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Engineering Training
ASSIGNMENT SHEET
INTRODUCTION
The basic diesel, or internal combustion engine is a heat engine. Chemical energy is changed to mechanical
energy inside a cylinder. In other types of heat engines (i.e. Boilers), energy developed by fuel is first
transferred to steam, and the energy in the steam is converted to work (in the turbines) which is farther
transformed into shaft energy to be utilized to turn generators, reduction gears, and other equipment.
Terminal objective:
6.0 DESCRIBE the principles, construction, function, components, control and monitoring systems, and
operation of a diesel propulsion plant and associated auxiliary support systems. (JTI:A)
Enabling objectives:
a. Compression ignition
b. Compression ratio
c. Cycle
d. Displacement
e. Four-stroke cycle
f. Horsepower (hp)
h. Internal combustion
i. Jacking
j. RPM
k. Stroke
l. TDC/BDC
m. Timing
n. Two-stroke cycle
o. Valve lash
6.3 DEFINE the following terms used with Diesel Engine Air System:
a. Exhaust stroke
b. Intake stroke
c. Naturally aspirated
d. Scavenging
e. Supercharging
f. Turbocharging
6.4 DEFINE the following terms used with Diesel Engine Lubricating and Cooling Systems:
b. Pressure
c. Pressure differential
d. Thermal expansion
e. Water jacket
f. Viscosity
g. Coolant treatment
6.5 DEFINE the following terms used with Diesel Engine Fuel Systems:
a. Atomization
b. Combustion
c. Detonation
e. Fuel injection
g. Precombustion
h. Priming
i. Turbulence
6.6 STATE the functions of each of the following primary parts/assemblies of a diesel engine:
b. Block
c. Camshaft
d. Connecting rod
e. Crankcase
f. Crankshaft bearings
g. Crankshaft
h. Cylinder head
i. Cylinder liners
j. Drive mechanism
k. Manifold (intake/exhaust)
l. Piston
m. Sump/oil pan
n. Valves (intake/exhaust)
o. Flywheel
p. Thrustbearings
q. Inspection covers
r. Explosion covers
t. Piston/wrist ring
u. Piston rings
v. Camshaft bearings
w. Attached pumps
x. Fuel injectors
y. Turbocharger
z. Fuel rack
6.7 STATE the different classifications of diesel engines according to the following:
a. Mechanical cycle
b. Cylinder arrangement
c. Combustion action
d. Cooling media
e. Valve arrangement
6.8 DISCUSS the pressure, temperature and volume relationship of the gas flow through a diesel engine
cylinder for the following events:
a. Scavenging
b. Compression
c. Combustion
d. Expansion
e. Exhaust
STUDY ASSIGNMENT
2. Outline Information Sheet 60B-103 using the enabling objectives for lesson 60B-103 as guide.
STUDY SCENARIOS
1. You are walking through the main machinery space and you notice EN3 Foster studying for the next advancement
exam. EN3 Foster tells you that he/she is having trouble understanding the phases of the four and two stroke
engines. How would you help explain to EN3 Foster the phases of the four and two stroke engines?
2. Once you have finished explaining the 4/2 stroke cycles to EN3 Foster, EN1 Edwards asks you how to classify
diesel engines. Explain to the EN1 how to classify a diesel engine.
3. You are walking on deck when you hear ENFN Jones tell BMSN Smith that there is no difference between a
turbocharged engine and one that uses a blower. Is this correct? How would you explain the differences to both of
them, if there is a difference.
4. ENFN Myers is having a hard time explaining to ENFN Booth the definition of supercharging and what is does
for an engine. Myers turns to you and asks you to explain supercharging to both of them. How are you going to do
this?
5. ENC Taylor has just told you that the number 1 MPDE has experienced a failure of the number 5 left cylinder
head. You are explaining this to the Chief Engineer when she asks you to explain the purpose(s) of the cylinder
head. How will you explain to your Chief Engineer the function of the cylinder head?
INFORMATION SHEET
INTRODUCTION
Much of the machinery and equipment discussed in the preceding lesson uses steam as the working fluid in
the process of converting thermal energy to mechanical energy. This lesson deals with internal-combustion
engines in which air mixed with fuel serves as the working fluid. The internal-combustion engines
discussed are those to which thermodynamic cycles of the open and heated engine types apply. In engines
which operate on these cycles, the working fluid is taken into the engine, heat is added to the fluid, the
energy available in the fluid is used, and then the fluid is discarded. During the process, thermal energy is
converted to mechanical energy.
Internal-combustion engines are used extensively in the Navy, serving as propulsion units in a variety of
ships, boats, airplanes, and automotive vehicles. Also, internal-combustion engines are used as prime
movers for auxiliary machinery. Internal-combustion engines in a majority of the shipboard installations are
of the reciprocating type.
REFERENCES
INFORMATION
A. Reciprocating Engines
1. Most of the internal-combustion engines in marine installations of the Navy are of the reciprocating type.
This classification is based on the fact that the cylinders in which the energy conversion takes place are
fitted with pistons, which employ a reciprocating motion. Internal-combustion engines of the reciprocating
type are commonly identified as diesel and gasoline engines. The general practice of the US Navy is to
install diesel engines rather than gasoline engines unless special conditions favor the use of gasoline
engines.
2. Most of the information on reciprocating engines in this chapter applies to diesel and gasoline engines.
These engines differ in some respects; the principal differences which exist are noted and discussed.
B. Cycles Of Operation
1. The operation of an internal-combustion engine involves the admission of fuel and air into a combustion
chamber and the compression and ignition of the charge. The combustion process releases gases and
increases the temperature within the chamber. As temperature increases, pressure increases, and the
expansion of gases forces the piston to move. This reciprocating movement is transmitted through specially
designed parts to a shaft. The resulting rotary motion of the shaft is used for work. Thus, the expansion of
gases within the cylinder is transformed into rotary mechanical energy. For the process to be continuous,
the expanded gases must be removed from the combustion chamber, a new charge must be admitted, and
the combustion process must be repeated.
Injection of fuel
2. In the study of engine operation, starting with the admission of air and fuel and following through to the
removal of the expanded gases, a series of events or phases takes place. The term cycle identifies the
sequence of events that takes place in the cylinder of an engine for each power impulse transmitted to the
crankshaft. These events always occur in the same order each time the cycle is repeated. The number of
events occurring in a cycle of operation depends upon whether the engine is diesel or gasoline. Table 1
shows the events and their sequence in one cycle of operation of each of these types of engines.
3. The principal difference, as shown in Table 1, in the cycles of operation for diesel and gasoline engines
involves the admission of fuel and air to the cylinder. While this takes place as one event in a gasoline
engine, it involves two events in a diesel engine. Consequently, there are six main events that take place in
the cycle of operation of a diesel engine and five main events that take place in the cycle of a gasoline
engine. This is pointed out to emphasize the fact that the number of events that takes place is not identical
to the number of piston strokes that occurs during a cycle of operation. Even though the events of a cycle
are closely related to piston position and movement, ALL of the events will take place during the cycle
regardless of the number of piston strokes involved. We will discuss the relationship of events and piston
strokes later in this lesson.
4. A cycle of operation in either a diesel or gasoline engine involves two basic factors-heat and mechanics.
The means by which heat energy is transformed into mechanical energy involves many terms such as
matter, molecules, energy, heat, temperature, the mechanical equivalent of heat, force, pressure, volume,
work, and power.
5. The method by which an engine operates is referred to as the mechanical, or operating, cycle of an engine.
The heat process that produces the forces that move engine parts is referred to as the combustion cycle.
Both mechanical and combustion cycles are included in a cycle of operation of an engine.
B. Mechanical Cycles
1. We have talked about the events taking place in a cycle of engine operation, but we have said very little
about piston strokes except that a complete sequence of events will occur during a cycle regardless of the
number of strokes made by the piston. The number of piston strokes occurring during any one cycle of
events is limited to either two or four, depending on the design of the engine. Thus, we have a 4-stroke
cycle and a 2-stroke cycle. These cycles are known as the mechanical cycles of operation.
2. Both types of mechanical cycles, 4-stroke and 2-stroke, are used in both diesel and gasoline reciprocating
engines. Most gasoline engines in Navy service operate on the 4-stroke cycle. Most large diesel engines
operate on the 4-stroke cycle while most small diesel engines operate on the 2-stroke cycle.
3. Relationship Of Events And Strokes In A Cycle - A piston stroke is the distance a piston moves between
limits of travel. The cycle of operation in an engine that operates on the 4-stroke cycle involves four piston
strokes - intake, compression, power, and exhaust. In the 2-stroke cycle, only two strokes are involved -
power and compression.
4. A check of figure 1 will show that the strokes are named to correspond with the events. However, since six
events are listed for diesel engines and five events for gasoline engines, more than one event must take
place during some of the strokes, especially the 2-stroke cycle. Even so, it is common practice to identify
some of the events as strokes of the piston. This is because such events as intake, compression, power, and
exhaust in a 4-stroke cycle involve at least a major portion of a stroke and, in some cases, more than one
stroke. The same is true of power and compression events and strokes in a 2-stroke cycle. In associating the
events with strokes, you should not overlook other events taking place during a cycle of operation. This
oversight sometimes leads to confusion when the operating principles of an engine are being considered.
involved in a 2-stroke cycle. Reference to the cross-sectional illustrations (fig. 2) will aid in associating the
event with the relative position of the piston. Even though the two piston strokes are frequently referred to
as power and compression, they are identified as the downstroke (TDC to BDC) and upstroke (BDC to
TDC) in this discussion to avoid confusion when reference is made to an event.
2. Starting with the admission of air (figure 2), during the scavenging event (A), we find that the piston is in
the lower half of the downstroke and that the exhaust event (E) is in process. The exhaust event started a
number of degrees before intake, both starting several degrees before the piston reached BDC. The overlap
of these events is necessary so that the incoming air (A) can aid in clearing the cylinder of exhaust gases.
Note that the exhaust event stops a few degrees before the intake event stops, but several degrees after the
upstroke of the piston has started. (The exhaust event in some 2-stroke cycle diesel engines ends a few
degrees after the intake event ends). When the scavenging event ends, the cylinder is charged with the air
that is to be compressed. The compression event (B) takes place during the major portion of the upstroke.
The injection event and ignition and combustion event (C) occur during the latter part of the upstroke. (The
point at which the injection ends varies with engines. In some cases, it ends before TDC; in others, a few
degrees after TDC). The intense heat generated during the compression of the air ignites the fuel-air
mixture, and the pressure resulting from combustion forces the piston down. The expansion (D) of the gases
continues through a major portion of the downstroke. After the force of the gases has been expended, the
exhaust valve opens (E) and permits the burned gases to enter the exhaust manifold. As the piston moves
downward, the intake ports are uncovered (A) and the incoming air clears the cylinder of the remaining
exhaust gases and fills the cylinder with a fresh air charge (A); thus, the cycle of operation has started
again.
C. Comparison of 2-Stroke and 4-Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines
1. During the same amount of time, a 2-stroke engine will have two power events while a 4-stroke engine will
have only one. This might lead you to believe that 2-stroke engines are more efficient than 4-stroke
engines; however, that is not the case. To work properly, a 2-stroke engine must have some method of
forcing air into and through the cylinders. And, since this air pump (blower) is driven by the engine, it robs
some of the horsepower that would otherwise be available to drive the load. Also, the combustion process
in a 2-stroke engine is not as complete as it is in a 4-stroke engine. Since each type of engine has certain
advantages over the other, the Navy uses both 2-stroke and 4-stroke cycle engines for main propulsion and
electrical generating service.
2. The figures we have used to represent the cycles of operation are for illustrative purposes only. The exact
number of degrees before or after TDC or BDC at which an event starts and ends will vary among engines.
You can find information on such details in appropriate technical manuals dealing with the specific engine
in question.
D. Combustion Cycles
1. Up to this point, we have given greater consideration to the strokes of a piston and the related events taking
place during a cycle of operation than we have to the heat process involved in the cycle. However, we
cannot discuss the mechanics of engine operation without dealing with heat. Such terms as ignition,
combustion, and expansion of gases indicate that heat is essential to a cycle of engine operation.
2. So far, the only difference we have pointed out between diesel and gasoline engines is the number of events
that occur during the cycle of operation. We have told you that either the 2-stroke or 4-stroke cycle may
apply to both a diesel engine and a gasoline engine. Then, one of the principal differences between these
types of engines must involve the heat processes that produce the forces that make the engine operate. The
heat processes are sometimes called combustion or heat cycles.
3. The two most common combustion cycles associated with reciprocating internal combustion engines are the
OTTO cycle (gasoline engines) and the DIESEL cycle (diesel engines). Each of these combustion cycles
will be discussed in the following paragraphs.
4. In talking about combustion cycles, we must bring up another important difference between gasoline and
diesel engines - the difference in compression pressure. Compression pressure is directly related to the
combustion process in an engine. Diesel engines have a much higher compression pressure than gasoline
engines. The higher compression pressure in diesels explains the difference in the methods of ignition used
in gasoline and diesel engines.
5. Methods Of Ignition - When the gases within a cylinder are compressed, the temperature of the confined
gases rises. As the compression increases, the temperature rises. In a gasoline engine, the compression
temperature is always lower than the point at which the fuel will ignite spontaneously. Thus, the heat
required to ignite the fuel must come from an external source spark ignition. On the other hand, the
compression temperature in a diesel engine is far above the ignition point of the fuel oil; therefore, ignition
takes place as a result of the heat generated by the compression of the air within the cylinder compression
ignition.
1. The difference in the methods of ignition indicates that there is a basic difference in the combustion cycles
upon which diesel and gasoline engines operate. This difference involves the behavior of the combustion
gases under varying conditions of pressure, temperature, and volume. Since this is so, you should be
familiar with factors before considering the combustion cycles individually.
2. Relationship of Temperature, Pressure, and Volume - The relationship of temperature, pressure, and volume
as found in an engine can be illustrated by a description of what takes place in a cylinder that is fitted with a
reciprocating piston. Follow views A through D of figure 3. In view A, note that the instruments that
indicate the pressure within the cylinder and the temperature inside the cylinder show the temperature as
approximately 70�F. Assume that it is an airtight container, as it is in our example. Now compare views A
and B of figure 3. If a force pushes the piston toward the top of the cylinder, the entrapped charge will be
compressed. In views B and C, the compression progresses. The volume of the air decreases, the pressure
increases, and the temperature rises. These changing conditions continue as the piston moves. When the
piston nears TDC in view D, there has been a marked decrease in volume. Also, both pressure and
temperature are much greater than at the beginning of compression. Notice that pressure has gone from 0
psi to 470 psi and the temperature has increased from 70�F to approximately 450�F. These changing
conditions indicate that mechanical energy, in the form of force applied to the piston, has been transformed
into heat energy in the compressed air. The temperature of the air has been raised sufficiently to cause
ignition of fuel that is injected into the cylinder.
3. Further changes take place after ignition. Since ignition occurs shortly before TDC, there is little change in
volume until the piston passes TDC. However, there is a sharp increase in both pressure and temperature
shortly after ignition takes place. The increased pressure forces the piston downward. As the piston moves
downward, the gases expand (increase in volume), and pressure and temperature decrease rapidly. These
changes in volume, pressure, and temperature are representative of the changing conditions in the cylinder
of a diesel engine.
4. Otto (Constant-Volume) Cycle - In theory, the Otto combustion cycle is one in which combustion, induced
by spark ignition, occurs at constant volume. The Otto cycle and its principles serve as the basis for modern
gasoline engine designs.
5. Diesel (Constant-Pressure) Cycle - In the diesel cycle, the burning of the mixture of fuel and compressed air
is a relatively slow process when compared with the quick explosive type of combustion process of the Otto
cycle. In the diesel engine, the injected fuel penetrates the compressed air, some of the fuel ignites, then the
rest of the charge burns. The expansion of the gases keeps pace with the change in volume caused by piston
travel. Thus, combustion is said to occur at constant pressure.
6. The preceding paragraphs have pointed out some of the main differences between engines that operate on
the Otto cycle and those that operate on the diesel cycle. In brief, these differences involve (1) the mixing of
fuel and air, (2) the compression ratio, (3) the method of ignition, and (4) the combustion process.
B. Engine Classification
1. Diesel engines are also classified on the basis of cylinder block construction and cylinder arrangement (in-
line, V or opposed piston) as shown in figure 4.
a. Single acting engines (in-line and V) have only one piston per cylinder. The combustion gases act on
one surface-the crown (top) of the piston. The crown is the closed end of the barrel or wall of the
piston, the skirt is the open end. The crown serves as the lower moving wall of the combustion
chamber, and the crown is the piston surface acted upon by the combustion gas. The skirt provides
directional stability to the piston as it slides up and down in the cylinder, and absorbs piston side
thrust which results from the off center loads imposed by the articulated motion of the connecting
rod. Since the gas pressure acts only against the top of the crown, the engine is described as single
acting.
1. Those engines having two pistons in each cylinder are classified as opposed piston. The pistons are
arranged crown to crown with the combustion chamber now located in the space between their two crowns
(see figure 5). When combustion takes place, the gases act against both piston crowns, driving them in
opposite directions. In this type of engine, two crankshafts are required for transmission of power and both
shafts contribute to the engine output. In order to maintain the relative position of the two pistons in each
cylinder during the cycle events, the two crankshafts are geared to one another by a vertical drive shaft.
a. Opposed-piston engines have scavenging (intake) air ports located near the top of the cylinders.
These ports are opened and closed by the upper piston. Exhaust ports, located near the bottom of the
cylinder, are closed and opened by the lower piston.
a. Because the pistons in these engines are acting as the scavenging and exhaust valves, the valves and
valve train found in single acting engines are not required.
b. Movement of the opposed pistons is such that the crowns are close together near the center of the
cylinder. Figure 5 shows the sequence of two stroke cycle events in the opposed piston engine.
c. Opposed-piston engines have a number of advantages over single acting engines of a comparable
rating. Some of these advantages are: less weight per horsepower developed; lack of cylinder heads
and valve mechanisms (and cooling and lubricating problems associated with them); and fewer
moving parts. They are used both in SSDG and EDG applications in the Navy.
B. Engine Components
1. Stationary Parts
a. The stationary diesel engine components maintain the moving engine parts in their proper relative
position. These components include the cylinder block and the cylinder assembly. The cylinder
assembly is composed of the cylinder head and liner. The cylinder block supports the engine's
cylinders and head(s). The sump or oil pan is attached to the block and is the reservoir for collecting
the engine's lubricating oil.
b. The cylinder assembly confines and releases the combustion gas. It consists of the head, the liner, the
studs and gasket. The components provide a gas tight, liquid tight space.
1. Diesels with the exception of the opposed-piston type have the combustion end of the cylinder
sealed by a cylinder head. A number of engine parts essential to engine operation may be found
attached to or around the head. Some of these parts are: intake and exhaust valves, rocker arm
assemblies, fuel injector valves, air starting valves, indicator and blow down valves and safety
valve. The head is water cooled and so it has water piping connections as well. It is usually
bolted to the upper end of the cylinder liner and the complete assembly bolted or clamped into
the cylinder block. The head gasket, the seal between the head and cylinder liner, is critical and
subject to gas cuts if not correctly made.
1. Cylinder liners fall into three categories: dry, wet or jacket type. This classification describes
whether the liner has no contact with jacket water (dry liner), forms one side of the jacket water
passage (wet liner), or completely encapsulates the jacket water passage surrounding the liner
(jacket liner). Liners are secured at their upper ends to the head and form a sliding joint with
the block at their lower ends to allow for thermal expansion. They are typically fabricated from
grey iron or other similar material which has some surface porosity to assist in maintaining a
constant lube oil surface film during operation. The cylinder liner provides scavenging ports in
two stroke engines (figure 6). In opposed piston engines the liner will have scavenging and
exhaust ports, injector, air start and indicator ports.
minimize inertial loads. Pistons are therefore usually fabricated from cast iron or aluminum in
one or two pieces. Piston rings snap into position in grooves located in two groups, one near
the crown and one at the lower end of the skirt. The upper piston rings (compression rings) seal
the cylinder. The compression rings also provide a path to conduct heat from the piston to the
cylinder liner so that it may be removed by circulating jacket water. The lower rings (oil rings
or oil scraper rings) serve to distribute lube oil and remove excess oil from the cylinder liner
walls.
2. Almost all diesel pistons use internal oil flow to remove combustion heat from the piston
crown. To do this internal passages are provided to bring pressurized oil from the main
bearings through the crankshaft, crankpin, connecting rod and piston pin into the piston crown.
This oil absorbs heat and then drains to the engine sump by gravity.
c. The piston pin connects the piston to the connecting rod.
a. The connecting rod transmits the reciprocating motion of piston to the crankshaft crank pin,
generating the rotary motion of the crankshaft. Connecting rods are subjected to severe cyclical
tension and compression loads (4 stroke engines) and to cyclical compression loads only (2 stroke
engines). To provide adequate toughness, they are typically formed from steel forgings which are
heat treated to improve fatigue resistance. The piston pin bearing is usually a sleeve type bearing.
b. Camshafts (figure 8) are component actuating drives which are timed by gear or chain drives to the
crankshaft (and therefore piston) position. Camshafts are configured with eccentric projections called
cams whose shape controls the operation of valves and injectors by varying the position of the
components intermediate linkage (train). The camshaft is usually driven by the crankshaft through a
geared or chain drive connection.
a. The crankshaft (figure 9) changes the movement of the pistons and connecting rod into the rotary
motion required for the engine output. The crankshaft is subjected to a wide variety of forces in the
engine, so it must be ruggedly built to withstand the stress. Crankshafts may be constructed of one or
several pieces . The crankshaft will consist of the main bearing journals arranged along the shaft's
axis and interspaced between crankthrows for each cylinder or cylinder pair (in V-type engines,
connecting rods for cylinder pairs are connected to the same crankpin).
a. The crankthrow consists of two webs and a journal (crankpin) to which the connecting rod (or rods in
V-type) lower bearing is connected. Because of the pulsed power as each cylinder fires, crankshafts
are sometimes equipped with flywheels for smoother power delivery. Flywheels add extra mass
which absorbs the pulsed energy and by virtue of inertia gives up that energy in a steady release. In
those engines without flywheels, the additional inertial mass is added by distributing it along the
entire length of the crankshaft. Other crankshaft attachments include counter or balancing weights,
drive gears, flexible couplings, and oil flinger rings.
b. The main bearings of the diesel engine support the crankshaft. These bearings are either babbitted or
aluminum. The most common location for these bearings is in the bottom of the engine block where
the bearing caps bolt the underslung crankshaft up into the block which supports it. The main
bearings are lubricated by pressurized engine lube oil supplied by the attached lube oil pump. Once
processed by the components of the external lube oil system, lube oil is delivered to the bearings
through internal lube oil passages or "galleries" in the engine by a separate line to each bearing cap.
Lube oil then flows around and through the bearing and on into the crankshaft.
B. Engine Systems
1. Engine Combustion Air Intake and Exhaust Systems
a. The diesel engine air systems are commonly referred to as the intake and exhaust systems. The air
intake system (figure 10 shows a 2-stroke engine) has a turbocharger and/or a blower installed to
increase the flow of air to the cylinders. This is accomplished by compressing the air and forcing it
into an air box or manifold which surrounds or is attached to the cylinders of the engine. The
increased amount of air available is used to fill the cylinder with a fresh charge of air and, in the
process, blow through and clear the cylinder of combustion gases. The process of using intake air to
flush out exhaust gas is called scavenging.
1. An increase in the mass of air flow into the cylinder increases engine power output. This
technique is called supercharging. Supercharging, on engines with blowers, turbochargers or
both, is accomplished by shutting the exhaust ports (valves) prior to shutting the inlet ports
(valves). This places the air in the cylinder at the blower or turbocharger discharge pressure
(one to five psig). In some applications, a turbocharger is mounted in series with the blower to
increase the air pressure to the cylinder (15 to 25 psig).
2. The air intake system also cleans the air and reduces the noise created by the air as it enters the
engine. To accomplish this objective the system frequently includes an air silencer and an air
cleaner and screen. In small engine systems the air inlet may draw air from the engine space
and depend on the installed space ventilation to provide adequate air. In larger engine systems,
air is drawn directly from the outside by ducting which serves the diesel alone. In this type
system, blow-in doors may be installed to prevent collapsing the system should the air inlet
screens become blocked.
3. The engine air blower, sometimes referred to as a "roots blower", is a positive displacement
lobe type air pump driven off the crankshaft. The turbocharger is a non-positive displacement
centrifugal air pump which is driven by exhaust gas.
1. Many engines with installed turbochargers have coolers installed between the turbocharger and
the air manifold. The cooler reduces the temperature of the air which increased as a result of
being compressed. Lowering the air temperature increases its density and allows more air to be
packed into the combustion chamber, hence more fuel to be burned per cycle. This also
increases the power output of the engine. These coolers are termed intercoolers or aftercoolers
by engine manufacturers, but all serve the same purpose. Seawater is the usual cooling medium
with jacket water used in some instances.
2. Engines with a turbocharger and an air blower may have two coolers, one after each stage of
air compression.
a. The exhaust system conveys the combustion gases away from the cylinders. It also muffles exhaust
noise and quenches sparks. In the case where a turbocharger is installed, the exhaust system conveys
exhaust gas to the turbocharger turbine inlet where some heat energy is reclaimed by the turbocharger
drive turbine prior to exhausting the gas to atmosphere.
quantity of fuel injected, the timing of injection, the rate of injection and distributes the fuel
throughout the cylinder for even, thorough mixing and better combustion. A typical arrangement is
shown in figure 11. An attached, positive displacement fuel pump takes a suction on the fuel oil
service tank through a mechanical strainer. Knife edge strainers are commonly used in this
application. The pump discharges through one or more stages of cartridge type fuel filters to the
engine fuel oil manifold. The manifold has individual supply lines to each cylinder's injection pump
or unit injector.
a. The diesel injection pump (or unit injector, which combines the functions of pump and nozzle into
one unit) is a positive displacement reciprocating pump with a constant stroke that forces fuel at the
correct time and in the correct amount into the cylinder for the power level demanded.
b. Because of the need for exact timing of fuel injection at the proper moment in the cycle, each
cylinder of an engine has at least one (some engines have two) associated injection pump or unit
injector.
c. The start of injection is initiated by the roll of the injector pump cam on the camshaft. The camshaft
position is timed to the position of the piston in the cylinder. The lobe of the cam rolls past the
injection pump lifter, moving it up. This action strokes the plunger in the injector pump, moving it up
across the barrel inlet port to capture a volume of fuel in the upper barrel chamber.
d. The plunger continues to move upward until it pressurizes the fuel to the point that the nozzle poppit
valve opens and admits atomized fuel to the cylinder. This valve functions like a relief valve - it will
not open until the pressure has built up to the valve's setpoint, usually about 2000 psig. Thus the start
of the injection is mechanically fixed (timed) to the piston position. Injection too early causes engine
knocking. Late injection results in unburned fuel in the exhaust. So it is important that the start of the
injection be precisely initiated by the camshaft action. Fuel continues to be injected into the
combustion chamber until the plunger rises to the position where its helical cutout passes the spill
port. Fuel in the injector chamber now has an alternate path to follow, down through the slot and
helical cutouts in the plunger and out through the spill port to the return fuel line.
a. Power output is controlled by varying the duration of fuel injection. This is accomplished by moving
the injection pump rack with the governor control linkage (figure 12). The rack engages the pinion
gear teeth on the outside of the control sleeve surrounding the injector pump barrel.
b. The control sleeve engages the plunger flange, so it rotates the plunger inside the barrel. This
movement reorients the helical cutout in the injection pump plunger with respect to the spill or outlet
port in the barrel. By extending or shortening the effective length of the plunger stroke (the actual
length of the plunger stroke is constant), the duration of the fuel injection event is changed to suit the
power demand.
c. The unit injector also functions to provide proper atomization of the fuel and the requisite penetration
of the fuel into the cylinder. It does this by expelling fuel to the cylinder through very fine openings
and developing a pressure sufficiently above the cylinder pressure to break the fuel into fine particles
and impart to it a high kinetic energy in the process of injecting it into the cylinder.
d. Where injection pumps with separate nozzles are installed, the pump generates the high fuel pressure
for injection, and the fuel flows through a high pressure line to an injection nozzle. It is the nozzle
which mechanically atomizes the fuel and injects it into the combustion chamber.
a. In ships which use jacket water as a source for waste heat, a waste heat exchanger may
be placed in parallel with the jacket water cooler to provide a path through which the
heat given up by jacket water may be reclaimed for ship service use, such as heating
potable water or distilling fresh water. If such a parallel installation is provided, a
proportioning valve will be installed to manage the flow through both heat exchangers to
insure that jacket water temperature does not exceed its maximum limit while
maintaining the minimum waste heat temperature. Jacket water will then flow into the
engine and through the cooling passages around the cylinders, in the heads and around
exhaust manifolds, injector nozzles, turbochargers, etc., before returning to the pump
suction. An expansion tank connected to the system is vented to the atmosphere and
allows system fluid thermal expansion as well as providing a point at which water or
chemical treatment may be added.
3. Keep warm System
a. Some engines have a keep warm system which uses an electrical heater to warm jacket
water to allow easy engine starts and rapid loading after starting because the engine is
quickly at normal operating temperature.
d. Seawater
1. The seawater or raw water cooling system is an open system which removes heat from the
jacketwater cooler, generator air cooler (on an SSDG or EDG) and any intercooler/aftercooler
installed, and carries it overboard. Flow in the raw water system is also established by an
attached centrifugal pump taking suction on a seawater service line, firemain or its own
dedicated sea chest suction. The sea water flows out of the pump through the jacketwater
cooler and after/intercooler absorbing heat. It then is piped directly overboard.
2. Engine Lubrication Systems
a. The engine lubrication system consists of two main divisions, one external to the engine and the
second internal.
1. The internal division consists principally of passages and piping (called galleries) to distribute
oil to bearings and surfaces where it is required throughout the engine, and to passages and
drain lines which return oil to the oil pan.
2. The external portion includes components which aid in supplying oil in the proper quality, at
the proper temperature, and free of impurities. To accomplish the latter, the external system
consists of sumps or tanks, pumps, coolers, strainers and filters, and purifiers.
a. Diesel engine lubricating oil systems are the pressurized type, and are usually described
by the path of oil flow with respect to the system filter. Full flow systems force all the
pump output through the filter on every pass.
b. Diesels are configured with either wet or dry sumps. Wet sump diesels use the engine oil
pan to store the working reservoir of lube oil. Dry sump diesels employ an unattached
tank to store the lube oil reserve, and must have a scavenging pump to remove oil as it
collects in the oil pan and pump it to the remote sump tank.
c. A prelube pump may be installed in any diesel engine to lubricate the engine prior to
starting.
d. Navy ships use 9250 for diesel engine lube oil. This oil is designed for use in internal
combustion engines and has different properties from the lubricating oils used in steam
and gas turbine applications. As in any lube oil system, cleanliness is critical to
continued engine operation. Engine bearings in particular are subject to damage if
particulate contamination enters the system, since it blocks lube oil flow through
passages and scores bearing surfaces, thus disrupting the lubricating oil film separating
bearing and journal surfaces. The result is increased friction and wear, or in the worst
case, catastrophic failure of the engine component.
a. Virtually all start systems have one or more interlocks to prohibit inadvertent starting in an unsafe
condition, such as without initial lube oil pressure or with the barring device engaged.
certain concentration of oil vapor and air in the crankcase, exposure to a significant heat source such
as an overheated bearing will ignite the vapor explosively. The crankcase evacuation system provides
a method for drawing off the vapor and air in the crankcase to maintain the concentration of volatile
fumes in the crankcase below explosive limits. Most systems consist of an eductor or fan
arrangement which draws the vapor from the crankcase and exhausts into the engine uptakes, to
exhaust ventilation or back into the engine inlet.
1. Black or gray smoke can be caused by incomplete burning of fuel due to high exhaust
backpressure or an inlet air restriction, bad fuel or fuel injection problems.
2. Blue smoke can be caused by excessive lube oil consumption. The source can be worn or
broken rings, high crankcase pressure, leaking oil seals in a turbo or blower, plugged drain
holes in pistons, glazed liners or worn valve guides or seals.
3. White smoke can be caused by low compression, insufficient fuel (bad injectors), water
leakage in cylinder, misfiring cylinders or improper fuel. White smoke can also appear during
startup because the temperature is too low in the combustion chamber, causing poor
combustion. This is a transient condition-as the engine warms up, the white smoke should
disappear. Engine startups where the ambient temperature is low are especially prone to white
smoke.