8.
22 Dryer Controls
B. BLOCK (1970, 1985) B. G. LIPTÁK
INTRODUCTION
The equipment discussed in this section serves to dry solids.
The process involves the removal of liquids, such as water
or other solvents, by adding heat to vaporize them. The types
of dryer designs discussed can be grouped into batch and
continuous. They can be further subdivided on the basis of
whether the dryer itself is heated (nonadiabatic) or unheated
and the heat of vaporization is provided by preheated air
(adiabatic).
Adiabatic dryers can be co-current (the solids and the
drying air move in the same direction), countercurrent (hot air
and solids move through the dryer in opposite directions), or
fluidized bed. The control of each of these designs will be
briefly discussed in this section.
The subject of dryers is so extensive that some limitations
must be imposed on the discussion. Therefore:
1. The dryers and drying principles discussed will be
limited to those related to the removal of a volatile
solvent from a solid material. Such processes as the
removal of a solvent from an air stream (air drying)
or the removal of one solvent from another (drying of
an organic solvent) will not be covered.
2. The solvent to be removed will be taken as water.
3. The heating medium used may be steam or the firing
of a fuel.
ADIABATIC DRYING
The energy source for adiabatic drying is the sensible heat
of a stream of air directed toward a bed or a stream of moist
solids. Heat flows from the air to the solids, evaporating some
of their moisture — in this respect, the governing force for
drying is that of heat transfer. In this process the air is cooled,
but its energy content (enthalpy) does not change, because
the sensible heat loss equals the latent heat associated with
its increased moisture content.
1904
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
Air
Feed
(1995) F. G. SHINSKEY (2005)
Dry
product
Air
Flow sheet symbol
The Psychrometric Chart
Figure 8.22a is a psychrometric chart relating the absolute
and relative humidity of air to its temperature and enthalpy.
The vertical scale is absolute humidity in grains of moisture
carried by a pound of dry air (1 lb is 7000 grains). Dry-bulb
temperature is the horizontal scale.
The uppermost curve is the saturation limit—100% rel-
ative humidity, the remaining curves representing lower lev-
els of RH. The temperature of the air at 100% RH is also its
dew point. Consider, for example, a hot summer day with a
(dry-bulb) temperature of 85°F and a RH of 75%. The abso-
lute humidity of the air would be about 137 grains/lb dry air,
and its dew point would be about 76°F.
Such air might be used to dry lumber, for example, by
heating it to 115°F. Point A on the psychrometric chart would
then represent the condition of the heated air that is sent to
the dryer—notice that its RH at that point is only 30%.
The scale in the center of the chart is marked in units of
BTU/lb dry air total heat, or enthalpy. As the air passes through
the adiabatic dryer, its enthalpy will remain at 50 BTU/lb,
while it cools and evaporates moisture from the solids. The
path it takes on the chart then follows a line of constant
enthalpy sloping upward to the left toward point B, where it
is exhausted from the dryer at 80%RH. These lines of constant
enthalpy are also lines of constant wet-bulb temperature.
A wet-bulb thermometer’s bulb is covered by a wick that
is saturated with water. It is whirled in the air, or has a stream
of air blown across it. The equilibrium temperature reached
during this process is known as the wet-bulb temperature and
can be used along with dry-bulb temperature to estimate RH,
absolute humidity, and dew point from the chart. It is also a
direct indication of enthalpy—note that the wet-bulb lines
on the chart are also lines of constant enthalpy.
Wet-bulb temperature is particularly important in a dry-
ing operation, because the wet bulb is an analog of the solid
material being dried. As moisture evaporates from the solid
in an adiabatic dryer, its temperature approaches that of a
wet-bulb thermometer in the same air, and it remains at that
 8.22 Dryer Controls 1905

250 58 250
240 56 240

0%
230 230

10
54 90

Cu
0.70 220 Barometric pressure 14.696 PSIA 52 220

.f
90
210

r
210
Weight of water vapor in one pound of dry air-grains

y ai

t. p
50

%
200 200

80

er l
r
48

of d
190 44 85 190

b. o
0.60

15
%
46

70
42

und

.0
180 B 180

f
dry
170 40 170

r po
Pressure of water vapor-PSI

%
80

air
s

60
160 38 160
re

e
0.50
tu

U. p
150 36 r a 150

%
pe

50
t-BT
140 34 140
26 tem 75 A
130 32 t 130

14
in

he a

%
0.40
po 70

40
24

.5
120 30 120
w

al
110 22 de

Tot
26 d 110
an %
100 20 lb 65 30 100
0.30 bu

14
90 Wet 90
18 et bu

.0
60 lb lin
80 16 W es % 80
70 55 20 70
0.20 14 50
60 60

13
50 12 45 50

.5
40 10 40 10% d i t y 40
35 mi
13

0.10 30 30 e hu 30
v
.0

25 t i
20 Rela 20
12
.5

10 10
0.00 0 0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120
Dry bulb temperature-degrees F. Copyright, 1942, General Electric Company

FIG. 8.22a
Psychrometric chart.

temperature through most of the drying operation. Measuring As a result, wet-bulb temperature is rarely measured in
the wet-bulb temperature in a dryer or even in the air entering situ, but can be calculated from other measurements such as
a dryer is difficult, however, because the wick must be con- dry-bulb and dew-point temperatures. The exception is in a
tinuously supplied with just the right flow of water, and the lumber kiln, where conditions are relatively mild and dust-free.
wick is subject to plugging from dust and any dissolved solids
in the water (Figure 8.22b). Batch Drying

Many materials are dried in batches; for example, fine pow-

ders, which are later encapsulated into aspirin and other tab-
Capillary lets. The drying is typically conducted in a fluid bed such as
tubing to shown in Figure 8.22c.
dry bulb
recording
A basket fitted with fine-mesh screens on bottom and top
pen is charged with wet powder and wheeled into the dryer, where
it is sealed in place. The exhaust fan is started, drawing air
Capillary
tubing to upward through the bed, fluidizing the wet powder. The air
wet bulb is heated by a steam coil to a controlled temperature before
recording it contacts the solids.
pen
Initially, the solids will be below the wet-bulb temperature
of the heated air and will warm to that value within minutes,
where evaporation will begin. The first water to be removed
Clean will be surface moisture, and it will be removed at a constant
water
supply rate until the surface is partially dry. Migration of moisture
Water from within the solids then progresses at a reduced rate. If
reservoir Wick Drain
drying is continued indefinitely, an equilibrium temperature
FIG. 8.22b will eventually be reached where no more moisture is removed.
Wet-dry bulb hygrometer using filled system temperature sensors When the product is later exposed to atmospheric condi-
arranged for duct mounting. tions, the equilibrium will shift, however, and some moisture

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

1906 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

Exhaust
B C
air
HCV Inlet
air A Constant Falling
rate zone rate zone

Drying rate

Preheat zone
D
FC Steam E
Time
Filter bag

T TRC FIG. 8.22e

Product cart Air
Rate of drying vs. time.
TT

sents the derivative of Figure 8.22e, that is, the variation in

FIG. 8.22c
Batch fluid-bed dryer. rate of drying as a function of time.
Another curve, Figure 8.22g, combines these two to
relate the rate of drying to the moisture content of the solid.
In virtually all dryers, the desired moisture content of
may be readsorbed from the air. A profile of moisture content
the product lies in the falling-rate zone, i.e., below its critical
against time for a typical batch dryer is given in Figure 8.22d.
moisture content. In this zone, the moisture content of the
The curve consists of four zones. Section A-B represents
product is proportional to the rate of drying, in fact, approx-
the period of preheating of the solid to the initial drying
imately linear with it, which gives the dryer a degree of self-
temperature; evaporation during this phase is slow. The next
regulation.
section, B-C, is a period of evaporation of surface moisture
The lower the moisture content, the harder it is to remove.
or moisture that migrates readily. The temperature near the
The relationship between rate of drying and driving force
surface of the solids during this time is the wet-bulb temper-
allows for moisture control without an on-line measurement.
ature of the air in contact with the product.
It is common for operators of batch dryers to stop the
After the surface moisture has evaporated, the rate of
operation when it is estimated that the product is close to its
evaporation drops off (section C-D). This reduction may be
desired moisture content—on the basis of time or intuition—
due in part to a case-hardening of the surface and in part to
and sample it. The sample is typically placed in a loss-in-
the long path necessary for the water to migrate to the surface.
weight analyzer where it is weighed, dried thoroughly by
If the solid has water-of-crystallization, or bound water, the
rate will then drop off even more, as shown in section D-E
of the curve. At point E, equilibrium is established and the Air inlet temp.
drying rate is zero. Pre
Ti
heat Constant rate Falling rate
Other curves are also useful for an understanding of dryer
control requirements. The first of these, Figure 8.22f, repre- Tof

Tsc D E
Temperature

Air outlet Solid temperatures

A temperature Tsc = Twb – constant
B (To) rate phase
Wc = Critical moisture Toc Tsi – at inlet
Moisture content

content Tso – at outlet

We = Equilibrium (final) Tso B Solids C
Air temperatures
moisture content (~TWB)
Ti – inlet
Tsi Tof – final outlet
A temperature
Toc – outlet during constant-
C rate phase
Wc Twb – wet bulb
To – outlet
D E
We Time
Time
FIG. 8.22f
FIG. 8.22d Product temperature rises in a batch dryer from Tsi to Tso as it is
Typical batch drying curve. heated by air, which enters at Ti and leaves at To .

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

 8.22 Dryer Controls 1907

1
Particle fully A of solids in the dryer, produces a relationship between
covered by water product moisture x and air temperatures:
R (lbm/hr ft2 or kg/s m2)

Assumed xcGC p Ti − Tw
approximation x= ln 8.22(3)
Particle partially H v kA To − Tw
Drying rate

covered by water

where Ti is the inlet air temperature and To is its outlet temper-

ature. Given a constant airflow and surface area, product mois-
Particle surface dry.
Evaporization from within.
ture in the fluid bed is proportional to the ratio of the dry-to-
Solids wet-bulb temperature difference at the ends of the dryer. This
x moisture
content
relationship will be used to control product moisture in both
xc = Critical (lbm water/lbm solids
batch and continuous adiabatic dryers.
moisture or kg water/kg solids)
content

FIG. 8.22g MOISTURE CONTROL

Drying rate versus moisture content.
Moisture Analyzers

On-line moisture analyzers are becoming more common in

infrared radiation, and weighed again, which takes a few
minutes.
If the product moisture is still too high, the drying will
be resumed for a time and the product sampled again. If the
moisture is too low, the product may have to be sprayed with
water and drying repeated. However, the conditions corre-
sponding to the desired moisture can be estimated on-line,
and the dryer can be automatically shut down when those
conditions are met, avoiding unnecessary sampling and
thereby saving time. To do this, a model of the drying process
is needed.
Dryer Model
The rate of evaporation from a solid is proportional to its
moisture content x (following the linear approximation) up
to its critical moisture xc. It is also proportional to the driving
force, which is the temperature difference between the air
and the solid, which is also the difference between the dry-
and wet-bulb temperatures of the air, T − Tw:
industry, and more reliable as well (Figure 8.22h). However,
they are subject to a difficult environment—hot, humid, and
dusty—and the material they are analyzing tends to have
nonuniform properties within a product and quite-variable
properties from product to product. Variable particle size and
bulk density are particularly a hindrance to optical and elec-
trical measurements.
Optical devices can only read surface moisture, while the
internal amount in a lump of solids might be quite different;
and a rough or irregular surface adds a high level of noise to
the measurement. Devices based on loss in weight avoid the
problem of variable density, but add sample-handling diffi-
culties and are slow.
Even when an on-line measurement is found to be accu-
rate and reliable, it is applied to a product that has already
left the dryer. Most dryers are dominated by dead time, and
so the analysis reflects a condition that is several minutes—
perhaps even an hour—old.

dW = dAk (T − Tw ) x/ xc 8.22(1)
Scintillation
detector Microwave
(option) receiving Evaluation
where dW is the water transferred from a solid particle of antenna unit micro-moist
surface area dA to the air, and k is the mass-transfer coeffi- LB 456
cient. As the air passes through the bed, its temperature falls
by evaporation:
HF HF reference
Gamma radiation Microwave measurement cable
Hv source (option) transmitting cable
− dT = dW 8.22(2) antenna
GC p

FIG. 8.22h
where Hv is the latent heat of evaporation, G is the mass flow Noncontacting moisture analyzer can be provided with gamma radi-
of air, and Cp is its specific heat. Combining these two equa- ation densitometer to compensate for variations in process density.
tions by eliminating dW, and integrating across the total area (Courtesy of Berthold Technologies.)

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

1908 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

By contrast, air temperatures respond readily to changing Exhaust

heat input and feed conditions, and if controlled, they can keep air
a product on specification before an analyzer can detect a
significant variation. So, when an analyzer is used for control,
Recirculated air
it should set temperature in cascade and preferably be used to
update an inferential model Ready
alarm
Tof = C Toc + (1 – C)Ti
Controlling Batch Dryers Toc & Ti
TT TY TIC AIC
Tof
The outlet-air temperature of a batch dryer is quite revealing To
of the process within. Figure 8.22i gives a typical time plot,
TT AT
relative to a constant inlet-air temperature at the top and a Ti Steam
DPt
corresponding constant wet-bulb temperature at bottom. After
a short preheat of the dryer and its contents, evaporation Atmospheric
begins at a constant rate, with the outlet-air temperature set- dryer
tling at Toc, not far above the wet-bulb temperature. After the
product moisture has reached the critical value, falling-rate Outside
drying begins. This decrease in the rate of drying is reflected air
Batch is ready when
in a rise in outlet-air temperature, simultaneously increasing To > C Toc + (1 – C)Ti
the driving force. Eventually, a temperature will be reached The smaller the constant “C” the drier the product will be.
where the product moisture is at specification and the drying
FIG. 8.22j
should be terminated—this is designated at Tof in Figure 8.22i.
Inferential control of a batch dryer with recirculated air.
To apply the fluid-bed dryer model, lump the constants
of Equation 8.21(3) into a single constant K:

same model to calculate Tof, which corresponds to the desired

Ti − Tw
x = Kxc ln 8.22(4) final moisture content x:
To − Tw

Tof = Toc + C (Ti − Toc ) = CToc + (1 − C )Ti 8.22(6)

Wet-bulb temperature can be estimated from the mea-
sured value of Toc by applying the model to the constant-rate
period, setting x = xc and solving for Tw: The value of Toc measured during constant-rate drying
must be held in memory and used later to calculate Tof. When
the actual measurement of To reaches the calculated value of
Ti − Toce1/ K Tof, drying should be terminated. Coefficient C is an adjust-
Tw = 8.22(5)
1 − e1/ K able constant, which includes the desired product moisture,
batch size, and airflow. It must be determined for each prod-
where e is 2.718, the base of the natural logarithms. Once uct on-line. Once calibrated to a particular product, it should
having estimated Tw, it can then be subsequently used in the deliver consistent batch-to-batch moisture regardless of ini-
tial atmospheric humidity and inlet-air temperature; it is
somewhat sensitive to batch size, however.
To keep inlet-air humidity from changing during the
course of a run, some of the exhaust air can be recirculated
Ti under dew-point control, as shown in Figure 8.22j. At the
beginning of a run, during constant-rate drying, the exhaust
Air temperature

air will be cool and wet, and not useful for recirculation. But
Constant-rate Falling-rate
during falling-rate drying it becomes progressively warmer
drying drying Terminate
at Tof and dryer, and its recirculation under dew-point control can
To reduce steam consumption.
Toc
Tw
Lumber Kilns

Time A lumber kiln is a batch dryer where lumber is stacked in a

manner that allows uniform airflow through it. Heated air cir-
Fig. 8.22i culates from one end of the kiln to the other, with the direction
Product moisture should be on-specification at Tof . of flow reversed periodically for more uniform drying.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták


The wet-bulb temperature of the circulated air is controlled
by opening an exhaust damper, which releases humid air and
induces an equal flow of fresh air into the kiln. The rate of
drying must be strictly limited to prevent cracking of the wood
from stress caused by unequal moisture distribution.
At every reversal of flow, the temperature gradient in the
kiln reverses. Temperatures at both ends of the kiln are com-
pared in high and low selectors, with the higher selected as
the inlet temperature Ti and the lower as the outlet temperature
To. Rate of drying is limited by controlling Ti − To with a steam
valve on the air heater. Ti is also limited by a controller that
is overriding the rate-of-drying controller through a low selec-
tor. These controllers are transferred to manual briefly after
each flow reversal, until the temperatures settle at their new
values.
Reference 2 describes the successful calculation of wood
moisture using Equation 8.22(4) directly from measurements
of inlet, outlet, and wet-bulb temperatures. Kxc was adjusted
to calibrate the model for each species and grade of wood,
and drying was terminated when the calculated value of x
reached the specification for that product. The use of the
model resulted in a higher quality product, more batch-to-
batch uniformity, and shorter batch times.
Continuous Fluid-Bed Dryers
The continuous fluid-bed dryer shown in Figure 8.22k uses
a temperature controller on the air leaving the bed to manip-
ulate the flow of steam to the air heater. A second controller
maintains bed density by holding a constant differential pres-
sure across it. In this dryer, rapid circulation of the solids
means that the average moisture content in the bed is approx-
Exhaust
air
HCV
Feed
TT
TRC
Perforated PDT Dry
plate product
PDRC
M
Steam
FC
Inlet
air
T 0
FIG. 8.22k
A continuous fluid-bed dryer with single-loop controls.
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
8.22 Dryer Controls 1909
imately the same as that of the product being discharged. As
a consequence, the rate of drying is essentially that of the
product.
The relationship between product moisture and air tem-
peratures is then governed by Equation 8.22(4). An increase
in either feed rate or moisture will lower the outlet-air temper-
ature, causing the controller to increase steam flow to return
it to set point. However, the addition of more heat to the air
also raises its wet-bulb temperature, which narrows the tem-
perature difference in the denominator of Equation 8.22(4),
while raising the temperature difference in the numerator,
thereby raising the level of moisture in the product. There-
fore, controlling at a fixed temperature set point gives a
product that is sensitive to variations in load as well as atmo-
spheric humidity.
To provide load regulation and protection from humidity
variations, the inferential model of Equation 8.22(4) can be
applied. It requires a measurement of inlet-air temperature,
which should be controlled in cascade from the outlet-air
temperature controller. It also requires wet-bulb temperature,
but this is not measurable under the conditions prevailing in
the dryer—it must be calculated as a function of inlet-air
temperature and humidity. The model is then inverted so that
outlet-air temperature appears in the numerator, as that is the
controlled variable. Outlet-air temperature is plotted as a func-
tion of inlet-air temperature for conditions of constant product
moisture in Figure 8.22l, using the software in Reference 3.
Ambient temperature and dew point are entered into the
program, along with fuel type in case of direct firing—this
figure has no fuel input. The origin of the plot is the point
where both inlet and outlet temperatures are equal to the
ambient—here, 50°F.
500
0.4
To – T w 0.3
Ti – Tw
Outlet air temperature
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
Inlet air temperature 1000
FIG. 8.22l
Each curve represents a contour of constant dryness; temperatures
are in °F.
1910 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

Air
Set Fuel
X HCV Fired control
TC T o* FY TC heater unit
FR
Set Air
Fuel
FT

t Feed S 1/P
FY
FO
High pressure Vent
feed pump
TT TT
TRC
To Ti Heat Exhaust TSH TAH
input air
TT
FIG. 8.22m
The inferential moisture control system has positive feedback.

HCV

The program then calculates the wet-bulb temperature

for that air heated to each inlet temperature across the scale.
(If the temperature is reached by combustion, then the water
thus formed is added to the ambient humidity.) The wet-bulb
temperature is plotted as the lowest contour, where the tem-
perature ratio is 0. Each of the other curves is plotted by
applying a different ratio, from 0.1 to 0.4, covering the con-
ditions found in most dryers.
At a certain set of operating conditions, a fluid-bed dryer
will be making on-specification product. A set of curves is
plotted for that set of ambient temperature and dew point,
and the inlet and outlet temperature coordinates correspond-
ing to the desired product moisture are marked on the chart.
A curve drawn through that point parallel to its neighbors
then represents the locus of temperatures also producing that
moisture content.
At higher temperatures and higher ratios, the curves are
almost linear. Then, the model reduces to a simple matter of
setting the outlet-air temperature set point To* in ratio to inlet-
air temperature Ti:
To* = a + bTi 8.22(7)
where a and b are constants that give the best linear fit. How-
ever, a more accurate fit can be made by calculating wet-bulb
temperature on-line and solving for To* directly. A control sys-
tem based on Equation 8.22(7) is shown in Figure 8.22m.
The indexing of the set point of the To controller forms
a positive-feedback loop — a higher inlet temperature raises
the outlet-temperature set point, which causes its controller
to increase inlet temperature further. At the same time, the
outlet-temperature measurement will also start to increase,
and this is negative feedback. For a system having positive
feedback to be stable, its gain must be lower and its dynamics
slower than the negative feedback loop in the system.
The gains of all the curves in Figure 8.22l are 0.5 or less,
compared to a negative-feedback gain of 1, so the system
will not run away. But the loop will cycle if the positive
Dry
product
FIG. 8.22n
Spray dryer with single-loop controls.
feedback is not also slower. Therefore, a lag [t] is inserted in
Figure 8.22m as a model of the dryer dynamics. This loop
is very similar to the reset feedback loop in a PI or PID
controller that has a positive feedback gain of 1.0 and a lag
that represents the integral time. Therefore, the lag [t] in
Figure 8.22m can be safely set at the same value as the
integral time of the outlet-temperature controller.
Direct-Fired Dryers
Figure 8.22n shows a spray dryer whose air supply is heated
by direct firing of a fuel. In an arrangement such as this, it
is usually difficult to obtain a measurement of inlet-air tem-
perature due to the radiation of the flame. However, given a
constant airflow, air temperature should be proportional to
the fuel flow. So, fuel flow is then used to index the outlet-
temperature set point in the place of inlet-air temperature in
Figure 8.22m. The relationship to fuel flow is not quite as
accurate, but still preferable to operating at a constant set
point.
The feed to a spray dryer is typically a thin slurry sprayed
at high pressure through a bank of nozzles into a co-current
stream of hot air. Residence time is very short, and granular
product is withdrawn at the bottom of the dryer. When the
model described in Figure 8.22l was originally applied to a
spray dryer producing milk solids, it overcorrected—product
4
moisture decreased following a load increase. The gain fac-
tor b of about 0.23 in Equation 8.22(7) was subsequently
decreased until the product moisture no longer varied with
load—the final gain was 0.13.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták


Exhaust
Feed
Fuel
Pri. Sec.
Product
air
FIG. 8.22o
Ores are dried in a rotating kiln by direct firing of a fuel.
The reason for this discrepancy was discovered much
later. The model used to develop the contours of Figure 8.22l
was based on a constant feed moisture and variable feed rate.
Within a fluid-bed dryer, the two load components produce
the same effect on product moisture because of the complete
back-mixing. But in a spray dryer, there is no back-mixing,
so that the rate of drying varies through its length. In the
particular dryer being studied, feed rate was maintained con-
stant by pressure regulated at the nozzles, but its composition
varied through a run. Wetter feed dries easier, and therefore
requires less of a temperature rise to control product moisture
than does an equivalent increase in feed rate.
Most common are rotary dryers, used for ores such as
bauxite and gypsum, one of which is illustrated in Figure 8.22o.
The center cylinder rotates slowly, conveying the solids
through its length, which can be 100 ft or more. Airflow is
co-current with the feed, induced by the exhaust fan. Primary
air is mixed with the fuel for combustion, and a larger flow
of secondary air is induced at the feed end. Inlet-air temper-
ature cannot be measured and must be inferred from fuel flow.
There is also a problem measuring outlet-air temperature.
Measurements made at an easy access point such as the
suction of the exhaust fan can give temperatures below the
wet-bulb—an impossibility in an adiabatic dryer. The low
measurement is caused by the infiltration of ambient air
through the rotary seals at the end of the dryer. To obtain an
accurate measurement of outlet-air temperature requires the
insertion of a resistance bulb into the rotating kiln upstream
of the seal, as shown in the figure. It is best fastened under
an angle-iron to protect it from falling rocks.
If a rotary dryer is exposed to feed-moisture changes, it
will behave much like the spray dryer, and for the same
reason. To discriminate between feed-rate and feed-moisture
changes, a measurement of feed rate is required. This can
be obtained by a mass-flow measurement on a conveyor feed-
ing the dryer. On ore dryers fed by a bulldozer, feed rate may
be estimated by the power load on the motor that rotates the
dryer. The set point for outlet-air temperature then is calcu-
lated as
To* = a + bF + cQ
© 2006 by Béla Lipták
8.22 Dryer Controls 1911
where F is feed rate and Q is the firing rate. If the feed rate
is steady and the firing rate increases, the cause is an increase
in feed moisture—hence coefficient c is the lower value found
for the spray dryer above. If both F and Q increase, the load
change is due to a rate increase—therefore, coefficient b in
To
TT Equation 8.22(7) is equivalent to b + c in Equation 8.22(8).
Countercurrent Dryers
Materials that have little heat sensitivity can be dried more
efficiently by a countercurrent flow of air. Examples of these
are sugar granulators, where the air is steam-heated, and
carbon-black dryers, which are direct-fired. In these dryers,
the temperature of the air leaving is unrelated to product
moisture, because it is measured at the feed end. In the sugar
granulator particularly, exit-air temperature reflects the tem-
perature of the feed that is discharged hot from centrifuges.
As a result, the models used for inferential control of fluid-
bed and co-current adiabatic dryers do not apply when the
flow pattern is countercurrent.
The best temperature to control in a countercurrent dryer
is that of the product as it leaves. This can be difficult to
measure, even in a sugar granulator where the product is
clean, uniform, and freely flowing. Voids and dams easily
form around any obstruction such as a temperature bulb. And
the product temperature has much more dead time than air
temperature. A reliable on-line analyzer is a real asset in
controlling these dryers.
NONADIABATIC DRYERS
When heat is transferred to the solid through the walls of a
dryer, enthalpy is added to the product, which raises the wet-
bulb temperature of the surrounding air. An attempt to model
this type of drying by estimating the internal wet-bulb tem-
perature is difficult, because the airflow is often induced by
natural draft and is neither measured nor controlled. A similar
problem develops when air is recirculated within a dryer
without control.
An example is a steam-tube dryer used for drying spent
grain in distilleries. It is a rotating shell fitted with a bank of
tubes containing condensing steam. The solids contact the
tubes as the dryer rotates, and they flow at a downward slope
against a natural draft of air. A rotating seal at the product
end connects the steam to the tubes and draws the condensate
out.
These dryers are conventionally controlled by regulating
the steam pressure in the tubes. An increase in feed rate or
moisture will wet more of the tube surface, thereby increasing
the rate of heat transfer and condensing more steam, which
the pressure regulator will then supply. However, a higher
evaporative load will result in more wet-tube surface, thereby
increasing the moisture content of the product.
5
An inferential control system was developed that is sim-
8.22(8) ilar to what was used successfully on adiabatic dryers—the
1912 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations

P PY % C(h) Pin PY Exhaust

1 air
Lag
PSV
PIC SP(P′) PY X Pin HIC
1 PIC
Gauge h Steam
press. Feed
FC
PT ∆PT PT FC
To 1 Doctor knife
non-adiabatic Steam Heated cylinders
dryer
T T Product conveyors
FIG. 8.22p Gap
The ratio of the gauge pressure of the steam into the dryer (P) and ~.005"
the orifice differential corrected for supply pressure variations
(ChPin) can be adjusted to obtain the desired product dryness. FIG. 8.22q
Double-drum dryer.

driving force for drying is increased in proportion to the evap-
orative load. Assuming that the moisture profile in the dryer
is related to the overall heat-transfer coefficient, an attempt is
made to keep that coefficient constant. Heat flow is linear with
temperature difference:
Q = UA∆T 8.22(9)
where U is the coefficient to be controlled, A the area of the
tube surface, and ∆T the temperature difference between the
solid and the steam. If steam flow increases due to a higher
evaporative load, then ∆T should increase proportionately to
keep U constant. This is accomplished by increasing steam
pressure, as shown in Figure 8.22p.
The relationship needed between steam pressure and flow
was found to be parabolic rather than linear. As a result, the
differential pressure h measured across the steam orifice does
not have its square root extracted before being used in the
calculation. Compensation of the flow measurement for vari-
ations in supply pressure Pin was found to be necessary for
accuracy. The pressure set point is calculated as
P* = ChPin 8.22(10)
where C is a coefficient adjusted to make on-specification
product.
Another nonadiabatic dryer that can be controlled in a
similar way is the double-drum dryer shown in Figure 8.22q.
Liquid is fed into the “valley” between the heated cylinders.
The drums, rotating downward at the center, receive a coating
of the liquid with the thickness depending upon the spacing
between the rolls. The material must be dry by the time it
rotates to the doctor knife, where it is cut off the roll.
The variables available for control are the speed of the
cylinders, the spacing between them, the liquid level in the
valley, and the steam pressure in the cylinders. The first two
(speed and spacing) are usually adjusted manually. The liquid
level is maintained by throttling the feed stream. Attempts to
automatically control this level been thwarted by three difficul-
ties: (1) The height of the level is only 6–9 in. (150–225 mm).
(2) The liquid is constantly in a state of extreme agitation,
bubbling, and boiling; and the liquid is highly concentrated
and tends to plug conventional level sensors that depend on
physical contact for measurement. (3) Frequently the control
of feed is manual, indicated in the diagram by a manual
loading station (HIC). In traditional applications, all of the
other controls were on manual, and only the steam pressure
was controlled automatically.
References
1. Shinskey, F. G., Process Control Systems, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1996, pp. 375–377.
2. Kinney, T. B., “Advanced Control with Optimization of Kiln-Dried
Lumber with a Microprocessor-Based Unit Controller,” ISA Confer-
ence, October 1985.
3. Shinskey, F. G., Problem Solving Software, Ver. 3.2, Foxboro, MA:
The Foxboro Company, 1997, Chap. 11.
4. Myron, T. J., Shinskey, F. G., and Baker, R., “Inferential Moisture
Control of a Spray Dryer,” ISA Food Industry Symposium, Montreal,
June 1973.
5. Myron, T. J., and Shinskey, F. G., “Product Moisture Control for
Steam-Tube and Direct Fired Dryers,” MBBA Tech. Quarterly, Vol. 12,
No. 4, 1975, pp. 235–242.
Bibliography
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mance,” Chem. Eng., May 9, 1988.
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Krigman, A., “Moisture and Humidity,” InTech, March 1985.

© 2006 by Béla Lipták


Liptak, B. G., “Optimizing Dryer Performance through Better Control,”
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© 2006 by Béla Lipták
8.22 Dryer Controls 1913
Shinskey, F. G., “Humidity, Dew Point, and Wet-Bulb Temperature,” Instru-
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