E A R T H Q U A K E R E S I S TA N T

STRUCTURES
 • Seismology is the study of Earthquakes

• Derived from Greek: Seismo – earthquake and Logos –

science

• An earthquake is the vibration of the earth's surface as a

INTRODUCTION result of release of energy in the earth's crust.
TO • This release of energy may be caused by sudden
SEISMOLOGY dislocations of segments of the crust, volcanic explosions
or man-made explosions.
• The dislocation of crust segments lead to the most
destructive earthquakes and generate vibrations called
seismic waves.
• As these waves move outward from the
source, they cause the earth to shake
• The size and severity of an earthquake is
estimated by two parameters – intensity and
magnitude
• Magnitude – Measure of the amount of
energy released
• Intensity – Apparent effect experienced at a
location
INTERIOR OF
THE EARTH
• During the formation of the earth, the fusion of a
large collection of material masses generated a lot
of heat.

• Upon cooling, denser materials sank to the

center while lighter ones rose to the top

• The interior of the earth has 3 main geospheres

(shells or layers):
• Barysphere (Core) - Densest central part
• Asthenosphere – Mantle
• Lithosphere - Crust
• Inner Core – 1221 km
radius, 16000 kg/m3 density,
pressure 4 x 106 atm. Composed
of Nickel and Iron and behaves
as a solid mass.
• Outer Core - 2559 km thick,
liquid of density 12000 kg/m3.
Alloy of nickel, iron and silica.
• Mantle - 2685 km
thick, composed of hot, dense
igneous rock in plastic state, with
a density of 5000 - 6000 kg/m3.
• Crust - Thinnest outer solid shell,
200 km thick,
density 1500 kg/m3. Pressure 1
atm, temperature 25° C.
CONVECTION
CURRENTS
• High pressure and temperature gradients between the crust and core cause convection
currents to develop in the mantle.

• The radioactive decay of

elements in earth's
interior provide energy
for these currents
• These currents cause earth's mass to circulate – molten lava comes out and cool rock
goes into the mantle.
• The flow of molten material causes the crust and part of the mantle to slide on the
outer core – crust is in constant motion.
• The crust is composed of gigantic rigid rock plates of 80 km thickness that float slowly
over the mantle called Tectonic Plates.
• As these plates move, they grind together at their margins producing earthquake faults.
• New tectonic plates are continuously formed along deep rift valleys of the ocean
floor, where molten material builds the edges of the oceanic plates.
• These plates push against continental plates leading to continental drift.
• Well defined narrow seismic zones – the Circum-Pacific Belt, the Alpine-Himalayan Belt
and the Oceanic Ring subdivide the lithosphere into tectonic plates and are associated
with volcanic activity
• There are 12 major tectonic
plates, 20 smaller ones and
many filler plates.
• Major tectonic plates – African,
Eurasian, Indian, Australian,
Arabian, Philippine, North
American, South American,
Pacific, Nazca, Cocos and
Antarctic.
• Tectonic plates move in different
directions and speeds relative to
each other at a rate of 5 – 10
cm/year.
• Causes of plate motion –
• Convection currents
• Slab Pull – subducting
oceanic plate becomes
colder and denser than the
mantle and pulls the rest of
the slab
• Ridge Push – gravitational
sliding of lithosphere away
from oceanic ridge raised by
rising material
 • The earth’s crust is composed of several large, rigid bodies
called crustal plates.
• These plates bear the load of land masses, water bodies
or both and are constantly moving over the mantle
• They may override, plunge beneath one another, collide
P L AT E or brush past one another
TECTONIC • This is responsible for continental drift, mountain
formation, volcanic eruption and earthquakes.
THEORY
• The relative movement of crustal plates results in 3 types
of plate boundaries or marginal zones:
• Divergent
• Convergent
• Transform or Parallel
 Divergent Plate Boundary

Convergent Plate Boundary

Transform Plate Boundary

 • As tectonic plates collide, the frictional resistance along
their boundaries prevents them from moving.
• This causes a buildup of stresses along their edges until
sudden slippage due to fracture of the rock occurs.

ELASTIC • This slippage results in a release of strain energy that may

cause the upper crust of the earth to fracture in a certain
REBOUND direction and form a fault.
THEORY • The gradual accumulation and subsequent release of
stress and strain is termed as elastic rebound.
• The source of a tectonic earthquake is the sudden
displacement of the ground on both sides of the fault
FA U LT S
• The interface between plates where a slip occurs leading to the release of large elastic
strain energy.
N AT U R E A N D O C C U R R E N C E O F
EARTHQUAKES
• Focus (centre or hypocentre) - Point on the
fault where the slip starts, generating the
earthquake.
• Epicentre - Point on the earth's surface
directly above the focus.
• Focal Depth - Depth of the focus from the
epicentre.
• Focal or Epicentral distance – Distance
between epicentre to any point of interest,
• Focal region – The limited region of earth surrounding the focus where seismic
destruction occurs.
• Isoseismal line – Line joining locations experiencing equal earthquake intensity.
• Homoseismal line - Line joining locations where the shock arrives simultaneously.
• As focal depth increases, energy released by an earthquake progressively decreases.
• Shallow focus earthquakes – Originate from a depth of up to 70 km from the surface of
the earth, most frequent and main consideration of seismic resistant design.
• Intermediate focus earthquakes – Occur between 70-300 km.
• Deep focus earthquakes - Focal depth over 300 km.
• The maximum effect of earthquakes is felt at the source, diminishing with distance.
• Vibrations in the bedrocks are called shocks.
• Some earthquakes are preceded by smaller foreshocks - due to small ruptures.
• Large earthquakes are always followed by aftershocks - due to fresh ruptures
or readjustment of fractured rocks.
• Earthquakes cause movement of the ground surface all three mutually perpendicular
directions – Measured by seismographs.
• Small rotations are also caused, which are neglected.
 • Energy released during an earthquake travels in the form
of seismic waves in all directions.
• They undergo reflections and refractions as they move
through the earth's interior.
• Two types:
• Body Waves (Move through earth's interior)
SEISMIC • P-Waves (Primary, longitudinal or compressional
waves)
WAVES • S-Waves (Secondary, transverse or shear waves)
• Surface Waves (Formed by interaction of body waves
with earth's surface layers)
• L-Waves (Love waves)
• Rayleigh waves
 Arrival of Seismic Waves

Interaction of Seismic
Waves with objects
SEISMIC WAVE
P R O PAG AT I O N
 • Earthquakes can be measured in two ways:
• Quantifying the magnitude in terms of energy
released – measuring the amplitude, frequency and
location of seismic waves
• Evaluating the intensity – the destructive effect of
ground shaking on people, structures and natural
MEASUREMENT features.
OF
EARTHQUAKES
 • An evaluation of the severity of ground motion at a given
location.
• Represented by a numerical index – measured in relation
to the effect of the earthquake on human life
• Subjective (qualitative) measure as it is based on direct
observation by individuals.

• Modified Mercalli (MM) and Medvedev-Spoonheuer-

INTENSITY Karnik (MSK-64) intensity scales are generally used.
MSK Intensity Scale
 • Quantitative measure of the actual size or strength of the
earthquake, based on the amount of energy released.
• More precise than intensity.
• Based on the measurements of amplitude (size) of seismic
waves made by recording instruments.
• Total energy released can be calculated from the
amplitude of waves and epicentral distance.
MAGNITUDE • Commonly reported using the Richter magnitude scale.
• The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale (10 times increase in ground movement with
unit magnitude and 31 times increase in energy released)
• A magnitude number is assigned to an earthquake, on the basis of the amount of
ground displacement or vibration produced.
• The reading is adjusted for the epicentral distance, since ground vibration decreases
with increasing distance from the epicentre.
• M2 - Smallest magnitude that can be felt by human beings
• M8.9 - Largest magnitude recorded – Lisbon Earthquake, 1755.