc can be defined similarty as the ity means a uniform speed in a fixed direction.
INETDEtUS Speed
Uis and dimension af veiocy: ainz Definitior The istanzneous elocity of a paricde at a Uniform velocity ahways indicates uniform speed. but
the comverse is not true. A
ge O the body moving with uniform
t n g aue of the rate of speed in a curved path has a non-uniform velocity due
sana i i e point with
respect to time wheen to change in its direction.
Speed is always positive or zero. but velocity may also
ime n -
Filcng e i ë dËrntial calcus f i r is the tine in be negative depending on the direction of motion.
taTeo
i e spiarnear of a
mESIEI I5A paride is As. then Average speed of an object is zero means that average
velociry is zero too but the converse may not be true
ahways
VE Instantaneous speed and instantaneous velocity at any
erzie e inensin i zin As ere e
ipizoenen1 of the particle rom the point of motion are the same in magnitude and
inde
pendent of the shape of the path. But if an object
Uniomm and non- fol
peice Camiparison between average velocity and
lows a curved path. its
average speed and average-
eous velociy velocity at any interval of time are different in magni-
tude.
E er e e reloci= D displacemena
TOtal ime

eous velociry - Numerical Examples

deed he arerege velociny in an 1EXAMPLE
inffnitesimally small
en2 of i c * caled the instantaneous A particle moves in a circular path of radius 7 cm.It
velocity covers ( half of the circle in 4s and
Tbe instantzneous velocity becomes equal to the aver
() one com-
plete round in 10s. In each case find the
z Telociy of a particde only if it
with a uniform
moves average
speed and average velocity.
Teloci Otherwise we cannot get any idea about the
Sntaneous relocities at different
points from the01ution: he circumference of the circle
exampie of a moion zerzge velocity of a particle.
eiocirysee derzls 27r =2 xx7 =44 cm
In cnematics. ideas about the equality
change in velocity, etc. are
of velocities, the A
very important. The knowl-
edge of the average velociry alone does not
give any idea
dispiacement
a time ()
ís about them Thus, the
is more important
concept of instantaneous velocity
O
TDE
a da particie in cers Comparison between speed and
a

nenval, its anerage velocig Rate velocity:

of distance travelled with time is
rate of
speed whereas Fig. 1.18
displacement with time is velocity. The distance travelled by the
The units and dimension of particle =
half of th-
informat distance travelled and those circumference == 22 cm and time
of
displacement are the same. So the units and dimen- taken =4 s.
along the path
sion of
wTward displaceme speed and those of velocity are the same. Averagespeed, ==
v 5.5 cm s-l
HYSICS XI Part-I
diameter of the circle = 2x7
=
2 x40 Xb0 = 48 km h-1
time taken =4 Averagespeed = 2x 100

e velocity. 3.5 cm s-l along Initial and final positions are the same and so the total die

and hence average velocity is zet

placement becomes zero

circumference EXAMPLE x-axis, follows

0 S
The motion of a particle, along the
relation x = 8t 32.Here x and t are expressed in
metre and second respectively. Find () the average
interval o to 1s and
itial and final velocity of the particle in time
t = 1s.
(i) its instantaneous velocity at
nt 0 . Solution:

Let at t =
X and att= 1,
0, x =
x=
X2.
t h e west. It then
8 x0-3x 02 =0
=
X=
more. Finally itfol-
5
n to its starting point. and x =
8 x1-3 x 12 = m

is 200 km-h-l, find its = 5 m and time taken is ls

Displacement =
X2 X1
-

al journey. m 5 m.s
Average velocity =
=

S
il positions are the same, dis-
Here instantaneous velocity,

acement 0 v= (8t-3)=8-2x3t =8 - 6 t
otal timee total time

Att=1 s, =
8-6 xl =2 m s
of 3 long second's
of the tip a cm

O1.6.5 Acceleration
of particle increases with time, the
second's hand describes an angle
of When the velocity a
e is said to be accelerating. So, in case
of acceleratior
sompletes the total circular path particle
initial velocity.
the final velocity is greater than the
of velocity with time s
erence of the circle Definition: The rate of change
called acceleration.

acceleration (a) = Changein velocity

Thus, time

finalvelocity -initial velocity

time
B at a c o n -
om station A to station
from B to A and speeds
kmh and returns Example: A train at rest starts from a station
and average train is moving W
ind the average speed In this case, we can say that the
an acceleration.
in.
the stations A and B be Sometimes, accleration is represented by the symbol f.
nce between
Nature of acceleration: Acceleration is related to
in to move from A to B =

qh and change in velocity of a body. So, Ilike velocity, acceleratio

also a vector quantity. It has to be specified by its magnitu
mB to A 60 .
=
cto

acceleration vec
and direction. However, to specify the
= 2x km.
 55
-One-dimensional Motion
we have to use vector algebra to determine the change in the Definition: The instantaneous acceleration ofa particle at
of change in
velocity. a given point is the limiting value of the rate
interval tends
This shows that velocity and change in velocity may have velocity with respect to time, when the time
different directions, in general. Thus, the direction of the
to zero.
acceleration may or may not be the same as that of velocity According to differential calculus, instantaneous accelera

dimension: Unit of acceleration tion,a =l i m , d

ds
Units and
unit of velocity
unit of time Deceleration or Retardation: When the velocity of a
decreases with time, the particle is in a state of
CG5 system SI particle
Cm 2 deceleration or retardation. Here, the final velocity is less
Unit m s
than the initial velocity.
Dimension of acceleration Definition: The rate of decrease of velocity with time is

dimension of velocityY = = LT-2 called deceleration or retardation.

dimension of time
non-uniform Example: When approaches a station, it slows down
a train

Motion with uniform and to

acceleration to a and finally stops. During this period the train decelerates
acceleration: Uniform corresponds
Come to a halt.
motion in which the velocity of a body changes equally in
equal intervals of time.
Deceleration is a special case of acceleration where the final
with uniform acceleration, then its
velocity is less than the initial velocity. Thus, deceleration is
If particle
a moves
essentially a negative acceleration. It is not a different
acceleration remains the same, both in magnitude
and
direction, at each point on its path. When a body falls freely physical quantity.
Let us consider a particle moving with a velocity of
from a height under gravity, its velocity increases. But its|
10 cm s . It then slows down to 4 cm-sl in 3 s elts
acceleration is uniform the surface of the earth
on or near

and is known as the acceleration due to gravity. acceleration is given by,

acceleration corresponds to a motionin a

finalvelocity -initialvelocity
Non-uniform time interval
which the velocity of a body does not change equally in
equal intervals of time. -2 cm-s-
The motion of an oscillating pendulum is an exampie or This example clearly shows that deceleration is descrjbed

motion with non-uniform acceleration. Acceleration of the mathematically as negative acceleration.

bob becomes maximum at its maximum displaced position
Distinction between acceleration and
and becomes zero at its mean position.
retardation:
Average acceleration: The acceleration of a particle Acceleration Retardation
be uniform. Generally, we can find out the
may not always 1. The rate of increase of 1. Rate of decrease of
average acceleration using the following relation:
velocity with time is velocity with time is
Average acceleration, retardation.
acceleration.
(a-final
a)
velocity -initial velocity 2. Retardation is
time taken 2.Acceleration is a nega- a negative
tive retardation. acceleration.
change in velocity 3. The slope of a velocity-
time 3. The slope of a velocity
time graph for accelera time graph for retarda-
Instantaneous acceleration: Acceleration of a
tion always tion is always
particle at any moment is called its instantaneous
acceleration. positive negative
 PHYSICS XI Part -I
int O on it as the origin [Fig. 1.27).
tion is one-dimensional.
Numerical Examples
X

Fig. 1.27 1KAMPLE

a distance at an ave-
sasic difference in the A person travels half of
he vector quantities relatedrepresey
f the what average vel-
velocity of 24 km h , At
too otion. he move to cover the second half of the
Juantities
like ed have
should
that his average velocity for the total
so
positive becomes 32km h-l?
site to each
ane. So a vector Solution: Let the total length of the path = 2s km.
umber for one direction
Time required to cover the first half of the path =
the
exactly opposite direction.
c t i o n towards
right may be taken as If the man travels the total path with an
average veloc
e direction towards left
naturally becomes 32 km h l , then the total time taken by him = = ;
án example, we may consider the vertical Time required to cover the second half of the path
article under
gravity. For a downward motion,
ach of displacement, velocity and acceleration S
.
Then, for an upward motion,
1624 48"
displacement Average velocity of second half
ould be negative; but acceleration would still
e since the acceleration due to gravity (8) is distance S= 48 km h-
time
i downwards. 48
to note that simple algebraic operations
culations involving any quantity, a scalar or .8.2 Acceleration
are
Rectilinear Motion with Uniform
ar motion. It means that, vector algebra
en for the calculations involving For a particle in motion, let
ear motion. u
=initial velocity
Ane, V final velocity after a time t and
velled by a particle = magnitude of its dis-
corresponding uniform
acceleration =
a. Let
displacement = s in that time.
particle at any point = magnitude of its Then the above variables
at point
obey the following equations
,velocity and acceleration vectors are (i) v
=u +at, (i) s =
ut+at (ii) =u+2
e straight line.
(iv) s, =
u+
5a(2t- 1) where s, the
=
displacemer
ilinear Motion with Uniform Velocity the t th sed
with a uniform
velocity, its accelerationis Derivations:
uniform velocity of a particle and s be itsA v= u + at
time . Therefore, according to the
Let the initial
m velocity, the particle moves a distance velocity of a
particle be u and its
n 2s, etc.
velocity after time t be v.
I n time t,
Dlacement is v x t. change in velocity v- u =

Rate of change of velocity with time =

(1) definition. t
nt =uniform velocity x time.
Hence, at = V- u or, V = lu + at
 59
One-dimensional Motion.

narticle starting
from rest, u = 0 and thus, Displacement in ( - 1) seconds,
V = at (2)
s'=ult-1)+5att-1)2
of retardar ation, the relationship becomes
tth second,
Hence, the displacerment in the
case
In
VE U-a t (3)
SS-s

u t a

Ifa with initial velocity u and uniform acceler-

article wit
or, t =ui*~ak-ut-1)+-1fa
a,
attains nal velocity v after time t, the average
ui a-utt u-ja?2ta-
ation

velocity,
sidering the two end points, is
The acceleration
a
implies that the velocity increases by =u+at- u+~at2t-1)
the velocity 1s after the
a after every second. Hence,
u + a and 1 s before the end of motion For particle starting from rest
start ofmotion
=
a

V-a

4tatU-au+ v sa2t-1)
Average velocity = 2 and in case of retardation

particle be considered to have travelled

can
Hence, the su-sa2t-1)
a distance s
with the average velocity 9 in time t.
Hence, displacement,

s =uxt =U+(utatnxt
2
[ : v = u + at] Numerical Examples

or, s- a ? or, s = ut+a .(4) EXAMPLE-

A velocity of 60 km h l of a train is reduced by
For a particle starting from rest, u = 00 application of brakes. A retardation of 40 cm s
produced. After how much time will the train s-
(5)
So,=aP What will be the velocity of the train after
20 s?

For a retarding particle,

Solution:
S = ut- ar (6) Given, u = 60 km.h-l =60x 1000
-m--
60x 60

u2+ 2as a = 40 cm s-2 = 0.4 m s-2

From equation (1) we have,
and V = 0
V = U+ at
Hence, from the relation v = u - at, we get
Or, = (u+ at)2 = u2+ 2uat+ a-r
= 0.4xt Or, 5 0 = 41.7 s
3 x 0.4
i + 2a
(uta) 3

T h e train will stop after 41.7 s.

or, = u2+2as (using equation (4) (7)
The velocity after 20s,
Hence, for a particle starting from rest
(8)
= 2as v =-0.4 x20
and in case of retardation
= u2-2as (9) m s l = 8.7 m s

su+a2t-1) from equa-

8.7 x 60x 60 km. h-l
1000
in t seconds, s =
ut+ar,
tion (4). ent
tio 31.3 km.h-