Unit 1

RELATIVITY

Module I Special and General Theory of

Relativity
Lesson 1. Invariance of Physical Laws
Lesson 2. Relativity of Simultaneity
Lesson 3. Relativity of Time Intervals
(Proper Time, Time Dilation and
Twin Paradox)
Lesson 4. Relativity of Length (Length
Contraction)
Lesson 5. The Lorentz Transformation
Lesson 6. The Doppler Effect for
Electromagnetic Waves
Lesson 7. Relativistic Momentum
Lesson 8. Relativistic Work and Energy
Lesson 9. General Relativity

Module I
 2

MODULE I

SPECIAL AND GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

 INTRODUCTION

In the early 1900s, Physics changed drastically which causes a

revolution on the perception of space-time, mass and energy due to the
introduction of the concept of Relativity by Sir Albert Einstein. Relativity
examines how measurements of physical quantities depend upon the
observer as well upon what is observed. The issue of frame of reference
arose. Einstein proposes his Special Theory of Relativity with two postulates
considering inertial frames of reference. Einstein’s General Theory of
Relativity is an extension to non-inertial frames or what so called the
accelerating frames with gravitation as the main concept.

OBJECTIVES

After studying the module, you should be able to:

1. explore on the conditions for the invariance of laws in Physics
2. investigate on the relativity of events, time and length, momentum,
work and energy
3. describe the intertwining of space-time and the velocity of object
from one inertial frame of reference to another frame of reference
using Lorentz position and velocity transformations.
4. investigate on the frequency shift that results from motion of a source
of electromagnetic waves relative to an observer
5. explain the indifference of the uniform gravitational field at a
particular location and a uniformly accelerated reference frame using
the Theory of General Relativity.
6. discuss applications of Special and General Theory of Relativity

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

This module consists of nine (9) lessons on Special and General Theory
of Relativity. You will be introduced with relativistic concepts of events,
time and length, momentum, work and energy, frequency of light, and
Lorentz transformation.
As a student, you are expected to read very well each lesson to fully
understand each concept presented. In addition, you are also expected to

Module I
 3

submit comprehensive answers to the exercises provided at the end of each

lessons and do the activities assigned in the discussion part.

Enjoy reading and make sure to have an ABSOLUTE learning!

Module I
 4

Lesson 1

 INVARIANCE OF PHYSICAL LAWS

RELATIVITY AND FRAME OF REFERENCE

Relativity is a term referring to the examination of different physical

quantities (like position, velocity, energy, momentum, and frequency)
depending on the observer. For you to have clearer understanding let’s take
a look at the following example on the concept of relative velocity. If you
stand next to a one-way highway, all the cars appear to be moving forward.
But if you are on a bus and observe the moving cars, slower cars appear to
be moving backward. In general, when two observers measure the velocity
of the same body, they get different results if one observer is moving relative
to the other. The velocity seen by a particular observer is called the velocity
relative to that observer, or simply relative velocity.

Illustrative Example:

A passenger walks with a velocity of 1.0 m/s along the aisle of a train
that is moving with a velocity of 3.0 m/s. What is the passenger’s velocity?
It’s a simple enough question, but it has no single answer. As seen by a
second passenger sitting in the train, she is moving at 1.0 m/s. A person on
a bicycle standing beside the train sees the walking passenger moving at 1.0
m/s + 3.0 m/s = 4.0 m/s. An observer in another train going in the opposite
direction would give still another answer. We have to specify which observer
we mean, and we speak of the velocity relative to a particular observer. The
walking passenger’s velocity relative to the train is 1.0 m/s, her velocity
relative to the cyclist is 4.0 m/s, and so on. Each observer, equipped in
principle with a meter stick and a stopwatch, forms what we call a frame of
reference. Thus, a frame of reference is a coordinate system plus a time
scale.

Inertial and Non-Inertial Frame of References

An inertial frame of reference is a frame where Newton’s First Law

holds true. In other words, a frame is said to be an inertial frame of reference
if it remains at rest or will remain in uniform motion unless a force acts on
it. This frame is also called as non-accelerating frame. For example, suppose
a body is kept on the surface of the earth, for a person on earth it is at rest
while for a person on the moon it is in motion so which frame is considered
inertial? To answer this, we need to define first a reference frame. If our
reference frame would be the Earth, then the Earth would be an inertial
frame.
A non-inertial frame is a frame that is accelerated with respect to
the assumed inertial frame of reference thus Newton’s law will not hold true
in these frames. In the above example if we assume that earth would be an

Module I
 5

inertial reference frame, the moon becomes a non-inertial reference frame

as it is in accelerated motion with respect to earth.

Relativity is based on the concepts of space and time. Let’s explore

on the different scientist who had contributed to the development of
relativity.

Aristotle’s View on Space, Time and Motion

Aristotle’s contention on space, time and motion of objects is mostly

intuitive or based on gut feelings. Here are some of the views of Aristotle:
1. Every sensible body is by its nature somewhere.
2. Time is the numeration of continuous movement.

He illustrated his concept of space and time through the following:

✓ There exists a Prime Mover, a privileged being in the state of Absolute

Rest
✓ The position of everything else is measured with three numbers (x, y,
z) with respect to the Prime Mover, who sits at (0,0,0).
✓ The time is measured by looking at the Prime Mover's clock

Galileo’s View on Space, Time and Motion

Galileo argued that there is no such thing as "Absolute Rest". In his

view:
• The mechanical laws of physics are the same for every observer
moving with a constant speed along a straight line (this is called
"inertial observer" for short).

Module I
 6

Newton’s Laws

Newton's laws of mechanics are in agreement with Galileo's relativity.

1. A body, not acted upon by any force, stays at rest or remains in
uniform motion, whichever it was doing to begin with (First Law of
Motion)
2. To get an object to change its velocity, we need a force which is
equivalent to the mass of the object and its acceleration (Second
Law of Motion)

According to Newton, all laws of mechanics are the same in DIFFERENT

inertial reference frames.

All these laws were intact for more than two centuries but at the at
the end of the 19th century problems started to appear when the nature of
light is being studied.

Maxwell’s Equations

James Clerk Maxwell using his four equations, had introduced that
light is an electromagnetic wave and it travels at a constant speed, c. Since
light is a wave it is theorized that it has a medium too like other waves like
sound. The theorized medium is called ether. But Morley and Michelson
through their interferometer instrument found out that light has no medium.

The constancy of the speed of light as proposed is accepted but as to

its reference frame it is not known. If it is assumed that it would be true to
all reference frames, then Newton’s Laws would be violated (Newton only
considered inertial frames or non-accelerating frames).

Einstein’s Postulates of Relativity

Einstein based his Special Theory of Relativity on the analysis of the

former relativity concepts from Galileo, Newton and Maxwell. His
conclusions arrived at his two postulates:

Postulate 1 (called the Principle of Relativity):The laws of physics are the

same in every inertial frame of reference.
If the laws differed, that difference could distinguish one inertial
frame from the others or make one frame more “correct” than another. As
an example, suppose you watch two children playing catch with a ball while
the three of you are aboard a train moving with constant velocity. Your
observations of the motion of the ball, no matter how carefully done, can’t
tell you how fast (or whether) the train is moving. This is because Newton’s
laws of motion are the same in every inertial frame.

Postulate 2: The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial

frames of reference and is independent of the motion of the source.
Let’s think about what this means. Suppose two observers measure
the speed of light in vacuum. One is at rest with respect to the light source,

Module I
 7

and the other is moving away from it. Both are in inertial frames of
reference. According to the principle of relativity, the two observers must
obtain the same result, despite the fact that one is moving with respect to
the other.
Einstein’s conceptual leap was to recognize that if Maxwell’s
equations are valid in all inertial frames, then the speed of light in vacuum
should also be the same in all frames and in all directions.

Einstein’s second postulate immediately implies the following result:

It is impossible for an inertial observer to travel at c, the speed of light
in vacuum.

Module I
 8

Lesson 2

 RELATIVITY OF SIMULTANEITY

To introduce the concept of relativity, let’s first define the term

event and simultaneous. An event is an occurrence that has a definite
position and time. Events are said to be simultaneous if they occur at the
same time. For example, if a person wakes up at 7:00 am, the two events
waking up and clock showing 7:00 am are said to be simultaneous because
they occur at the same time.

Simultaneity with Sound

Suppose you hear two loud shots about 1/2 second apart. Did they
occur at the same time? Let’s think about it. Suppose you find out one of the
shots was fired closer to you than the other. Since sound travels at 340 m/s,
if one gun were fired 170m closer to you then they were fired at the same
time. Note that
1
𝑑 = 𝑣𝑡 = 340𝑚 ( 𝑠) = 170𝑚
2

If you know your distance from the shots, you can easily determine if they
were simultaneous. And everyone will agree with you, after doing the same
correction for distance. You might even come up with a definition

– Event (x1, t1) is simultaneous with event (x2, t2) if sound pulses
emitted at t1 from x1 and at t2 from x2 arrive simultaneously at the
midpoint between x1 and x2.

Einstein came up with a similar definition

for relativistic simultaneity.

– Due to the requirement of the consistency of speed of light not

everyone agrees events are simultaneous.

Simultaneity Thought Experiment

Suppose a boxcar as illustrated is moving with constant velocity v with

respect to Jane standing on the ground. Joe rides in exact center of the
boxcar. Two lightning bolts strike the ends of the boxcar, leaving marks on
the boxcar and the ground underneath. On the ground, Jane finds that she
is halfway between the scorch marks.

Module I
 9

Jane (on the ground) observes that light waves from each lightning
strike at the boxcar ends reach her at exactly the same time. Since each
light wave traveled at c, and each traveled the same distance (since O is in
the middle), the lightning strikes are simultaneous in the frame of ground
observer.
Jane can see when the two flashes reach Joe on the boxcar. When
light from front flash reaches Joe,
he has moved away from rear flash. Front and rear flashes reach Joe at
different times. But since speed of light always constant and Joe is
equidistant from lightning strikes, the light flashes arrive at different times.
Therefore for Joe, lightning strikes are not simultaneous.

Based on this thought experiment, there is no universal, or absolute

time, that is,
1. The time interval between events in one reference frame is
generally different than the interval measured in a different
frame.
2. Events measured to be simultaneous in one frame are in general
not simultaneous in a second frame moving relative to the first.

Module I
 10

Lesson 3

 RELATIVITY OF TIME INTERVAL

Time interval refers to how long an event had happened. The question
is, is the time interval between two events different in different frames of
reference?

Consider the following thought experiment: Observer O is on the ground

(stationary observer). Observer O’(moving observer) is on the train moving
at v relative to O. Let the two events to be defined as:
Event 1: flash of light from a light source leaves O’ with speed c
Event 2: flash returns to O’ having been reflected from a mirror a
distance d away
The experiment is illustrated by the figure below,

Reference frame of Reference frame of observer O

observer O’ on train on ground

Let’s figure out what these time intervals are for the two observers.
Let us denote ∆𝑡𝑝 to be the proper time or the interval of time measured
between events occurring at the same spatial location or at the same
point; and ∆𝑡 be the interval of time measured between events occurring at
the different spatial location or at different points. Observer O’ on the
train measures the time interval, ∆𝑡𝑝 between the events that occur at the
same point in space. The light pulse travels at a total distance 2d, thus

𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝑑

∆𝑡𝑝 = =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐

Module I
 11

Observer O on the ground has a round trip time which is a different

interval, ∆𝑡. In his frame of reference, the two events occur at different
points in space. The observer sees the same pulse in diagonal path.

Since the diagonal path is defined to be l, then the roundtrip

distance is 2l, thus
2𝑙
∆𝑡 =
𝑐
Using Pythagorean Theorem,
2
2 2
1
𝑙 = 𝑑 + [ (𝑣∆𝑡)]
2
2
(𝑣∆𝑡)
𝑙 = √𝑑 2 + [ ]
2
Substituting l to ∆𝑡,

2
2 (𝑣∆𝑡)
∆𝑡 = √𝑑 2 + [ ]
𝑐 2
2𝑑
Relating ∆𝑡 and ∆𝑡𝑝 , note that ∆𝑡𝑝 = , thus solving for d in terms of ∆𝑡𝑝
𝑐
𝑐∆𝑡𝑝
𝑑=
2
Substituting d in ∆𝑡,

2
2 𝑐∆𝑡𝑝 2 (𝑣∆𝑡)
∆𝑡 = √( ) +[ ]
𝑐 2 2
Multiplying the equation by c/2 to get rid of the 2/c on the ride side,
2
𝑐∆𝑡 𝑐∆𝑡𝑝 2 (𝑣∆𝑡)
= √( ) +[ ]
2 2 2

Module I
 12

Squaring both sides,

2
𝑐∆𝑡 2 𝑐∆𝑡𝑝 2 (𝑣∆𝑡)
( ) =( ) +[ ]
2 2 2
𝑐 2 ∆𝑡 2 = 𝑐 2 ∆𝑡𝑝 2 + 𝑣 2 ∆𝑡 2
Combining expressions with ∆𝑡
𝑐 2 ∆𝑡 2 − 𝑣 2 ∆𝑡 2 = 𝑐 2 ∆𝑡𝑝 2
∆𝑡 2 (𝑐 2 − 𝑣 2 ) = 𝑐 2 ∆𝑡𝑝 2
2
𝑐 2 ∆𝑡𝑝 2
∆𝑡 = 2
𝑐 − 𝑣2
Solving for ∆𝑡 by taking square root of both sides,
𝑐 2 ∆𝑡𝑝 2
∆𝑡 = √
𝑐2 − 𝑣2
Dividing the numerator and denominator by 𝑐 2 ,
∆𝑡𝑝 2
∆𝑡 = √
𝑐2 − 𝑣2
𝑐2

∆𝒕𝒑
∆𝒕 = 𝑻𝑰𝑴𝑬 𝑫𝑰𝑳𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵
𝟐
√𝟏 − 𝒗𝟐
𝒄

It can be noticed from the equation that ∆𝑡 is always greater than ∆𝑡𝑝 by a
𝒗𝟐
factor called the Lorentz factor, 𝛾 = √𝟏 − 𝒄𝟐 .

∆𝒕 = 𝛾∆𝒕𝒑 𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑳 𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑴 𝑶𝑭 𝑻𝑰𝑴𝑬 𝑫𝑰𝑳𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵

Based on the thought experiment:

1. The shortest time measured between events is in the frame in
which the events occur at the same spatial location
2. Time intervals are different for different frame of reference
(RELATIVITY OF TIME INTERVAL)
3. Observers measure any clock to run slow if it moves relative to
them (TIME DILATION)

Example:

An airplane flies from San Francisco to New York (about 4800 km or

4.8 x106 m) at a steady speed of 300 m/s. How much time does the trip take
as measured by an observer on the ground? By an observer on the plane?

The time interval by the observer on the ground is ∆𝑡,

𝑑 4.8 x106 m 4
1
∆𝑡 = = m = 1.60x10 𝑠 (𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 4 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠)
𝑣 300 s 2

Module I
 13

The time interval by the observer on the plane is given by ∆𝑡𝑝 . From
∆𝒕𝒑
the equation ∆𝒕 = 𝟐
,
√𝟏−𝒗𝟐
𝒄

300𝑚 2
(
𝑣2
∆𝑡𝑝 = ∆𝑡√1 − 2 = (1.60x104 𝑠)√1 − 𝑠 ) = (1.60x104 𝑠)√1 − 1x10−12
𝑐 2
3𝑥108 𝑚
( )
𝑠

By Binomial Theorem,
1 1
(1 − 1x10−12 )2 = 1 − ( ) 1x10−12 + ⋯
2

∆𝑡𝑝 = (1.60x104 𝑠)(1 − 0.5x10−12 )

The expression (1 − 0.5x10−12 ) is very small.

TWIN PARADOX

Twin A leaves Earth, travels at 0.8c to a star 2 light-years away (Note: 1

light-year = 9.46 x 1015m) and returns home. Twin B remains on Earth. If they
are 20 years old when Twin A travels, who is younger after the travel?

0.8c

d=2 light-years

Comparing measurements:

➢ Twin B’s Reference (Earth):

According to Twin B, Twin A measures ‘proper time’.
Heartbeats occur at the same spatial location (in the astronaut’s
chest). On his own clock, astronaut measures his normal heart-rate of
1 second between each beat. Twin B measures, with his earth clock,
a time much longer than Twin A(tTwin B =  tTwin A )
𝛥𝑡𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝐴
𝛥𝑡𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝐵 = 𝛾𝛥𝑡𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝐴 = = 1.67 × 𝛥𝑡𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝐴 = 1.67 𝑠𝑒𝑐
√1 − 𝑣 2 /𝑐 2
Twin B sees Twin A’s heart beating slow, and Twin A’s clock running
slow because of time dilation. Twin B measures 1.67 sec between
heartbeats of Twin A. Twin B claims that A is younger upon
returning.

Module I
 14

➢ Twin A’s Reference (Rocket Frame):

According to Twin A, Twin B measures ‘proper time’ . Any other
measurement of the time interval is longer (according to time
dilation).Thus according to Twin A, Twin B would be younger when
he returns.

This is contradicton – a PARADOX!

To resolve this, take note that special relativity applies only to

reference frames moving at constant speed. To turn around and come
back, the Twin A’s rocket must accelerate over a short interval, thus there
is violation as to the concept of inertial frame. Only Twin B’s determination
of the time intervals using special relativity is correct. Thus, Twin B’s claim
is correct. Twin A is younger when he returns.

𝑑 4(9.46𝑥1015 𝑚) 3.784𝑥1016 𝑚 1.58𝑥108 𝑠

𝛥𝑡𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝐵 = = = = = 5 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝑣 0.8𝑐 2.4𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠 3.154𝑥 107 𝑠/𝑦𝑟

𝛥𝑡𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝐵 5𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝛥𝑡𝑇𝑤𝑖𝑛𝐴 = = = 3𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
𝛾 1.67

Twin B is 25 years old while Twin A is 23 years old when they will see each
other.

Module I