16

CHAPTER 2
THEORETICAL ORIENTATION AND REVIEW OF THE PAST STUDIES

Chapter Title Page

Chapter 2 : Theoretical orientation and review of the past studies

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 Physical Fitness 17

2.2.1 Definition of physical fitness 17

2.2.2 Distinctions between physical activity, exercise, and physical

fitness 19

2.2.3 Types of physical fitness 24

2.2.4 Components of physical fitness 26

2.2.5 Physical activity and exercise related physical fitness 35

2.2.6 Important of physical fitness 39

2.2.7 Alternatives forgetting into physical fitness 49

2.2.8 Physical fitness testing 50

2.2.9 Interpretation of level of physical fitness 62

2.3 Physical fitness and achievement 63

2.3.1 Definition of achievement 63

2.3.2 Physical fitness in terms of achievement 63

2.4 Physical fitness and adjustment 64

2.4.1 Definition of adjustment 64

2.4.2 Physical fitness in terms of adjustment 67

2.5 Physical fitness and self-esteem 69

2.5.1 Definition of self-esteem 69

2.5.2 Importance of self-esteem 71

2.5.3 .Characteristics of people with high and low self-esteem 73

2.5.4 Physical fitness in terms of self-esteem 77

2.6 Review of the past studies 79

References 92
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CHAPTER 2

THEORETICAL ORIENTATION AND REVIEW OF THE PAST STUDIES

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the research studies, the credibility and novelty of the results of a study can be

considered the most important signs of the quality of the study. Thus, the theoretical

contributions of a study need to be carefully formulated and presented. The main field of the

present study is related to the physical fitness in terms of achievement, adjustment

and self-esteem. Therefore, the theoretical orientation regarding the physical

fitness in terms of achievement, adjustment and self-esteem as well as the review of

the past studies are presented in this chapter.

The definition of physical fitness in terms of achievement, adjustment and

self-esteem have been discussed in this chapterwith the providing of an understanding

about definition of physical fitness, distinctions between physical activity, exercise, and

physical fitness, type of physical fitness, components of physical fitness, Physical activity and

exercise related physical fitness, importance of physical fitness, physical fitness testing,

physical fitness in terms of achievement, adjustment and self-esteem. The review of

the past studies concerned to the physical fitness in terms of achievement, adjustment

and self-esteem which have been done in Thailand as well as in foreign countries was also

discovered and presented in the chapter.

2.2 PHYSICAL FITNESS

2.2.1 Definition of physical fitness

In previous years, fitness was commonly defined as the capacity to carry out the day’s

activities without undue fatigue. However, as automation increased leisure time, changes in

lifestyles following the industrial revolution rendered this definition insufficient. These days,

physical fitness is considered a measure of the body’s ability to function efficiently and

effectively in work and leisure activities, to be healthy, to resist hypo-kinetic diseases, and to

meet emergency situations. The meaning of physical fitness varies and differs from person to

person.
The free dictionary (2000)1 defines that “physical fitness” is a good physical

condition; being in shape or condition.

 18
Davis, B. et al. (2000)2 defines “physical fitness” as the capacity of an athlete to

meet the varied physical demands of their sport without reducing the athlete to a fatigued

state.
Camp, R. S. (2001 )3 describes that physical fitness is the ability to perform

vigorous physical activity. It is not measured in terms of achieving specific motor skills, but

rather it is assessed in terms of muscle strength, endurance, and flexibility. The circulatory

and respiratory systems are also involved because of their role in supplying muscles with

blood and oxygen. In considering muscles, strength is the maximum force that can be

exerted by a muscle, and endurance is the ability to perform a muscular activity at less than

maximum force.

Brandon, Leigh (2009)4 states that physical fitness is the ability to function

efficiently and effectively without injury, to enjoy leisure, to be healthy, to resist disease, and

to cope with emergency situations.

Mike Behmken (2011)5 gathers seven definitions of physical fitness as follow:

"Physical fitness is the human bodies’ ability to move with desired speed, balance,

agility and strength gained through proper exercise and nutrition." (Don Hoskins, Phoenix AZ,

USA)

"Physical fitness is training for life. It’s the body’s ability to be able to withstand

whatever life throws its way: Sprinting, jumping, walking, and playing. Physical fitness is

specific to the individual and therefore, training to improve and maintain it should be as well"

(Sarah E. Rippel, Baton Rouge, LA, USA)

"Physical fitness is going through the day with a sense of confidence. It can give

the peace of mind that he/she is better equipped to handle the physical challenges of daily

life, from reaching high to bending low, from running with a purpose, or running with no

purpose at ail. Physical fitness is not a race, it’s a pursuit. There is no finish line to look for,

but a new starting line to cross everyday. The only real "goal" is to never finish. Physical

fitness is human, being." (Tom Bravo, Jacksonville, FL, USA)

“Physical fitness is the ability to adapt to the demands placed an individual by

their environment. It is just applying such a definition to the physical demands an individuals

environment may place on them." (Daniel Andrews, Champaign, IL, USA)

 19

"Physical fitness is a structurally sound foundation to prevent injury, develop

quality, and find wellness to enhance our function of life." (Drew Foster, Spring TX, USA)

“Physical fitness is the body’s physical ability to efficiently cope with the specific

and intermittent extraordinary imposed demands which occur on a daily and intermittent

basis" (Jerry Telle, Lakewood CO, USA)

"Physical fitness is the synergy of flexibility, mobility, power, strength and

endurance over a continuous set of cyclic or acyclic movements in order to beat the

opposition." (Frederick Levy, Southampton, UK)

From the definition mentioned above, it can be concluded that “physical fitness" is

the ability to function efficiently & effectively and to carry out daily tasks with alertness and

vigor without undue fatigue, and with enough energy reserve to meet emergencies situations,

to enjoy leisure time, to be healthy, and to resist disease.

2.2.2 Distinctions between Physical activity, Exercise, and Physical fitness

Caspersen, C.J. et al. (1985)6 illustrated that "Physical activity," "exercise," and

"physical fitness" is terms that describe different concepts. Physical activity is defined as any

bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure. The energy

expenditure can be measured in kilocalories. Physical activity in daily life can be categorized

into occupational, sports, conditioning, household, or other activities. Everyone performs

physical activity in order to sustain life. The amount, however, varies considerably from one

individual to another, based on personal lifestyles and other factors “Exercise” is a subset of

physical activity that is planned, structured, and repetitive and has as a final or an

intermediate objective the improvement or maintenance of physical fitness. Exercise is not

synonymous with physical activity. It is a subcategory of physical activity. Exercise is physical

activity that is planned, structured, repetitive, and purposive, in the sense that improvement

or maintenance of physical fitness is an objective. Virtually all conditioning and many sports

activities are considered exercise because they are generally performed to improve or

maintain physical fitness." Therefore, “Physical exercise” is any bodily activity that enhances

or maintains physical fitness and overall health. “Physical fitness” is a set of attributes that are

either health related - or skill-related. The degree to which people have these attributes can

be measured with specific tests. It is the ability to perform muscular work satisfactorily and
 20

the ability to perform moderate to vigorous levels of physical activity without undue fatigue

and the capability of maintaining such ability through life. It is a set of attributes that people

have or achieve that relates to the ability to perform physical activity. (Williams and Wilkins:
1998)7

President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (2000)8 described that

“Physical fitness is the ability to perform daily tasks vigorously and alertly, with energy left

over for enjoying leisure- time activities and meeting emergency demands. It is the ability to

endure, to bear up, to withstand stress, to carry on in circumstances where an unfit person

could not continue, and is a major basis for good health and well-being."

National Institutes of Health Consensus Development (2006)9 explain that

everyone performs physical activity in order to sustain life; however, the amount is largely

subject to personal choice and may vary considerably from person to person as well as for a

given person overtime. The most common units of time used to refer to Kcals (Kilocalorie:
1 Kilogram fat about 7000 Kilocalories)1°spent in physical activity are the week and the day.

(Paffenbarger, R. S., et al.: 1978)11 Physical activity during monthly, seasonal, or yearly

periods may also be examined to establish the stability of physical activity for longer time

periods.

Montoye, H. J. (1975)12 states that physical activity can be categorized in a variety

of ways. A commonly used approach is to segment physical activity on the basis of the

identifiable portions of daily life during which the activity occurs. The simplest categorization

identifies the physical activity that occurs while sleeping, at work, and at leisure. A simple

formula can be used to express the caloric contribution of each category to the total energy

expenditure due to physical activity:

“kcalsieep+ kcaloccupation+ kcalleisure =~ kcaltotai daily physical activity”

The caloric contribution of each category to the total energy expenditure due to

physical activity is above basal metabolic rate and does not include the effect of

diet-induced thermo-genesis (which is the energy expenditure above the metabolic rate in
the resting state) (Jecquier, E.: 1983)1”. The energy expenditure due to physical activity
 21

during sleep would, of course, be small. Leisure-time physical activity can be further

subdivided into categories such as sports, conditioning exercises, household tasks (for
example, yard-work, cleaning, and home repair) (Folsom, A. R., etal.: 1985)14, and other

activities. Substituting in the formula these subcategories for the leisure category previously

used, the formula becomes:

“kcalde+ kcaloccupation + kCalconditionlin + kcahousehold+ kC .other

= kcaltotal daily physical activity"

Physical activity is complex behaviour, however, and may be meaningfully

partitioned into other categories mutually exclusive of each other but not necessarily of those

mentioned previously. Examples might be to divide all physical activities into those that are of

light, moderate, or heavy intensity; those that are willful or compulsory; or those that are

weekday or weekend activities. All of these are acceptable ways of subdividing physical

activity. The only requirement is that the subdivisions be mutually exclusive and that they

sum to the total caloric expenditure due to physical activity. There are undoubtedly many

methods of categorizing daily physical activity. Each system would allow measurement not

only of total calories expended but also of the calories expended in a variety of

subcategories, any one of which may relate to a specific aspect of health. Distinction

between an evenly accumulated total caloric expenditure (that is, equivalent contribution from

several categories) and an unevenly accumulated total expenditure (that is, major

contribution from one category) is possible. In this manner, individuals and groups can be

described by the absolute energy expenditure for a specific category, by the relative

contribution of that category to total energy expenditure, or both. To the extent that each of
the categories has different determinants (Dishman, R. K., et al.:1985)1” and different health

effects, these categorical distinctions have both epidemiologic utility and public health

implications in terms of promotion and intervention strategies. (Iverson, D.C., et al.:

1985)"®

The term "exercise" has been used interchangeably with "physical activity" (Taylor,

H: L.: 1983) , and, in fact, both have a number.of common elements. For example, both

physical activity and exercise involve any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles
l

that expends energy, are measured by kilocalories ranging continuously from low to high,
 22

and are positively correlated with physical fitness as the intensity, duration, and frequency

of movements increase. Exercise is physical activity that is planned, structured, repetitive,

and purposive in the sense that improvement or maintenance of one or more components of
f

physical fitness is an objective. The formula relating physical activity and exercise is:

“kCalexerclse+ kCalnonexerctse' kcaltotal daily Physical activity"

Exercise, then, is a subset of physical activity and may constitute all or part of

each category of daily activity except sleep. However, it is more likely to be an important part

of some categories of physical activity than of others. For example, virtually all conditioning

and many sports activities are performed to improve or maintain components of physical

fitness. In such instances they are planned, structured, and, more often than not, repetitive.

Activities such as occupational, household, and many daily tasks are typically performed in

the most efficient manner possible. These physical activities are done with little regard to

physical fitness and are often structured with conservation of energy expenditure as a goal.

However, a worker may plan and structure the performance of some work tasks in a less

efficient manner to develop muscular strength or to "burn up" calories. Similarly, a person may

plan and structure the performance of household or other tasks in a labour producing

rather than a labor-saving manner. Tasks regularly performed in this manner are considered

exercise.

In contrast with physical activity this is related to the movements that people

perform, physical fitness is a set of attributes that people have or achieve. Being physically

fit has been defined as "the ability to carry out daily tasks with vigor and alertness, without

undue fatigue and with ample energy to enjoy leisure-time pursuits and to meet
unforeseen emergencies" (President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports: 1971)18

Although the definition may be conceptually sound, things such as vigor, alertness, fatigue,

and enjoyment are not easily measured. On the other hand, a number of measurable

components do contribute to physical fitness.

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The Distinctions between Physical activity, Exercise, and Physical fitness mentioned
above can be summarized as follow:

2.2.2.1 Physical activity can be describes as many forms of movement, including activities

that involve the large skeletal muscles. Physical activity can be involved any bodily movement

such as walking to and from work, taking the stairs instead of elevators and escalators,

gardening, and doing household chores. Activities that involve the small skeletal muscles e.g.

playing board games, drawing, and writing) are important, but they do not provide the health

benefits of activities that involve the large skeletal muscles and require substantial energy

expenditure. Physical activity is defined by its duration, intensity, and frequency. Duration is

the amount of time spent participating in a physical activity session. Intensity is the rate of

energy expenditure. Frequency is the number of physical activity sessions during a specific

time period (e.g. one week). It can be said that physical activity suggests a wide variety of

activities that promote health and well-being. For inactive people, there’s no doubt that

increasing this sort of activity can reduce risk for disease and improve health.

2.2.2.2 Exercise is a type of physical activity that requires planned, structured, and repetitive

bodily movement with the intent of improving or maintaining your physical fitness level.

Exercise can be accomplished through activities such as cycling, dancing, walking,

swimming, yoga, working out at the gym, or running, just to name a few. Regular exercise,

depending upon the kind, improves aerobic fitness, muscular strength, and flexibility.

Exercise aims to improve one or more of the components of physical fitness. Exercise is often

associated with fitness maintenance or improvement only.

2.2.2.3 Physical fitness is a set of attributes that are either health related - or skill-related.

The degree to which people have these attributes can be measured with specific tests.

The participating in physical activity is beneficial to physical fitness.

It can be said that physical activity and exercise contributes to improvement or

maintenance of physical fitness. It is a state in which people's health characteristics and

behaviours enhance the quality of their lives.

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2.2.3 Types of physical fitness

Caspersen, C.J. et al. (1985) describe that physical fitness components fall into

two groups: one related to health and the other related to skills that pertain more to athletic

ability. The health-related type physical fitness consisted of: (a) cardiorespiratory endurance,

(b) muscular endurance, (c) muscular strength, (d) body composition, and (e) flexibility. The

amount of physical activity ranges from low to high, so do the level of physical fitness. The

five health-related ctype of physical fitness are more important to public health than are the

components related to athletic ability. Skill-related type physical fitness is the ability to

perform specific aspects of sports or occupation.

George R. Colfer (2006) Illustrates two types of physical fitness i.e. health-

related type physical fitness and skill-related'type physical fitness.

Health-related physical fitness is defined as fitness related to some aspect of

health. This type of physical fitness is primarily influenced by an individual’s exercise habits;

thus, it is a dynamic state and may change. Physical characteristics that constitute health-

related physical fitness include strength and endurance of skeletal muscles, joint flexibility,

body composition, and cardiorespiratory endurance. All these attributes change in response

to appropriate physical conditioning programmes, and all are related to health. Strength and

endurance of skeletal muscles of the trunk help maintain correct posture and prevent such

problems as low back pain.

Skill-related physical fitness consists the physical fitness that have a relationship

with enhanced performance in sports and motor skills. The components are commonly

defined as agility, balance, coordination, power, speed and reaction time.

President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports (1971 )21 explained that

physical fitness is a set of attributes that people have or achieve relating to their ability to

perform physical activity. It is a state of well-being with low risk of premature health problems

and energy to participate in a variety of physical activities. A comprehensive model for

physical fitness includes muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, cardiovascular,

 25

body composition, agiiity, balance, coordination, power, reaction, and speed which are

divided into two types of physical fitness.

(1) Health-related physical fitness consists of those components of physical

fitness that have a relationship with good health. The components are commonly defined as

muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, cardiovascular, and body composition.

Possessing good health-related fitness is related to lower risk of illness and improved quality

of life.

(2) Skill-related physical fitness consists of those components of physical fitness

that have a relationship with enhanced performance in sports and motor skills. The

components are commonly defined as agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time,

and speed.

Maria Howard (2009) states that physical fitness can be classified into following

categories : Health Related, Sports Related , General and Specific.

(1) Sports related physical fitness

Sports related physical fitness is directly towards optimizing athletic

performance, recreational activity, increasing ability to work, and avoidance of injury. It is

directly related to performance in games and sports.

(2) General physical fitness

General physical fitness refers to the general body fitness. It will be clearer by

the example: suppose a football team comprising of all playing 11 members are so much

physically fit that all of them are able to play the whole game with full power and 90 minutes

plus extra time if needed.

(3) Specific physical fitness

Specific physical fitness refers to the fitness of player in particular game or

event or position e.g. suppose in the game of football the attackers should be specifically fit

to convert the passes into the successful attempts given by their team mates. Similarly

defenders in football should be specifically fit to tackle the coming attackers of opponent

team and should not aiiow them to score a goal.

Wikipedia (2011)201 mentions that physical fitness comprises of two related

concepts: general fitness (a state of health and well-being), and specific fitness (a task-
 26

oriented definition based on the ability to perform specific aspects of sport or occupations)

Physical fitness is generally achieved through physical activity and exercise, correct nutrition,

exercise, and enough rest.

From the discussion about types of physical fitness mentioned above, it can be

summarized that physical fitness is a set of physical attributes related to a person’s ability to

perform physical activity successfully, without undue strain and with a margin of safety. The

physical fitness is dived into two main groups: Health-related physical fitness and skill-related

physical fitness. Health-related physical fitness refers to a physiological state of well-being

that reduces the risk of hypokinetic disease; a state of health and well-being; good physical

condition; and vigor for the tasks of daily living. The sense of good condition and well-being

refers to muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, cardiovascular, and body

composition. Skilled-related physical fitness refers to the ability to perform specific activity

with a reasonable efficiency i.e. sport and other physical activities; and also called

performance or motor fitness. The skilled-related can be defined as the ability to move in any

direction quickly, balance, coordination (hand-eye-foot), reactions, rhythm, power, and speed

in all direction. This type of physical fitness called task-oriented which base on the ability to

perform specific aspects of recreation or occupation)

2.2.4 Components of physical fitness

Physical fitness is one of the important ways of measuring the physical health of

an individual. Physical fitness informs about how healthy a person is. Physical fitness affects

a people’s mental capacity, productivity at work, and stress management. Physical fitness is

also important for the mere fact that a person feels better and looks better when they are

physically fit.

Tancred, B. (1995)24 said that health is a state of complete mental, physical and

social well being where as fitness is the ability to meet the demands of a physical task. Basic

fitness can be classified in four nine components as follow:

(1) Strength - the extent to which muscles can exert force by contracting against

resistance (e.g. holding or restraining an object or person)

 27

(2) Power - the ability to exert maximum muscular contraction instantly in an

explosive burst of movements. The two components of power are strength and speed, (e.g.

jumping or a sprint start)

(3) Agility - the ability to perform a series of explosive power movements in

rapid succession in opposing directions (e.g. Zigzag running or cutting movements)

(4) Balance - the ability to control the body's position, either stationary (e.g. a

handstand) or while moving (e.g. a gymnastics stunt)

(5) Flexibility - the ability4o achieve an extended range of motion without being

impeded by excess tissue, i.e. fat or muscle (e.g. executing a leg split)

(6) Local muscle endurance - a single muscle's ability to perform sustained work

(e.g. rowing or cycling)

(7) Cardiorespiratory Endurance - the heart's ability to deliver blood to working

muscles and their ability to use it (e.g. running long distances)

(8) Strength Endurance - a muscle's ability to perform a maximum contraction

time after time (e.g. continuous explosive rebounding through an entire basketball game)

(9) Co-ordination- the ability to integrate the above listed components so that

effective movements are achieved.

Of all the nine elements of fitness cardiac respiratory qualities are the most

important to develop as they enhance all the other components of the conditioning equation.

American College of Sports Medicine (1995) describes that physical fitness is

the ability to meet physical challenges, whether related to work, sport, recreation, combat, or

other life activities. A man’s physical fitness must be seen in the context of the specific

physical challenges he is likely to face. There are several components of physical fitness i.e.

strength, muscular endurance, aerobic endurance, speed, agility/quickness, flexibility, and

balance:

(1) Strength is an important aspect of physical fitness definition, and is

the ability to exert force. The strength required of a sport or other physical activity is specific

to the movements involved and the speed at which force must be exerted.
 28

(2) Muscular Endurance is the ability of muscles to repeatedly exert a specified

I
amount of force that is less than maximum. Generally, men who can exert higher maximal

force can also do more repetitive movements at a given resistance.

(3) Aerobic Endurance is the ability to sustain large-muscle physical activity over

time periods ranging from seyeral minutes to several hours. Such activity is largely fueled by
the aerobic (oxygen-utilizing) metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. Thus, the rate (e.g.

running speed) at which such activity can be sustained largely depends on the rate at which

oxygen can be delivered to the muscle cells and processed to produce energy. This in turn is

dependent on the rate at which the heart can pump blood (heart rate time’s volume pumped

per beat), the hemoglobin (oxygen-carrier) content of the blood, and the rate at which the

mitochondria, the muscles' energy factories, can break down carbohydrate and fat to

produce energy, carbon dioxide and water.

(4) Speed is a key component of a physical fitness definition because of its wide

application to many human activities. It is the maximal velocity that can be reached by part or

all of the body. The speed ofia sprinter is greater than that of a distance runner, although the
i

distance runner can sustain (iis speed much longer. In some sports, the body as a whole

does not move fast, but a part of the body does.

(5) Agility/Quickness is the ability to rapidly change the body’s momentum from
: &
one direction to another. This requires either acceleration in any direction from dead stop or

deceleration in the direction one is traveling and acceleration in a new direction. If two

individuals have the same body mass, the one who can exert more force on the ground will

show greater acceleration. In addition to the ability to accelerate, agility requires a certain

degree of flexibility, which aids in going over, under, and around obstacles.

"Quickness" is a colloquial term referring to the ability to accelerate. It

differs from “agility” in that “quickness” sometimes refers to the ability to accelerate in one

direction only, while agility always implies the ability accelerate in multiple directions. A

sprinter who gets off the starting blocks first is referred to as “quick.” However, he may be

caught over the race distance by an opponent who is not as “quick” but who reaches a

greater top speed.

(6) Flexibility refers to the range of motion through which a body joint can be

flexed or extended and the ease with which this is accomplished. Some activities like ballet
 29

gymnastics, and Olympic weightlifting require excellent flexibility, while most daily life

activities and many sports such as football and boxing do not require great flexibility. More

flexibility is not always better.’ People who are extremely flexible may be susceptible to joint

injuries, while those who are jess flexible risk muscle injury.

(7) Balance is the ability to maintain desired body posture and position while
l

standing or moving on a stable or unstable surface. As beings that who stand and move on

two legs we have complex mechanisms to keep our balance. Yet balance varies among

individuals and tends to decline with age.

Davis, B. et al. (2000)25 Physical fitness refers to the capacity of an athlete to

meet the varied physical demands of their sport without reducing the athlete to a fatigued

state. The components of health-related physical fitness are Body Composition, Endurance,

Flexibility, Strength, and Speed. The components of Motor Fitness refers to the ability of an

athlete to perform successfully at their sport i.e. Agility, Balance, Co-ordination, Power (speed

& strength), and Reaction time.

Johan Lefevre, et al. (2003)27urge that there several components of physical

fitness as under:

(1) Aerobic fitness is the ability of the body's cardiovascular system to supply

energy during continuous physical activities such as biking and running. This type of exercise

provides many health benefits such as decreasing risk for heart disease, stroke, high blood

pressure, type II diabetes and some cancers. The most health benefits occur with at least

150 minutes/week of moderate-intensity aerobic activity. Examples of aerobic activities that

would meet this recommendation include walking at a brisk pace, swimming, jogging,

dancing, etc.

(2) Muscular strength is the ability of the muscles to exert a force during an

activity such as lifting weights. Muscle strengthening exercises involve using muscles to work

against a resistance such as body weight, elastic bands or weights. The adults should

participate in muscle strengthening exercises for all major muscles groups at least two days

a week.

(3) Bone strengthening exercise, or any weight-bearing activity that produces a

force on the bone, is also important to overall health for children and adults. This force is
 30

usually produced by impact with the ground and results in bone growth in children and

healthy maintenance of bone;density in adults. Examples of bone strengthening activities

include jumping, walking, jogging, and weight lifting exercises. Some exercises such as

walking or jogging serve a dual purpose of strengthening bones and aerobic system.

(4) Flexibility is the ability of the joints to move through a full range of motion.

Stretching exercises can be an excellent way of increasing flexibility.

Pate, T. V. (2009) states that fitness does encompass the follow key

components. Without clearing these five tests one cannot be called physical fit. If one does

on all five of these components of physical fitness, he/she will find that it automatically helps

to carry out the everyday tasks much more easily. These components can be used as

gauges; to see what areas are need to concentrate on more to become fit.

(1) Cardiovascular Fitness:

The cardiovascular system consists of the heart and the blood vessels. It

supplies oxygen and blood to our entire body, even while working muscles during an

extended period of time. Aerobic conditioning is the best way to help the body build a better

cardiovascular condition. These types of exercises can include: dancing, running, biking,

playing sports, or any other type of extended activity that gets your heart pumping.

(2) Muscular Strength:

When the muscular strength, the body has the muscular force to exert against

heavy resistance. It can be said that muscular is the ability to lift and carry things as needed

in everyday life. Muscular strength can be built through weight training and some specialized

strength training exercises.

(3) Muscular Endurance:

Muscular endurance is the ability to use a muscle or muscle groups for an

extended period of time. These muscles may be used by moving in a repetitive motion, or by

standing in a certain pose for a period of time. Muscular endurance can be improved with a

variety of exercises, or a combination of exercises that included aerobic exercises, weight

training, strength training, and yoga.

 31

(4) Flexibility:

Flexibility is based on the length a certain muscle, or group of muscles, can

stretch. Good flexibility makes the people move, joints and muscles in a full range of motion.

Flexibility can be achieved through a variety of stretching exercises, including yoga.

(5) Body Composition:

The last component of physical fitness is the body composition. This is the

amount of fat body carries versus lean muscle. There are several tests that can be used to

measure this amount. The easiest may be the circumference test, where a tape measure is

used to measure certain a'eas of the body. Flowever, this may be the least accurate test.

One who wants to improve the physical fitness needs to make the right nutritional

choices, to eat plenty of fruits, vegetables, and proteins to keep your body strong and regular

exercise.

Physical fitness is broken down into five Components i.e. flexibility, muscular

strength, cardiovascular endurance, muscular endurance, and body composition.

(Los Angeles Physical Fitness Center: 2010)'

(1) Flexibility is lost with age and lack of exercise. It can, however, be gained

back with flexibility exercises such as stretching and yoga.

(2) Cardiovascular is the extreme importance of physical fitness which help the

participants who perform the exercises can improve the other components of physical fitness.
a

Cardiovascular fitness measures the heart and lungs’ ability to carry out their functions. It is

typically tested on a treadmill. Aerobic exercises, such as walking, jogging, biking, and

swimming are great ways to improve cardiovascular fitness.

(3) Muscular Strength is the ability of the body to lift a heavy weight for a fixed

period of time. This should not be confused with muscular endurance, which measures the

ability to lift weights for a prolonged time. Muscle strength can be developed by performing

exercises such as bench presses.

(4) Muscular Endurance is the ability of the body to perform repeated actions or a

single action for a long time without becoming fatigued. Muscular endurance can be

improved by doing aerobic and anaerobic exercises such as biking and walking. Muscular
 32

endurance will reduce the fatigue levels dramatically which will enable to enjoy life to the

fullest. j

(5) Body Composition is an indicator of how much fat and lean muscle the body

has. The lower fat content and the higher lean muscle mass, the better health can be said to
!

have. This is a better indicator of health than just body weight. The body composition will vary

depending on age and sex. j

I
The components |of health related fitness are a basis from which to measure the
i
general wellbeing. It is the aim of exercise to improve the capabilities in each of area. There
I
l
are five health related components of fitness. These are cardiovascular endurance, body

composition, muscular strength, flexibility, and muscular endurance. (Body Health and
1 30
Fitness Training Center: 2011)

(1) Cardiovascular endurance is referred to as aerobic fitness, and is a measure

i

of the athlete’s ability to continue with exercise which places demands on the circulatory
ii
and respiratory system over a prolonged penod of time. This occurs in activities such as
j
running, walking, cycling and swimming.

(2) Cardiovascular fitness (Aerobic Fitness) is also sometimes known as stamina

and is the ability of the body jto continuously provide enough energy to sustain sub-maximal

levels of exercise. To do this the circulatory and respiratory systems must work together
l

efficiently to provide the working muscles with enough oxygen to enable aerobic metabolism.
i
This type of fitness has enormous benefits to our lifestyle as it allows us to be active

throughout the day, for example walking to the shops, climbing stairs or running to catch a

bus. it also allows us to get involved in sports and leisure pursuits. One who has good

cardiovascular fitness then the health is also good as it helps with: fat metabolism, improved
I

delivery of oxygen, faster removal of waste products, and decreased levels of stress.

(3) Strength is vitally important, not only in sports but in day-to-day life. We need

to be strong to perform certain tasks, such as lifting heavy bags or using our legs to stand up

from a chair. Strength is defined as the ability of a muscle to exert a force to overcome a

resistance.

(4) Strength is important for our health as it enables to avoid injuries, maintain

good posture, and remains independent (in older age)

 33

(5) Flexibility is the movement available at joints, usually controlled by the

length of muscles. This is often thought to be less important than strength, or cardiovascular

fitness. Flexibility in sports allows the people to perform certain skills more efficiently, for

example a gymnast, dancer or diver must be highly flexible, but it is also important in other

sports to aid performance and decrease the risk of injury. In daily activities one must be

flexible to reach for something in a cupboard, or off the floor. It also helps: prevent injuries,
improve posture, reduce lowiback pain, maintain healthy joints, and improve balance during
]

movement.

(6) Muscular endurance, unlike strength, is the ability of a muscle to make

repeated contractions over a| period of time. This is used in day-to-day life in activities such

as climbing stairs, digging the garden and cleaning. Muscular endurance is also important in

sports, such as football (repeated running and kicking), tennis (repeated swinging of the arm

to hit the ball) and swimming! (repeating the stroke).

(7) Body composition is the amount of muscle, fat, bone, cartilage etc that makes
|

up the bodies, in terms of health, fat is the main point of interest and everything else is
termed lean body tissue. The! amount of fat carry varies from person to person and healthy

averages vary with gender and age. A healthy amount of fat for a man is between 15&18%
i
and for women is higher at 20-25%. It is important to maintain a healthy percentage of body

fat because: (a) Eixcess body fat can contribute to developing a number of health problems

such as heart disease and diabetes and (b) places strain on the joints, muscles and bones,
increasing the risk of injury rriore.

From the components of physical fitness mentioned above, it can be

summarized that physical activity refers to any bodily movement produced by skeletal

muscles that results in energy expenditure whereas the physical fitness is a set of attributes

that people have or achieve that relates to the ability to perform physical activity. There are

two types of physical fitness i.e. health-related physical fitness and skill-related physical

fitness. Muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, cardiovascular, and body

composition are included in health-related physical fitness component whereas agility,

balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed are included in skill-related physical

fitness. The components of health related fitness are a basis from which to measure the
 I

34
general well-being, good physical condition; and vigor for the tasks of daily living. The

components of skilled-related physical fitness refer to the ability to perform specific activity

with a reasonable efficiency ile. sport and other physical activities. The major components of

health related physical fitness and skill-related physical fitness are brief as follow:

(1) Five major components of health-related physical fitness consisted of the

I

following components: ;

(1.1) Muscular strength is ability of a muscle to exert a maximal force through

a given range of motion or at a single given point.

(1.2) Muscular endurance refers to the capacity of a muscle to exert a sub-

maximal force through a given range of motion or for many repetitions or successive

exertions.

(1.3) Flexibility is the ability of a joint to move through a full range of motion.

(1.4) Cardiovascular endurance is the ability to continue training the

cardiovascular system fora period longer than twenty minutes (on average)

(1.5) Body Composition is the ratio of lean body mass to fat body mass. It

relates to the relative amounts of muscle, fat, bone, and other vital parts of the body.

(2) Six major components of skill-related physical fitness consisted of the following

components:

(2.1) Agility is the ability to rapidly change the position of the entire body in

space with speed and accuracy.

(2.2) Balance: is component of skill-related physical fitness which relates to the

maintenance of equilibrium while stationary or moving.

(2.3) Coordination is the ability to use the sense, such as sight and hearing,

together with body parts in performing motor tasks smoothly and accurately.

(2.4) Power is the component of skill-related physical fitness relates to the rate

at which one can perform work.

(2.5) Reaction time is the component of skill-related physical fitness relates to

the time elapsed between stimulation and the beginning of the reaction to it.

(2.6) Speed is the ability to perform a movement within a short period of time.
 35

For better understanding, the components of two types of physical fitness are

shown in fig. 2.1 as follow:

Components of Two Types of Physical Fitness

No. Health-kelated Skill-Related

1 Muscular strength: The amount of force that Agility: The ability of the body to change

can be produced by a single contraction of direction quickly

a muscle

2 Muscular endurance: The ability of a muscle Balance: The ability to maintain an

group to continue muscle movement over a upright posture while still or moving

length of time

3 Flexibility: The range of movement possible Coordination: Integration with hand

at various joints. and/or foot movements with the input of

the senses.

4 Cardiovascular endurance: The ability of the Power: The ability to do strength work at

circulatory system (heart and blood an explosive pace.

vessels) to supply oxygen to working

muscles during exercise.

5 Body Composition: The relative percentage Reaction time: Amount of time it takes to

of body fat compared to lean body mass get moving.

(muscle, bone, water, etc)

6 -* Speed: The ability to move quickly from

one point to another in a straight line

FIGURE 2.1 COMPONENTS OF TWO TYPES OF PHYSICAL FITNESS

2.2.5 Physical activity and exercise related physical fitness

As mentioned in the beginning of the chapter that physical activity is any bodily

movement produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure and the exercise is

a subset of physical activity that is planned, structured, and repetitive and has as a final or an

intermediate objective the improvement or maintenance of physical fitness. Therefore,

physical activity and exercise are the sets of contributions to enhance, improve and maintain

-rw-
 36

the physical fitness. In the other word it can be said that physical fitness is a set of

attributes of physical activity and exercise. Physical fitness is specific to individual and

therefore, training to improve and maintenance it should be as well. Physical fitness can be

improved by the use of developmental training programme, specific exercise, and sport

participation.

The objectives of eny physical fitness training programme is to maximize an

individual health, strength, endurance, and skill relative to age, sex, body build, and

physiology. The regulation of exercise, enough rest, proper balance diet in proteins/

carbohydrates/vitamins, nutritional choices (plenty of fruits, vegetables, and proteins), and

minerals drinking water are essential for improvement and maintenance of physical fitness.

Conscientious dental hygiene and periodic check-up are also strongly recommended.

Complete and regular physical examinations should be the basis of any programme of

physical fitness development. Tobacco smoking as well as alcohol and drug consumption is

counterproductive to any physical fitness programme. Although sports are related to physical

fitness, care must be taken that injures do not occur, and that the skin is adequately
protected against the cancerious effects of solar radiation.

2.2.5.1 Physical activity and exercise and health related physical fitness
According to the President’s Council on Physical Fitness (1971)31, “health-related

physical fitness consists of those components of physical fitness that have a relationship with

good health and influences by individual’s exercise habits". Broken down, the five healths

related fitness components are: cardiorespiratory fitness, body composition, muscular

strength, muscular endurance, and flexibility. Processing of good health-related fitness is

related to lower risk of illness and improve quality of life.

Regular physical activity and exercise (vigorous or moderate) include jogging,

cycling, and the use of body building machines is very important for the improvement of

physical physiness.

Although the percentage of body fat is not a main factor in physical fitness, it must

be considered because of its effect on a person's ability to exercise. The body will adapt to a

regular exercise programme by improving the function of the cardiac and respiratory

systems. The blood will have" greater capacity to carry oxygen, which in turn will improve
b
 37

the body's ability to work. The heart and respiratory systems will be more efficient during

rest and exercise, and the resting heart rate is usually reduced. These changes take place

when a person participates in a rhythmic endurance activity such as walking, running, and

cycling, or continuous sports activities. Regular physical activity will help reduce the risk of

heart attack. Regular exercise helps lower blood triglyceride (fat) levels and cholesterol

levels, both of which are related to heart disease. In addition, an individual participating in a

regular exercise programmeiwill notice the effects on the skeletal, muscular, and nervous

systems. The body will showj improved flexibility of the joints along with greater muscle

strength and muscle endurance.

22.5.2 Physical activity and exercise and skill related physical fitness
Corbin and Lindsey (2011)32 states that skill-related fitness components enable

one to move and perform retire efficiently, whether it is in work-related activities, daily

movement functions, or in sports performance. Further, health-related fitness may also benefit

from skill-related fitness, since persons who possess skill-related fitness are more likely to be

active throughout life.

Skill-related fitness is compatible with health-related fitness. Many activities

promote both types. Individuals who possess both will find participation in either type of

activities more enjoyable and beneficial to their health and physical well-being. A person who

is physically active cannot help but improve some aspects of skill-related fitness.

Skill-related components are agility, balance, coordination, power, speed and

reaction time. Many of these components work closely together and can be trained for by

similar modes. However, specificity does exist, and such skills cannot be categorized in

general. A combination of these skills or abilities usually determines a skilled performance in

a particular sport. High level of health-related components may make skill acquisition easier.

One cannot improve skill if one is fatigued and lacking strength or flexibility.

Agility, balance and coordination: Agility is the ability to change body positions

quickly and accurately to the indicated response or situation. Balance refers to the ability of a

person to maintain a specific body position while still or in motion. Coordination is the speed

and accuracy of correct muscle response to produce a desired movement.

 38

Agility, balance and coordination of skill-related fitness are commonly

referred to as the ability to change direction quickly and to move as efficiently as possible

with minimal energy expenditure. These three components can be improved or developed by

the use of developmental training programs, specific exercises or drills and sports

participation. Strength is the; most important factor in agility since a stronger body moves

with more ease and efficiency. Flexibility is most important to balance and coordination by

increasing one’s range of motion. Agility-type drills should involve a number of direction

changes, place the performer in a variety of body positions and be of short duration so

fatigue does not become a factor.

Power is the application of strength and speed during a muscular movement.

Power equals force times velocity and has to do with the speed of the contraction against

less than maximal resistance^ Power is closely related to dynamic strength, with speed or

quickness of movement as the added dimension. Although strength, speed and power are

related, strength alone will not develop power. Power is displayed in many activities in

different ways. Driving a golf ball, hitting a baseball, putting the shot, an explosive hit in

football and a gymnast performing a giant swing on the high bar are all examples of power.

Some persons may generate power more through strength, while others rely more on speed.

However, if two forces are equal, the one that generates more speed or velocity will produce

the greater power.

Speed is the ability to move the body or a region of the body as rapidly as

possible from one point to another. Speed is the rate of movement, or the amount of time it

takes for a body or object to travel between two points. Speed usually refers to running

speed, as in the sprints in track or football. However, speed can be performed as leg speed

in soccer kicking, arm speed in throwing a baseball, and body speed (acceleration)

necessary in gymnastics. Speed is related to strength and power. In fact, all skill-related

components contribute to speed. Speed requires the expenditure of a large amount of

energy in a short time period. Age is a factor in attaining speed. One’s peak is usually

reached at about 20 years of age and can be maintained for up to 10 years or so depending

upon the type of training one practice. Without practice, speed diminishes quickly by the late

20s.
 39

Reaction time refers to the time lapse between the presentation of the stimulus

(sound-sight-touch) and the first muscular movement of the performer. Reaction time enables

the performer to move faster, which can affect other skill components such as speed and

power. Reaction time can be improved through the use of many developmental programs,

such as strength and speed improvement. There are also many drills involving sight, sound

and touch that will improve reaction time on a general basis. Since there is a relatively high

degree of specificity in reaction time response, most experts feel that the best method for

improving upon a specific activity or sport is to practice the starting stimulus for that activity.

2.2.6 Importance of physical fitness

Jonathon Hardcastle (2006)°'’ mentions that physical fitness is a general state of

good physical health. Obtaining and maintaining physical fitness is a result of physical

activity, proper diet and nutrition and of course proper rest for physical recovery. In its

simplest terms, physical fitness is to the human body what fine-tuning is to an engine. It

enables people to perform up to their potential. Regardless of age, fitness can be described

as a condition that helps individuals look, feel and do their best. Thus, physical fitness

trainers, describe it as the ability to perform daily tasks vigorously and alertly, with left over

energy to enjoy leisure-time activities and meet emergency demands. Specifically true for

senior citizens, physical fitness is the ability to endure, bear up, withstand stress and carry on

in circumstances where an unfit person could not continue.

In order for one to be considered physically fit, the heart, lungs, and muscles

have to perform.at a certain level for the individual to continue feeling capable of performing

an activity. At the same time, since what humans do with their bodies directly affects the state

of mind, fitness influences to some degree qualities such as mental alertness and emotional

expression.

Physical fitness is often divided into the following categories in order for people to

be able examine its components or parts. Particularly, physical fitness is judged by:

(1) Cardiovascular endurance: This is the ability of the body to deliver oxygen and

nutrients to tissues and to remove wastes over sustained periods of time.

(2) Muscular strength & endurance: Strength deals with the ability of the muscle to

exert force for a brief time period, while endurance is the ability of a muscle, or group of
 40

muscles, to sustain repeated contractions or to continue to apply force against an inert

object.

(3) Flexibility: This denotes the ability to move joints and use muscles through their

full range of motion.

(4) Body composition: Considered as one of the components of fitness,

composition refers to the body in terms of lean mass (muscle, bone, vital tissue, and organs)

and fat mass. Actually, the optimal ratio of fat to lean mass is an indication of fitness.

Performing the right set of exercises can help people get rid off body fat and increase or

maintain muscle mass.

Robert Gotlin (2006)34 explain that exercise and a healthy diet help to keep the

body physically fit and working at optimal performance. Physical fitness keeps the lungs and

heart working more efficiently and helps bum off excess calories. Exercise also improves

muscle strength, joint flexibility and endurance.

Activities should start with a 5 to 10 minute warm-up (like walking, slow jogging or

arm circles). These activities increase blood flow and warm the body in preparation for more

vigorous activity. Warm-ups should be followed by several minutes of stretching. Stretching

improves flexibility and reduces the risk of injury during exercise. Athletes should pay

particular attention to the muscle groups most involved in the activity. The body is then ready

to take on specific exercises aimed at improving muscle strength, endurance and

cardiorespiratory performance. All workouts should be followed by 5 to 10 minutes of cool­

down activities (like slow walking) and more stretching.

It's important to stay active throughout life. However, there are different types of

precautions that may need to be taken to ensure a safe and beneficial work-out.

Children are often bundles of energy. However, many tend to spend their time watching

television, playing video games or working on a computer. For improvement of physical

fitness, the adolescent and teen years are a good time to get into the exercise habit. Children

who are actively involved in a fitness or sports activity are more likely to stay active as adults.

The best way for teens to stay motivated is to find a partner or friend who enjoys the same

type of activity. Work-out peers provide motivation for each other and help maintain focus and

attention on the activity.

 41

During adulthood, exercise is a good way to bum off extra calories and lose or

prevent weight gain. Exercise also keeps the body in shape, builds strong bones and

muscles and can reduce the. risk of many different types of chronic health problems, like

diabetes, high blood pressure and heart disease. Middle-aged adults need to remember

they don't have the body of a teenager any more. It's possible to continue vigorous activities

like running or lifting weights, but boomers may need to take the exercises at a slightly slower

pace.
As people age, they tend to slow down. However, activity is still very important.

During the senior years, exercise continues to help reduce the risk of chronic disease. It also

maintains mobility and balance, improves stamina and flexibility. Seniors may need to adapt

their exercise programme to accommodate physical challenges. The focus for older adults

should be to maintain movement and flexibility. Moderate activities, like a walk in the park,

riding a stationary bike, and lifting lightweights, keep the body in good shape and help slow

the effects of the aging process.

Kennedy, J.F. (2009)35 rightly said that “Physical fitness is not only one of the most

important keys to a healthy body; it is the basis of dynamic and creative intellectual activity.”

Physical fitness is a state or condition in which both body and mind are healthy and

physically sound. It is not necessary for a person who is physically fit to have a lean body,

that can be achieved by maximum calories burned. Rather, they should have strong body

endurance, along with good muscle strength and cardiovascular fitness. It is also important

to remember that a physically fit body is generally accompanied with a happy and satisfied

state of mind.

The importance of physical fitness and exercise, customized to the specific

requirements of both young and old, has led to the popularity and use of exercise equipment.

The easy access to gyms and fitness centers further highlights the importance of physical

fitness. This has resulted in people leading longer and healthier lives that their predecessors

could not have dreamed of.

Physical fitness not only improves the quality of life, but also helps for the long

run. It increases cardiovascular fitness and body endurance. Regular exercise can also help

increase the strength of the heart. What’s more, being physically fit also increases blood
 42

circulation and helps it to deliver oxygen and nutrients to all the tissues. This not only helps

the muscles increase overall body strength, but increases its ability to exert force and sustain

contractions. Physical fitness makes the joints and body more flexible, and regular exercise

results in a decrease of body fat. It increases lean body mass, resulting in a balanced and

healthy body composition.

. Uttara Manohar (2011) defines physical fitness as the state or condition of being

physically sound and heafthy, especially as the result of exercise and proper nutrition. It is,

thus, a state of general well-being, marked by physical health as well as mental stability.

Physical fitness is not just about having a lean body; it is about having cardiovascular and

overall muscular endurance, as well as a strong immunity system, and most importantly, a

satisfied and happy state of mind.

Physical fitness is one of the most important things in life and one of the most

valuable assets one can ever have. Health is one of the pre-requisites for a happy, well-

balanced life. There are several advantages of being physically fit; here is how physical

fitness helps you in the long run:

(1) Cardiovascular Endurance:

Cardiovascular endurance is nothing but the measurement of your heart's

strength. It also implies the ability of the body to deliver oxygen and nutrients to tissues and

to remove wastes. Physical fitness helps to achieve cardiovascular endurance and helps to

increase the oxygen flow to all the body muscles.

(2) Muscular Strength:

A balanced and regular fitness regimen helps to increase the ability of muscles

to exert force and sustain contraction. In short, to put it simply - a regular workout will make

muscles stronger and thus, increase overall strength.

(3) Self-Confidence:

A healthy mind and a healthy body are a big boost to self-confidence.

(4) Flexibility:

A regular workout session will ensure the joints and muscles to their fullest

extent and hence, it will increase the flexibility of these joints and overall body. Flexibility in
 43

body movements is achieved only through physical fitness.

(5) Body Composition:

One of the indicators of physical fitness is a balanced and healthy body

composition. Minimum of fat and maximum of lean mass is a sign of a healthy and fit body.

The lean mass includes muscles, bones, vital tissues and organs.

(6) Beautiful :

Exercise and overall fitness helps detoxify body and thus lets skin breathe. It

also helps to tone body and thus enhances overall appearance. So in short

physical fitness keeps the people beautiful and glowing.

(7) Healthy Mind: 's

A healthy mind dwells in a healthy body. Any exercise included in fitness

regimen, will lead to the production of endorphins in the body. Endorphins are chemicals that

make feeling happy and hence a healthy, physically fit body is always accompanied by a

healthy mind.

(8) Drive-away Illness:

Moderated and balanced workout in a fitness regimen helps to boost the

immune system of the body. Fully functional and strong body immunity means that the body

develops the strength to ward off diseases and infections.

So, in short, to have sense of satisfaction of life - it is one’s own physical fitness,

which will help in the long run. A disease-free healthy body and mind are simply priceless.

Live the life to the fullest, but more importantly, live it wisely and invest time in one’s own

health.

37
Mike Behnken (2011) states that physical fitness is the human bodies’ ability to

move with desired speed, balance, agility and strength gained through proper exercise and

nutrition. The following five components of physical fitness are markers of true fitness.

(1) Cardiovascular Endurance:

Cardiovascular, which is synonymous with cardiopulmonary exercise or

“Cardio" is aerobic physical activities that last longer than 90 seconds. To understand the

terminology you should know, cardio = heart, vascular = related to blood vessels, and

pulmonary = related to the lungs. Cardiovascular or cardiopulmonary endurance is the

 44

physical ability to maintain aerobic exercise for prolonged periods of time. Physiologically,

cardiovascular endurance deals with the efficiency of body’s (heart, lunges and vascular

system) ability to transfer oxygen rich blood to the working muscles during activities that last

longer than 90 seconds.

Cardiovascular endurance is very important because the more cardiovascular fit,

the healthier lungs, heart and vascular system is. More demonstrate high levels of

cardiovascular endurance during exercise the results are also more efficient heart, lungs and

vascular system. This means less stress is out on heart and lungs around the clock which

enables to avoid illness and live a long healthy life. Many argue that cardiovascular

endurance is the most important of the 5 components to physical fitness.

(2) Muscular Strength:

Muscular strength is the amount of force muscle can exert against resistance

for short duration, anaerobic (without oxygen) activities. Resistance includes external objects

such as free weights or household objects as well as your own body weight. Physiologically,

muscular strength it is the ability to body to supply ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate or muscle

energy) to the muscle fibers for concentric, eccentric and isometric contractions in short

times, which range from 0 to around 15 seconds.

While muscular strength may be subjective, the primary reason why muscular

strength is important is efficiency at Activities of Daily Living (ADL). Activities of Daily Living

are most important reason for being proficient at all 5 components of physical fitness is

important. At the very least, to be physically fit for in the muscular strength department, one

should demonstrate the basic muscular strength needed to efficiently the Activities of Daily

Living (ADL). Activities of Daily Living (ADL) vary from person to person, one can also

consider activities such as push-ups, pull-ups and carrying heavy objects as Activities of

Daily Living (ADL).

(3) Muscular Endurance:

While muscular strength deals with short duration muscle contractions muscle

endurance deals with sustained muscle contractions and other anaerobic activities lasting

less than about 90 seconds. Muscular endurance is the bridge between muscular strength

and cardiovascular endurance. In order to be cardiovascularly fit, one must demonstrate

muscular endurance. Physiologically while muscle strength deals primarily with type II, fast
 45

twitch muscle fibers, muscular endurance deals with primarily type I, slow twitch muscle

fibers. The body contains both but only anaerobic exercises which last longer than around

15 seconds and less than 90 seconds strengthen type I muscle fibers.

(4) Flexibility / Mobility:

Flexibility is the range of motion possible for each of joints or groups of joints.

To some degree, flexibility determines how efficiently muscles are. Increased flexibility has

also been associated with decreased risk of acute and chronic (overuse) injuries. Poor

flexibility can directly effect cardiovascular endurance, muscle strength and muscular

endurance. Physiologically flexibility can include extra-muscular (range of motion at a joint)

and intramuscular factors such as hypertonicity (knots) within the muscles themselves.

(5) Body Composition:

Body composition is the percentage of body’s tissues which you exhibit. The

easiest way to look at body composition is with a 2 compartment analysis which estimates the

amount of body fat with lean body mass which includes muscle, bone, water, and organs. It

takes expensive equipment for a 3 compartment analysis which isolates bone mass which

can also be considered an important part of body composition.

Body composition depends on the other components of physical fitness.

Having a poor body composition has many negative physical and psychological effects such

as increased chance of a host of chronic diseases and depression. As mentioned previously,

improper exercise habits and choices can not only lead to being overweight and obesity, but

decreased bone mass associated with osteopenia and osteoporosis.

San Ellyn (2011)38 describes that physical fitness has benefits far beyond weight

loss and improving your looks. Improved fitness leads to higher self-esteem, decreased risk

for diseases, improved academic performance and reduced self-destructive behavior. Take

advantage of any physical fitness programmes can improve the overall well-being.

(1) Reduced Risk of Disease:

Health professionals regularly prescribe fitness programmes to combat

specific diseases and other conditions. For example, weight-bearing exercise decreases the

risk for osteoporosis. Regular aerobic exercise can improve the blood cholesterol. The

regular cardio exercise helps to prevent coronary heart disease.

 46

(2) Improved Self-esteem:

Physical fitness programmes that set goals provide a sense of satisfaction

when achieve goals. People who participate in organized sports are more likely to have better

self-esteem, positive body image, lower levels of depression and improved academic

performance. Participation in sports leads to social and moral development, as well.

(3) Weight Loss and Maintenance:

Physical fitness helps to burn calories and lose weight if exercise in

conjunction with sensible eating. Being overweight and obese lead to coronary heart disease,

diabetes, joint and lower back pain and many other health problems.

(4) Improved Muscular Function:

Resistance exercise improves muscle function and endurance. Core exercise,

which strengthens abdominals, helps the participants decrease lower back pain, which can

occur if they spine and back are strained by belly weight. Muscular endurance exercise,

which challenges muscles over a period of time, helps to perform better in sports and during

manual labor.

(6) Improved Corporate Profits:

Wellness programmes that include an employee fitness component help

companies reduce absenteeism, health-care costs and legal claims and improve

productivity. These programmes help to improve cardio function, muscular endurance and

target overweight and obesity.

National Osteoporosis Foundation. (2011) The benefits of exercise extend far

beyond weight management. Regular physical activity can help to reduce the risk for several

diseases and health conditions and improve the overall quality of life. Regular physical

activity can help to protect the following health problems.

(1) Heart Disease and Stroke.

Daily physical activity can help prevent heart disease and stroke by strengthening

your heart muscle, lowering blood pressure, raising high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels

(good cholesterol) and lowering low-density lipoprotein (LDL) levels (bad cholesterol),

improving blood flow, and increasing the heart's working capacity. Optimizing each of these

factors can provide additional benefits of decreasing the risk for Peripheral Vascular Disease.
 47

(2) High Blood Pressure.

Regular physical activity can reduce blood pressure in those with high

blood pressure levels. Physical activity reduces body fat, which is associated with high blood

pressure.
(3) Noninsulin-Dependent Diabetes.

By reducing body fat, physical activity can help to prevent and control this

type of diabetes.

(4) Obesity.

Physical activity helps to reduce body fat by building or preserving muscle

mass and improving the body's ability to use calories. When physical activity is combined

with proper nutrition, it can help control weight and prevent obesity, a major risk factor for

many diseases.

(5) Back Pain.

By increasing muscle strength and endurance and improving flexibility and

posture, regular exercise helps to prevent back pain.

(6) Osteoporosis.

Regular weight-bearing exercise promotes bone formation and may prevent

many forms of bone loss associated with aging.

(7) Self Esteem and Stress Management.

Studies on the psychological effects of exercise have found that regular

physical activity can improve your mood and the way you feel about yourself. Researchers

have found that exercise is likely to reduce depression and anxiety and help you to better

manage stress.
(8) Disability.

Running and aerobic exercise have been shown to postpone the development

of disability in older adults.

From the importance of physical fitness discussed above, it can be summarized

that there are so many benefits to be gained from participation in physical fitness and

wellness programmes and people of all ages and both genders can derive benefits from

such programmes so as to help them to maintain higher quality of life. The most important
 48

benefits of physical fitness and wellness approach in the development of positive

attitude that helps people to see life’s possibilities and to work for their attainment so as to

make one’s life personally fulfilling and satisfying. It provides the basis for optimal

physiological health and gives us the capacity to enjoy a full life.

The main benefits of Physical Fitness are -

(1) Condition of heart and lungs by increasing the oxygen available to the body

therefore enabling the heart to use oxygen more efficiently.

(2) Development of physical fitness components such as st'ength, endurance ,

agility, flexibility, etc and improvement of muscle tone.

(3) Fosters correct posture, figure, body image, and physical appearance.

(4) Quick recovery after injury', illness and decrease the risk of cardio-vascular

disease.

(5) Reduces and controls body fat, exercise combined with a proper diet will

reduce body fat and also fulfill proper nutritional requirement

(6) Increase energy level of a person and helps to maintain ideal body weight.

(7) Through participation in physical fitness program, leisure (free) time is properly

utilized.

(8) Improve mood and reduce depression and anxiety.

(9) Postpones fatigue and reduces recovery time after vigorous activity.

(10) FHelps people to meet challenges of life, make them sef confident and

postpones ageing process.

(11) Improve the self-esteem.

The regular exercise reduces the risk of developing heart disease, high blood

pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes and several types of cancer. It also reduces the risk of

having a stroke. People who complain that they don't have enough energy to exercise fail to

realize that working out gives the energy. Regular exercise also increases strength and

stamina, allowing you to better handle common activities such as carrying a heavy bag of

groceries or climbing a flight of stairs. Both men and women start losing bone mass around

age 35. Lifting weights can not only stop the loss of bone mass, but in some cases it can

even reverse it. This drastically reduces the risk of osteoporosis. Weight bearing exercises

like walking and running also help keep bones strong. Strengthening abdominal and tower
 49

back muscles can help to prevent low back pain and it can also reduce discomfort. Both

aerobic exercise and weight lifting strengthen the immune system. People who exercise

regularly fall asleep faster, sleep longer and wake up less often during the night than people

who are sedentary. Regular exercise improves brain function, which helps prevent dementia

and Alzheimer's disease. Physical fitness released the feelings of anxiety, depression, anger

and stress. Life is much more enjoyable when the people are fit and healthy. They look good

and feel good, and more productive in everything do. The problem which results from a

sedentary lifestyle can be minimized or prevented by improving the physical fitness.

2.2.7 Alternatives for getting into physical fitness

Kennedy, J.F. (2009)40 There are a number of different activities that can lead to a

greater state of physical fitness.

Alternative #1: Yoga

Many people have discovered that yoga can meet many physical fitness criteria.

For one thing, it teaches the balance and helps to build flexibility. Both of these are

fundamentals in everyday living. Yoga can also help one deal with the stresses of the mind

and body, help relieve tension, and help achieve a leaner look.

Alternative #2: Aerobic Activity and Anaerobic Activity

There are many different forms of aerobic activities and anaerobic Activity,

aerobic activities refers to any rhythmic activity that increases the body's need for oxygen by

using large muscle groups continuously for at least 10 minutes. The term aerobic means "with

oxygen." Anaerobic activity is the high intensity activity, where the demand for oxygen from

the exercise exceeds the oxygen supply. Sample activities include: jogging, walking swiftty,

dancing, biking, and many team sports. Aerobic fitness is the capacity to exercise in aerobic

activities for a prolonged period where the amount of activity depends on aerobic capacity

and cardiorespiratory endurance. Anaerobic exercise is intense activity requiring energy

production without using oxygen. Anaerobic means in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic

threshold defines the upper limit of exercise intensity that can be sustained aerobically. The

anaerobic threshold is attained during more intense exercise where anaerobic metabolism

represents a significant proportion of the required energy supply. The onset of blood lactate

accumulation (OBLA), aerobic-anaerobic threshold, individual anaerobic threshold, point of

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metabolic acidosis, and lactate threshold essentially mean the same thing. Both activities

can lead one to a better overall state of physical fitness, good for cardiovascular system and

is an ideal way to burn off any access fat.

Alternative #3: Weight Training

Weight training is not just a physical fitness activity for men. it is an activity that

many women are also now enjoying. It helps to build muscle. It helps to build endurance. It

helps to build strength. Many women have also found that weight training can be beneficial in

helping to keep the muscles and tendons around their bones stronger, which in turn can help

detour fractures due to side effects of osteoporosis.

Alternative #4: Walking

Even those who do not like physical fitness (or the terms that goes along with

physical fitness) may enjoy walking on a regular basis. In fact, they could actually pursue

walking as a form of physical fitness, if they walk regularly and if they do enough of it (ideally

10,000 steps a day).

Alternative #6: Making Lifestyle Changes

People who are battling obesity, who aren’t physically able to do much in the way

of exercise, are now making lifestyle changes. These lifestyle changes may include:

• changing eating habits

• learning more about nutrition

• adding small amounts of movement to their daily routine

• talking to physicians about the best course of treatment for losing weight

• becoming healthier.

Including the mentioned alternative for improving physical fitness, the people

should take healthy nutrition choices and eating more fruits and vegetables, learning more

ways to cook healthy, reading more about nutrition, walking more when they can, and taking

the stairs more often. Add these alternatives to the routine today; one will enjoy the benefits

of fitter body.

2.2.8 Physical fitness testing

Physical fitness test is a test designed to measure the physical strength,

endurance, flexibility, body composition, agility, balance, co-ordination, power, speed, and

reaction time. Physical fitness has also been demonstrated to be a bone fide occupational
 51

qualification. Job analyses that account for physical fitness have demonstrated that the

fitness areas are underlying factors determining the physiological readiness to perform a

variety of critical tasks. Fitness level has also been shown to be predictive of sick time and

job performance indicators. Therefore, physical fitness can be an important area for

minimizing liability. The unfit person is less able to respond fully to strenuous physical activity.

Consequently, the risk of not performing physical duties is increased. For the constructing the

tests, the following requirements of the test must be considered.

2.2.8.1 Process of constructing of the test

Testing and measurement are the means of collecting information upon which

subsequent performance evaluations and decisions are made. The whole measurement or

evaluation processes involve the following stage: (Mackenzie, B.:2011)""

• The selection of characteristics to be measured

• The selection of a suitable method of measuring

• The collection of that data

• The analysis of the collected data

• The making of decisions

• The implementation of those decisions

All of the above stages should be completed with the athlete - especially the

analysis of the collected data and making decision of an appropriate way forward.

2.2.8.2 Quality of the Test

In order to design a battery of physical fitness tests, it is needed to know what

exactly a battery of physical fitness tests is and then it is simply group the fitness tests that

closely represents the various physiological demands of event. First step is to break down the

sport into its different fitness components. The test battery should include physical fitness

tests that measure each of these components. Each test must replicate the energy demands

and the movement patterns within the sport. The appropriate physical fitness tests must be
chosen to meet the following test quality. (Mackenzie, B.:2011 )42

Physical fitness tests employed should always conform to several quality

standards: i.e. validity and reliability.

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(1) Validity: In constructing tests it is important to make sure that they really

measure the factors required to be tested, and are thus objective rather than subjective. In

doing so all tests should therefore be specific (designed to assess an athlete's fitness for the

activity in question), valid (the degree to which the test actually measures what it claims to

measure). (Mackenzie, B.^OII)”5

(2) Reliability: This refers to the consistency or repeatability of a fitness test. If an

individual does not change his or her athletic ability then a reliable test, repeated twice will

show no difference. The only variable the test should measure is the one it is designed to.
(Mackenzie, B.:2011)44

Case in point: body fat scales use bioelectrical impedance analysis to determine

a person's body fat percentage. They rely on the fact that different tissues within the body

consist of differing amounts of water. If the test is not properly controlled the scales may

show a change in body fat levels when in fact they have only measured a change in

hydration levels. This can easily happen if a woman is tested at different times of the month

for example, and if this is not controlled then the test is said to be unreliable. Unreliable

test occur because:

• Different examiners are used for retesting, who use a slightly

different protocol.

• The examiner uses poor technique failing to standardize the test and

calibrate equipment.

• External factors have not been controlled, such as environmental

conditions, order of tests or using different equipment for example.

• Internal factors have not been controlled, such as when the athlete

drank, the time of day or month the tests are performed at, fatigue levels and so on.

Use these important general guidelines as well, to standardize the testing procedure and

ensure accuracy and reliability.

• Always warm up thoroughly before performing physical fitness tests.

Perform 5-10 minutes of light aerobic exercise followed by stretching to all the major muscle

groups.
• Complete short, explosive tests first. For example a standing vertical

jump should be performed before a multistage shuttle run.

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• try to test at the same time of day and in similar environmental

conditions.

• Use the same equipment making sure it is properly calibrated before

each testing session.

• If an examiner is taking measurements, have the same person take

the measurements each time. Needless to say they should be experienced in administering

the tests.

• Avoid eating within 3 hours of the test battery, and avoid smoking,

coffee and alcohol on the day of the test.

• Avoid training heavily the day before the physical fitness tests and do

no training at all on the test day.

2.2.8.3 Benefit of the test

The results from tests can be used to:

• predict future performance

• indicate weaknesses

• measure improvement

• enable the coach to assess the success of his training program

• place the athlete in appropriate training group

• motivate the athlete

2.2.8.4 Factors may influence the test results

The following factors may have an impact on the results of a test (test reliability):

• The ambient temperature, noise level and humidity

• The amount of sleep the athlete had prior to testing

• The athlete's emotional state

• Medication the athlete may be taking

• The time of day and time since the athlete's last meal

• The athlete's caffeine intake

• The test environment - surface (track, grass, road, gym)

• The athlete's prior test knowledge/experience

• Accuracy of measurements (times, distances etc.)

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• Is the athlete actually applying maximum effort in maximal tests

• Inappropriate warm up

• People present

• The personality, knowledge and skill of the tester

2.2.8.5 Test information recorded

For the coach and athlete it is important to monitor the programme of work, to

maintain progression in terms of the volume of work and its intensity. Both coach and athlete

must keep their own training records. A training diary can give an enormous amount of

information about what has happened in the past and how training has gone in the past.

When planning future training cycles, information of this kind is invaluable. The information to

be recorded falls into two broad categories: -

• The day-to-day information from training

o State of the athlete (health, composure)

o Physiological data (body weight, resting heart rate, etc.)

o Training unit (speed, speed endurance, strength, technique)

o Training load (the number of miles, sets, repetitions, attempts)

o Training intensity (kilograms, % of maximum, % of V02)

o The prevailing conditions (wet, windy, hot etc.)

o Response to training (the assignments completed, the resultant

heart rate recovery, felt tired, etc.)

• Information that measures status. This can take the form of a test. If the

test is repeated throughout the program, it can then be used as a measure of progress within

the training discipline. Examples of such tests are:

o Time trials: speed, speed endurance, endurance

o Muscular endurance: chins, push ups, dips

o Strength maximum: single repetitions, maximum repetitions

o Explosive strength: power bounding, vertical jump, overhead shot

putt

o Mobility: objective measurements of the range of movement

o Event specific
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2.2.8.6 Basic of the presidential physical fitness test

The presidential physical fitness test concentrates on health related physical

fitness and skill related physical fitness. Health related physical fitness is fitness abilities that

can be key components in keeping from developing health conditions. Health related

physical fitness tests are combined tests that concentrate on the following

components: cardiovascular, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body

composition. Skill related physical fitness is fitness abilities to perform specific activity with a

reasonable efficiency i.e. sport and other physical activities. The details of tests are as follow:

(1) Health related physical fitness tests

Total fitness can be defined by how well the body performs in each one of the
45
components of physical fitness as a whole. (Corbin and Lindsey: 2011)

(1.1) Cardiovascular endurance is a health related component of physical

fitness that relates to the ability of the circulatory and respiratory systems to supply oxygen

during sustained physical activity. It can be said that cardiovascular endurance is a health

related component of physical fitness relates to the ability of the heart, blood, vessels and

lungs to work together to provide the needed oxygen and fuel to the body during sustained

workloads. Cardiovascular fitness is also referred to as cardiovascular endurance, aerobic

fitness and cardiorespiratory fitness. Examples of the evaluation tests would be V02 MAX test

in the laboratory setting is considered to be the best measure of cardiovascular fitness.

Commonly administered field tests include the following tests:

• 12 minute run, the 1 mile run, the mile walk, 2.4km Run Test

• Astrand Treadmill test - V02max test running on a treadmill

• Astrand 6 minute Cycle test - Vo2 max test on a static bike

• Balke V02max test - suitable for endurance sports

• Balke Incremental treadmill protocol test- V02max test on a treadmill

• Bruce Incremental treadmill protocol test- V02max test on a treadmill

• Cooper V02max test - suitable for endurance sports

• Concorii test

• Critical Swim Speed - measure of a swimmers aerobic capacity

• Home Step Test - a step test you can conduct at home

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• Harvard Step Test - measure of cardiovascular fitness

• Multistage Fitness Test or Bleep test - V02 max test for endurance sports

• Queens College Step Test - V02 max test

• Rockport Fitness walking test - V02 max test

• Tecumseh Step Test - measure of cardiovascular fitness

• Treadmill V02max test - V02 max test

• V02max from non-exercise data - V02 max test

• V02max from a one mile jog

• V02max from a race result (time for a distance)

• V02max Step Test

• Wheelchair V02max Test

• Yo-Yo Endurance Test

• Yo-Yo Intermittent Endurance Test

• Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test

(1.2} Muscular strength is a health-related component of physical fitness that

relates to the ability of the muscle to exert force. Like flexibility and muscular endurance,

strength is specific in nature. For true assessment it would be necessary to test each major

muscle group of the body. Lab and field tests are similar and involve the assessment of one

repetition maximum. 1RM tests are typically conducted on resistance machines. Strength can

also be assessed using dynamometers. Strength can be measured isometrically (static

contractions) or isotonically (dynamic contractions). Example would be the following

evaluation tests:
Strength - Core i
• Core muscle strength and stability test - Abdominals and lower back

Strength - Elastic

• Jumps Decathlon - suitable for jumpers

• Leg Elastic Strength test - suitable for jumpers

• Standing Long Jump test - suitable for sprinters, rugby, football, hockey,

fencing etc.

• Sprint Bound Index - suitable for sprinters

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• Sargent Jump Test or Vertical Jump Test - suitable for basketball,

volleyball, football, rugby etc.

Strength - General
• Abdominal Curl Conditioning Test (NCF)

• Biceps Curl Test

• Burpee Test

• Canadian Crunch Test

• Chin up Test - Arm and shoulder muscular endurance

• Dynamic Knee Extension Test - Knee extensor muscles

• Flexed Arm-Hang Test

• Sit Ups test - Abdominal curl strength

• Curl-Up test - Abdominal muscle endurance

• Grip Strength - Grip strength with a Dynamometer

• Overhead Press Test - Elbow extensors and superior shoulder girdle

muscles

• Press Up test - Upper body muscle endurance

• Strength test - upper body - Bench Press

• Strength test - lower body - Leg Press

• Strength test - hamstrings - Leg Curl

• Strength test - quadriceps - Leg Extension

• Squats Test

• Wall Squat Test - Quadriceps strength endurance

(1.3) Muscular endurance is a health-related component of physical fitness that

relates to the muscle's ability to continue to perform without fatigue. Like flexibility, muscular

endurance is specific in nature. For true assessment of muscular endurance it would be

necessary to test each major muscle group of the body. Lab and field tests of muscular

endurance are similar and are based on the number of repetitions that can be performed by

the specific muscle group being tested (example: repetitions of push-ups, sit-up or

abdominal curls). Muscular endurance can be measured isometrically (static contractions) or

isotonically (dynamic contractions).

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(1.4) Flexibility is a health-related component of physical fitness that relates to

the range of motion available at a joint. Some experts specify that flexibility is the ability of

each joint to move through the available range of motion for a specific joint and requires

range of motion without discomfort or pain. Flexibility is typically measured in the lab using

measurement devices such as a goniometer, flexometer and in the field with tests such as the

sit and reach and the zipper. Examples would be stretching individual muscles or the ability

to perform certain functional movements such as the lunge. The sit and reach test is most

often used to test flexibility and the other tests are also given below:

• Hip Flexion Test

• Modified Sit and Reach Test - lower back and hamstring test

• Sit and Reach test - lower back and hamstring test

• Static Flexibility Test - Ankle

« Static Flexibility Test - Hip & Trunk

• Static Flexibility Test - Shoulder & Wrist

• Static Flexibility Test - Trunk & Neck

• Static Flexibility Test - Shoulder

• Trunk Flexion Test

(1.5") Body composition is a health-related component of physical fitness that

relates to the relative amounts of muscle, fat, bone and other vital parts of the body. This

component of physical fitness is measured in the laboratory using such measures as

underwater weighing and in the field using skin-fold calipers. There are a variety of other

methods of assessing body composition; also referred to as relative leanness. As noted

previously body composition is the only non-performance measure among the health-related

physical fitness components. Example of the evaluation test would be as follow:

• Body Fat Percentage

• Body Mass Index (BMl)

• Muscle Fibre Test - Dr F. Hatfield

• Yuhasz skinfold test

• Body Fat Percentage using Girth Measurements

• Waist to Hip Ratio test

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As stated earlier the five components of physical fitness represent how fit and

healthy the body is as a whole. When the battery of tests performed the information on the

specific areas will be received and the specific goal oriented fitness programme can be

developed from the test battery. If body composition is higher fat compared to muscle mass,

it shows that there are many health related diseases and illnesses. It is important to combine

healthy eating habits with exercise programme.

If the scored low on the cardiovascular test, it shows the higher chance of being

at risk for heart related illnesses and would not do well with activities that require longer times

to complete. It is important to participate in things such as long bike rides, swimming and

jogging for extended periods of time to correct this component.

If the scored low on the flexibility tests, it shows the greater chance of decreased

performance in daily living activities/sports, a higher risk of injury, and back pain. It would be

important to included flexibility training into your workout everyday.

If you scored low on the muscular endurance test, it shows the fatigue early into

the exercise or activities of daily living. Many exercises that require high reps and low weight

would be implemented into training programme.

If you scored low on the muscle strength test, it shows that do not have enough

strength to perform well in sports, resistance training and activities of daily living. The fitness

programme would have a progressive strength training component added that would allow to

become stronger with little chance of injury overtime.

(2) Skill related physical fitness tests

Skill-related physical fitness consists of those components of physical fitness

that have a relationship with enhanced performance in sports and motor skills. The

components are commonly defined as agility, balance, coordination, power, speed and

reaction time. With the changing focus to health-related physical fitness those components of

fitness previously included in fitness tests that are not directly related to improved health were

designated as skill-related physical fitness components. Possession of skill-related fitness

abilities enhances ability to perform in sports and games but only has an indirect connection

with health. The skill-related components of fitness are considered to be agility, balance,
coordination, power, speed, and reaction time. (Corbin and Lindsey: 2011)4e
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(2.1) Agility is a skill-related component of physical fitness that relates to the

ability to rapidly change the position of the entire body in space with speed and accuracy.

Tests of agility are common as screening tests among sports teams. Example of the agility

test would be as follow:

• 505 Agility Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement

• Hexagonal Obstacle Agility Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional

movement

• Illinois agility run test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement

• Lateral Change of Direction test - suitable for sports with multidirectional

movement

• Quick Feet test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement

• Shuttle Run Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement

• T Drill test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement

• Zig-Zag Test - suitable for sports with multidirectional movement

(2.2) Balance is a skill-related component of physical fitness that relates to the

maintenance of equilibrium while stationary or moving. Balance is typically measured using a

balance beam or tests that require holding a stationary posture after changing body

positions. Balance is generally considered to be of two types; static and dynamic. Example of

the balance test would be the standing stork test and Standing stork test blind.

(2.3) Coordination is a skill-related component of physical fitness that relates to

the ability to use the senses, such as sight and hearing, together with body parts in

performing motor tasks smoothly and accurately. Coordination is typically assessed using

measures of hand-eye or foot-eye coordination such as juggling, dribbling a ball or hitting an

object. The sample of coordination test is the Han Eye coordination tests.

(2.4) Power is a skill-related component of physical fitness that relates to the

ability to the rate at which one can perform work. Power is considered to be a combination of

strength and speed. It has also been defined as the ability to exert muscle force quickly. For

this reason some consider it to be a combination of skill and health-related physical fitness.

Examples of power include putting the shot and vertical jumping.

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(2.5) Speed is a skill-related component of physical fitness that relates to the

ability to perform a movement within a short period of time. There are many different types of

speed such as running speed, swimming speed, speed of hand or foot movement to name

but a few. Among athletes a 40 yard dash is often used to measure speed. There are a wide

variety of laboratory measures of speed that are highly specific to different body parts and

different human movement activities. The speed and power can be used the same as follow:

• 10 stride test for 100m and 200m athletes

• 30 metre acceleration test for 100m and 200m athletes

• 30 metre Sprint Fatigue - Power Maintenance Test

• 35 metre Sprint Speed Test

• 40 metre multiple Sprint Test

• 40 yard Sprint Speed Test- predict an athlete's 400 metre time

>

• 60 metre speed test for 100m and 200m athletes

• 150 metre Endurance test for 100m athletes

• 250 metre Endurance test for 200m athletes

• 300 yard shuttle test - suitable for football, rugby, hockey, basketball,

squash

• 400 metre Drop off test for 100m and 200m athletes

• 400 metre Control tests for 400m athletes

• Concept 2 Rowing Step test - Monitor anaerobic threshold

• Flying 30 metre speed test for 100m and 200m athletes

• LAS (Lactic vs Speed ) test for 400m athletes

• Margaria Kalamen Power Test

• PWC-170 test- predicts power output at a heart rate of 170 bpm

• Wingate ANaerobic 30 cycle test- Cycling based Anaerobic test

(2.6) Reaction Time is a skill-related component of physical fitness that relates to

the time elapsed between stimulation and the beginning of the reaction to it. An example of

reaction time is moving foot from the accelerator to the brake pedal when reacting to a

situation that requires a person to stop a car. This example illustrates the fact that in many

cases, the total response time is the more important variable. Total response time includes
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stimulus to beginning of movement (reaction time) to end of movement (movement time).

Like other measures of skill-related fitness there are many different types of reaction time and

total assessment of reaction time would require many different tests. Sophisticated timing

devices are used to measure total response time in the lab. Like speed, reaction time is

considered to be a component of fitness that is greatly influenced by heredity. The sample of

this test is the Ruler Drop test.

2.2.9 Interpretation of level of physical fitness

There are three levels of physical fitness: base level, Middle level, and top level.

2.2.9.1 Base Level: The base level of the physical fitness highlights the primary reason why

physical fitness is important. This level of physical fitness directly relates to quality of life. A

physically fit body has less chance of acute health problems and chronic disease. The base

level of physical fitness represents the ability to efficiently perform the anaerobic and aerobic

activities of daily living which exist in the environment on a daily basis in addition to novel

tasks which may arise during day to day living.

2.2.9.2 Mid Level: Only after the body has grown accustomed to the base level of physical

fitness can advance to the middle level. The middle level is about adaptation and

improvement. Most people remain at the middle level for their entire lifetime as they adapt

and progress only to regress and start the process over and over again. In order to improve

middle level physical fitness it is important to have a balanced exercise programme. Exercise

selection should focus on all five components of fitness.

2.2.9.3 Top Level: Very few are able to reach the top level of the physical fitness hierarchy.

Elite athletes often spend their entire lifetime aiming to reach the very top level.

The top level of physical fitness tends to mesh physiology and psychology. In order to reach

the top level of physical fitness one must reach their full potential.

For better understanding, the three levels of physical fitness: base level, Middle

level, and top level are shown in the following figure.

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Top level
To approach the body’s full potential or set

new limits of human performance

Middle level
Improving .performance by efficiently adapting to new physical

challenges related to cardiovascular endurance, muscular strength,

flexibility and muscular endurance while maintaining a healthy body

composition and remaining a state of well-being

Base level
The physiological capacity to efficiently deal with the daily demands imposed by one’s

environments, and take on unfamiliar tasks while remaining in a state of well-being

FIGURE 2.2
THREE LEVELS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS: BASE LEVEL, MIDDLE LEVEL,
AND TOP LEVEL

2.3 PHYSICAL FITNESS AND ACHIEVEMENT

2.3.1 Definition of achievement
American Heritage Dictionary (2009)47 defines “achievement" as the act of

accomplishing or finishing, something accomplished successfully, especially by means of

exertion, skill, practice, or perseverance, successful completion; accomplishment

In thinkexist.com (2011)48, “achievement” can be defines as: (a) the act of

achieving or performing; an obtaining by exertion; successful performance; accomplishment;

as, the achievement of his object, (b) a great or heroic deed; something accomplished by

valor, boldness, or praiseworthy exertion; a feat, and (c) an escutcheon or ensign armorial;

now generally applied to the funeral shield commonly called hatchment.

2.3.2 Physical fitness in terms of achievement

In the present study, “achievement” can be defined as the real accomplishments

in the life i.e. good health, well-being, and ability to perform specific activities which derived

from the physical fitness that can be measured by different physical fitness tests.

The physical fitness in terms of achievement refers to the ability of the students to

function efficiently & effectively and to carry out daily tasks with alertness and vigor without
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undue fatigue, and with enough energy reserve to meet emergencies situations, to enjoy

leisure time, to be healthy, and to resist disease. There are two types of achievement in terms

of physical fitness in the present study: health-related physical fitness and skill-retated

physical fitness. Muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, cardiovascular, and

body composition are included in health-related physical fitness component whereas agility,
balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed are included in skill-related physical

fitness.

The achievement of health related fitness is the results which obtainec from the

measurement test regarding the general well-being, good physical condition; and vigorfor

the tasks of daily living i.e. cardiovascular (12 minutes and 2 mile run test), body composition

(Body fat percentage test-Waist to Hip Ratio test-Your Ideal Weight test), Flexibility (Static

Flexibility test), muscle strength (Core Muscle Strength-Sit-up test), muscular endurance

(Curi-up/Press-up test).

The achievement of skilled-related physical fitness is the results which obtained

from the measurement test regarding the ability to perform specific activity with a reasonable

efficiency i.e. sport and other physical activities i.e. agility (Zig-Zag test - 505 Agiiity test),

balance test, coordination (Hand Eye Coordination test), reaction time (Ruler Drop test),

power (30m Sprint Fatigue Power Maintenance test), and speed (35m Sprint Speed test).

2.4 PHYSICAL FITNESS AND AJUSTMENT

2.4.1 Definition of “adjustment”
The free Dictionary (2011) defines three definition of “adjustment":

(1) The act or process of modification of physical parts made in response to

changing conditions.

(2) The relative degree of harmony between an individual's needs and the

requirements of the environment.

(3) Any of various manual and mechanical interventions, most often applied to

the spine, in which controlled and directed forces are applied to a joint to correct structural

dysfunction and restore normal nerve function.

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Webster’s College Dictionary (2011) ^ defines nine definition of “adjustment”:

(1) The act of adjusting; adaptation to a particular condition, position, or

purpose.
(2) The state of being adjusted; orderly relation of parts or elements.

(3) A device, as a knob or lever on a machine, for adjusting.

(4) The act of bringing something into conformity with external requirements

(5) Harmony achieved by modification or change of position

(6) Therapeutic manipulation of the vertebrae or joints to bring them into

alignment.

(7) A modification of behavior and attitudes so as to achieve a balance

between personal needs and interpersonal or societal demands.

(8) The settling of an insurance claim after determining the amount of

indemnity an insured is entitled to receive.

(9) A change or concession, as in price or terms., in view of a minor defect or

as a settlement.

The Princeton’s Worldnet (2011) defines five definition of "adjustment”:

(1) adjustment, accommodation, fitting : making or becoming suitable;

adjusting to circumstances

(2) alteration, modification, adjustment: the act of making something different

(3) adjustment, registration, readjustment: the act of adjusting something to

match a standard

(4) adaptation, adjustment: the process of adapting to something (such as

environmental conditions)

(5) allowance, adjustment: an amount added or deducted on the basis of

qualifying circumstances

Webster Dictionary (2011)52 defines three definition of “adjustment":

(1) The act of adjusting, or condition of being adjusted; act of bringing into

proper relations; regulation

(2) Settlement of claims; an equitable arrangement of conflicting claims, as in

set-off, contribution, exoneration, subrogation, and marshaling

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(3) The operation of bringing all the parts of an instrument, as a microscope

i

or telescope, into their proper relative position for use; the condition of being thus adjusted;

as, to get a good adjustment; to be in or out of adjustment

Britannica Encyclopedia (2011) state that adjustment is the behavioral

process by which humans and other animals maintain equilibrium among their various needs
or between their needs and jthe obstacles of their environments. A sequence of adjustment

begins when a need is felt and ends when it is satisfied. Hungry people, for example, are
!
stimulated by their physiological state to seek food. When they eat, they reduce the

stimulating condition that impelled them to activity, and they are thereby adjusted to this

particular need. |
i
I
Gupta Henah (2011)34 mentions that adjustment may be defined as a process of

altering behavior to reach a;harmonious relationship with the environment. When people say

they are in an “adjustment period” they typically mean they are going through a process of

change and are searching for some level of balance or acceptance with the environment,

others, or themselves.

From the definition of “adjustment” mentioned above, it can be concluded that

"adjustment” is the behavioral process by which humans and other animals maintain

equilibrium among their various needs or between their needs and the obstacles to reach a

harmonious relationship with environments. A sequence of adjustment begins when a need is

felt and ends when it is satisfied. The behavioural process refers to : (a) the process of

modification of physical parts made in response to changing conditions, (b) the process of

adaptation to a particular condition or position or purpose, (c) the process of bringing

something into conformity with external requirement, (d) the process of modification of

behaviour and attitude so as to achieve a balance between personal needs and social

demands, (e) the process of making something different, (f) the process of adjusting

something to match a standard, (g) The process of adapting or bringing into proper relations

or regulation, environment conditions, and qualifying circumstances.

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2.4.2 Physical fitness in terms of “adjustment”

After the definition of “adjustment", the physical fitness can be divided into two

aspects: physical adjustment and social adjustment.

2.4.2.1 Physical adjustment refers to the process of modification of physical parts made in

response to changing conditions or the process of adaptation to a particular condition or

position or purpose of physical fitness. The physical adjustment aims to make the physical

fitness to match a standard for the good health, well-being, and better skill fordoing a

specific work.

Physical fitness is the results from physical adjustment which depend on the act

or adaptation or performance of the organs/body system and there mutual cooperation

including the nutrition, right environment and habits or lifestyle, and physical activities (such

as daily walking, jogging, running, bicycling, exercising, sporting) for the improvement of

overall health (cardiorespiratory, muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, and body

composition), and skills (agility, balance, coordination, speed, power, and reaction lime).

Physical Health Care Association (2010) states that physical adjustment is

important of an individual, which include everything from physical fitness to overall wellness.

When the internal organs cannot communicate/ coordinate properly then it is a sign of serious

health issue, which is one of the major reasons of illness/health problems/disease. Physical

fitness depend on the performance of the organs/body system which depends on nutrition,

right environment and habits, physical activities, timely rest/sleep, clean air and water. It also

depends on habits or lifestyle such as the way which doing the things, watching too much

television, working for long durations without rest, sitting in a place for long duration without

changing posture, using technology beyond the limits, too much use of computers, mobile

phones etc. Physical adjustment is a way to maintain the physical fitness (health and

wellness) with the activities or lifestyle like walking daily, jogging, running, bicycling,

exercising, doing yoga and feeding body with right type food and drinks. There are so many

ways of physical adjustment to maintain and retain physical fitness which also improve overall

health and thus improving immunity system and reducing chances of illness, disease and

injury. It also helps in faster and better recovery for person under medication.

It can be summarized that physical fitness is a general state of good physical

health. Physical fitness is usually the result of regular physical activity and proper nutrition.
 68

Physical adjustment is a way to maintain the physical fitness with the activities or lifestyle

like walking daily, jogging, running, bicycling, exercising, doing yoga and feeding body with

right type food and drinks. There are so many ways for physical adjustment to maintain or

improve physical fitness i.e. regular exercise, adequate nutrition, avoid harmful behaviour

and substances (sun, sleep) (drugs, alcohol, tobacco), monitoring of early signs of sickness,

and protection from accidents

2A.2.2 Social adjustment is the adaptation of the person to the social environment.

Adjustment may take place by adapting the self to the environment or by changing the
environment. (Campbell, Psychiatric Dictionary: 1996)56 Regarding the physical fitness, the

social adjustment refers to the process of bringing something into conformity with external

requirement or the process of modification of behaviour and attitude so as to achieve a

balance between personal needs and social demands. This social adjustment aims to adapt

or bring into proper relations or regulation, environment conditions, and qualifying

circumstances.

World Health Organization (2005)57 states that social adjustment is the

ability of persons to perform normal roles in society. Poor social adjustment forms a

common indicator of neurotic illness, and adjustment may be used to record the outcome of

care, especially for psychotherapy. Adjustment may be rated subjectively, or it may be

judged in terms of a person's fulfillment of social roles, how adequately a person is

functioning compared to normal social expectations.

American Social Health Association (2011 j58 illustrates that a good social

adjustment person always keep the rule, laws and regulations. The good social adjustment

person relates to the high level of physical fitness which derives from the participation of

physical activity. This is because one who participates in physical activity must keep the

rules, regulations, and responsibility. Thus, improving the physical fitness of the individuals

can improve the social adjustment of the society.

Social Health Maintenance Organization (2011) defines that social adjustment is

how the person interact with people in areas around. To be socially adjustment, one can join

in sport teams or participate in physical activity together in a group. Physical fitness,

therefore, has the relationship with the social adjustment because it brings the people to
 69

interact effectively with other people and to develop satisfying relationships in one’s

society/community.

From the above mentioned, it can be summarized that social adjustment is the

process of modification of behaviour and attitude to achieve a balance between personal

needs and social demands. This social adjustment in related to physical fitness aims to adapt

orbring into proper relations or regulation, environment conditions, and qualifying

circumstances. The social adjustment is the ability of persons to perform normal roles in

society. The good social adjustment person relates to high level of physical fitness which

derives from the participation in physical activity. Improving the physical fitness of individuals

can improve the social adjustment of the society. To be the social adjustment person, one

can join in sport teams or participate in physical activity together in a group. The social

adjustment through the physical fitness brings the people to interact effectively with other

people and to develop satisfying relationships in one’s society/community.

2.5 PHYSICAL FITNESS AND SELF-ESTEEM

2.5.1 Definition of self-esteem

Self esteem is central to everything to do. It affects the people’s behaviour and

thoughts. It changes how the people feel about and value themselves. Positive self esteem is
vital in development of a healthy personality. Nathaniel Branden (1969)60 states that high self

esteem people can surely be knocked down by an excess of troubles, but they are quicker to

pick themselves up again. Self esteem is how the people feel about themselves. It is their

thoughts and feelings about themselves.

The level of self esteem determines how the people operate in life and how they

interact with others, spouse, children, friends, and strangers. It determines the goals,

achievements, satisfaction and happiness in life. Healthy self esteem is related with:

creativity, rationality, flexibility, willingness to admit mistakes, openness, honesty,

acceptance, cooperativeness, and independence.

People with high self esteem tend to be more ambitious in what they want to

experience in life. High selfesteem people have a drive to express themselves and to

communicate openly and honestly about their needs and desires. People with healthy self
 70

esteem choose healthy relationships and they recognize the value of relationships. They

treat others with respect, non judgmental attitude, and fairness.

Nathaniel Branden (1969)°1 illustrates that self-esteem is the experience which is

appropriate to life and to the requirements of life. More specifically, self-esteem is the

confidence in the ability to think and to cope with the basic challenges of life and the

confidence in the right to be happy, the feeling of being worthy, deserving, entitled to assert

the needs and wants and to enjoy the fruits of the efforts.

Nathaniel Branden’s description of self-esteem includes the following primary

properties:

♦ Self-esteem is a basic human need. It makes an essential contribution to the

life process. It is indispensable to normal and healthy self-development, and has a value for

survival."

♦ Self-esteem is an automatic and inevitable consequence of the sum of

individuals' choices in using their consciousness something experienced as a part of, or

background to, all of the individuals thoughts, feelings and actions.

Nathaniel Branden’s concept of self-esteem involved three main levels:

♦ To have aj high self-esteem is to feel confidently capable for life, or, in

Branden's words, to feel able and worthy, or to feel right as a person.

♦ To have a low self-esteem corresponds to not feeling ready for life, or to

feeling wrong as a person.

♦ To have middle ground self-esteem is to waver between the two states

above, that is, to feel able and useless, right and wrong as a person, and to show these

incongruities in behaviour, acting at times wisely, and at rashly others, thus reinforcing

insecurity.

Robert B. Bums (2008)62 considers that self-esteem is a collection of the

individual’s attitudes toward life. Self-esteem is the basis of the people’s well being. In

psychology, self-esteem reflects a person's overall self-appraisal of the worth. It is a ratio

found by dividing one’s successes in areas of life of importance to a given individual by the

failures in them or one’s “success / pretensions”.

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» 03
Connie Paiadino (2010) denotes that self esteem is a state of mind. It is

confidence in the efficacy of mind, in ability to think. It is the confidence in ability to learn,

make appropriate choices and decisions, and respond effectively to change. It is also the

experience that success, achievement, fulfillment, and happiness. To trust one's mind and to

know that one is worthy of happiness is the essence of self esteem.

Don Simmermacher (2011)64 states that self esteem means having a

positive image of self. It is a key to the success and the foundation the well-being. Self­

esteem is a particular way of experiencing the self. It is a good deal more than a mere

feeling, this must be stressed. It involves emotional, evaluative, and cognitive components. It

also entails certain action dispositions: to move toward life and consciousness rather than

away from it; to treat facts with respect rather than denial; to operate self-responsibly rather

than the opposite. It is that feeling at the center of the being of self-worth, self-confidence,

and self-respect. High self-esteem means the good feeling about self. Having high self

esteem is crucial to experiencing love and success in life. When the self-esteem is high, the

sense of self-worth is also high.

Karl Perera (2011) Self-esteem is a confidence of one’s own confidence in the

ability to think, to cope with the basic challenges of life and confidence in the right to be

successful and happy. Having positive of self, having a state of mind, trust on one’s mind,

and to know that one’s own Worthy are the characteristics of high self-esteem person.

2.5.2 Importance of self-esteem

66
Nathaniel Branden (1969) explains that positive self esteem is important

because when people experience it, they feel good and look good, are effective and

productive, and they respond to others and themselves in healthy, positive, growing ways.

Know that they are lovable and capable, and care about themselves and other’s. They do not

have to build themselves up by tearing others down or by patronizing less competent people.

Solomon, S et al. (1992) described that self-esteem is the sum and substance of

one's feelings and thoughts about who we are and as such is of great importance. Self­

esteem is the foundation that we build the rest of us on. Self-esteem, or one's sense of worth,

is often fragile and sensitive to events that happen on a day-to-day basis. Self-esteem is
 72

critical for individuals to think about and be able to take advantage of strengths and for

learning from mistakes (meta-cognition). Healthy self-esteem is an essential component for

learning. One cannot be happy if he/she suffers from low self-esteem, therefore, starts to

improve self-esteem is to improve the happy life.

For students, Loomans & Loomans (1994)^ explains that learning is growth -

intellectual, physical, psychological, social, spiritual and combinations of those. In every

aspect of this learning process there is the potential to damage, maintain or increase self­

esteem. Self-esteem in most students 'mirrors' the appraisals of others, in particular parents

and teachers. Teacher’s views clearly affect learner’s achievements. Positive appraisals over

an extended time tend to increase the level of learning. Prolonged or consistent negative

x appraisals tend to lower learning achievement. Students tend to perform in accordance with

teacher expectations and treatment - self-fulfilling prophecy Teachers find that students with

low self-esteem exhibit some or all of the following characteristics: learning problems, social

and emotional problems, behaviour problems, unstable home lives, high absenteeism, and

frequent illness.

The wide range of experiences a student has while going through school -

scholastic, athletic, social, and emotional - all constitutes input to his or her self-esteem

development. Every success and failure, together with the reactions of peers, parents and

teachers to these experiences, will contribute significantly to the students' self-esteem.

Teachers can be instrumental in creating a classroom environment which nurtures and

supports students developing self-esteem. This can be achieved by modeling to students

that mistakes are part of the learning process for both children and adults. It is important to

empower and skill students to assess their achievements in a positive productive manner.

This creates autonomous learners. Students need to be encouraged to develop support

systems both within and outside of the classroom so that they feel confident to take risks In

their learning. (Robb & Letts: 2002)““.

Jackie Christiansen. (2011)70 states that selfesteem is defined as “confidence

and satisfaction in oneself.” While it may sound personal in nature, self esteem really

underlies everything we do in life and how our relationships with others develop too.
 73

Low self esteem strips us of our self confidence and when we think little of ourselves, we

feel we do not deserve to be happy or successful. We feel unworthy of love. Positive self

esteem increases confidence and happiness, while improving the overall quality of our lives.

We are comfortable in our own skin and treat others without any illusions, jealousies, hang­

ups or insecurities. So the foundation for a positive self esteem is about believing in oneself

and knowing that everyone is unique and worth.

2.5.3 Characteristics of people with high self-esteem and low self-esteem

Maslow (1987)71 state that the characteristics of people with a healthy of self­

esteem are as follow:

♦ Firmly believe in certain values and principles, and are ready to defend

them even when finding opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in light of

experience.

♦ Able to act according to what they think to be the best choice, trusting their

own judgment, and not feeling guilty when others don't like their choice

♦ Do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past, nor

about what could happen in the future. They leam from the past and plan for the future, but

live in the present intensely,

♦ Fully trust in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures

and difficulties. They ask others for help when they need it

♦ Consider themselves equal in dignity to others, rather than inferior

or superior, while accepting! differences in certain talents, personal prestige or financial

standing

♦ Take for granted that they are an interesting and valuable person for others,

at least for those with whom they have a friendship

♦ Resist manipulation; collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and

convenient

♦ Admit and accept different internal feelings and drives, either

positive or negative, revealing those drives to others only when they choose

♦ Able to enjoy a great variety of activities

 74

♦ Sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect generally accepted

social rules, and claim no right or desire to prosper at others' expense

Maslow (1987)72 states that self-esteem allows people to face life with more

confidence, benevolence and optimism, and thus easily reach their goals and seif-actualize.
It allows oneself to be more| ambitious, but not with respect to possessions, but with respect

to what one can experience emotionally, creatively and spiritually. To develop self-esteem is

to widen the capacity to be happy; self-esteem allows people to be convinced they deserve

happiness. Understanding this is fundamental, and universally beneficial, since the

development of positive self-esteem increases the capacity to treat other people with respect,

benevolence and goodwill, thus favoring rich interpersonal relationships and avoiding

destructive ones. In the hierarchy of human needs of Maslow (1987)'“, he describes the

need for esteem, which is divided into two aspects, the esteem for oneself (self-love, self-

confidence, skill, aptitude, etc.), and respect and esteem one receives from other people

(recognition, success, etc.) The healthiest expression of self-esteem, according to Maslow,

“is the one which manifests in respect we deserve for others, more than renowned, fame and
flattery”. (Greenberg, J. :2008)74 Respect from others entails recognition, acceptance, status,

and appreciation, and was believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self-esteem.

According to Maslow, without the fulfillment of the self-esteem need, individuals will be driven

to seek it and unable to grow and obtain self-actualization.

Jake Lawson (2011)75 states about the characteristics of people with a healthy of

self-esteem as follow:

♦ Have feeling of pride, self-worth, self-confidence, self-respect, feel good

about themselves, love their life, arid being please with their own value and worth

♦ Hold themselves as worthy of being loved and loving others; worthy of

being cared for and caring for others; worthy of being nurtured and nurturing others; worthy

of being touched and supported and touching and supporting others; worthy of being

listened to and listening to others; worthy of being recognized and recognizing others; worthy

of being encouraged and encouraging others; and worthy of being reinforced as “good"

people and recognizing others as "good" people.

♦ Have a productive personality; they have achieved success to the best of

 75

their ability in school, work and society

i

♦ Capable of being creative, imaginative problem solvers; of being risk-takers,

optimistic in their approach to life and in the attainment of their personal goals

♦ Capable td lead, and are skillful in dealing with people They are neither too

independent of nor too dependent on others. They have the ability to size up a relationship

and adjust to the demands of the interaction.

♦ Have a hehlthy self-concept. Their perception of themselves is in sync with

the picture of themselves they project to others.

♦ Able to state clearly who they are, what their future potential is, and to what

they are committed in life. They are able to declare what they deserve to receive in their

lifetime.

♦ Able to accept the responsibility for and consequences of their actions

They do not resort to shifting the blame or using others as scapegoats for actions that have

resulted in a negative outcome.

♦ Altruistic. They have a legitimate concern for the welfare of others. They are

not self-centered or egotistical in their outlook on life. They do not take on the responsibility

for others in an overdone way. They help others accept the responsibility for their own

actions. They are; however, always ready to help anyone who legitimately needs assistance

or guidance.

♦ Have healthy coping skills. They are able to handle the stresses in their lives

in a productive way. They are able to put the problems, concerns, issues and conflicts that

Gome their way into perspective. They are able to keep their lives in perspective without

becoming too idealistic or too morose. They are survivors in the healthiest sense of the word.

They have a good sense of humor and are able to keep a balance of work and fun in their

lives.

♦ Look to the future with excitement, a sense of adventure and optimism. They

recognize their potential for success and visualize their success in the future. They have

dreams, aspirations and hopes for the future.

♦ Goal-oriented, with a sense of balance in working toward their goals. They

know from where they have come, where they are now and where they are going.
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People with low self-esteem:

♦ Consider themselves lost and unworthy of being cared for.

♦ Poor risk-takers and problem-solvers

♦ Operate out of a fear of rejection

♦ Typically unassertive in their behavior with others

♦ Fearful of conflict with others

♦ Hungry for the approval of others

♦ Fraught with irrational beliefs and have a tendency to think irrationally.

♦ Susceptible to all kinds of fears

♦ Have a tendency to become emotionally stuck and immobilized.

♦ Have a poor "track record" in school or on the job; conversely, they

sometimes overcompensate and become overachievers.

♦ Unable to affirm or to reinforce themselves positively

♦ Unable to make an honest assessment of their strengths, positive qualities

and good points; they find it difficult to accept compliments or recognition from others.

♦ Have poorly defined self-identities, with a tendency to act like chameleons

to fit in with others

♦ insecure, anxious and nervous when they are with others

♦ Often become overcome with anger about their status in life, and are likely to

experience chronic hostility or chronic depression.

♦ Easily overcome with despair and depression when they experience a

setback or loss in their lives.

♦ Have a tendency to overreact and become de-energized by resentment,

anger and the desire for revenge against those whom they believe have not fully accepted

them.

♦ Fulfill roles in their families of origin that are counterproductive and

maladaptive. These roles carry over into their adult lives.

♦ Vulnerable to mental-health problems and have a propensity to use

addictive behavior to medicate their hurt and pain. Such addictive behavior can encompass

alcohol, drugs, food, gambling, sex, shopping, smoking and/or workaholism--or the search
 77

for excitement, truth, wisdom, and/or a guru who can offer ah easy guide to achieving

happiness.

2.5.4 Physical fitness in terms of self-esteem

Mark, S.; Tremblay, J.; Wyatt Inman; and Douglas, J.W. (2000)'’8 describe that

physical fitness had a positive relation with self-esteem. One who has more physically active

had more physical fitness and considerably higher levels of self-esteem. It can be said that

physical activity directly related to enhance physical fitness and improve self-esteem.

Rick Nauert (2009)77 mentions that exercise help building self-esteem,

confidence and prevent depression. Evidence shows that exercise can improve physical

fitness i.e. maintains healthy blood sugar levels to prevent or control diabetes, protects

against osteoporosis, great tool for reducing stress, prevents heart disease, improve social

adjustment and physical health, and improve restful sleep. Therefore, daily exercise can build

the physical fitness and reduce depressive symptoms but improves self-esteem.

Robert D. Rice (2010)78 states that self-esteem is defined as the experience of

being capable of meeting life’s challenges and being worthy of happiness. Developing

healthy self-esteem is a critical component of any program aimed at self-improvement.

Exercise greatly enhances a person’s self-esteem and mental outlook while reducing stress.

It releases pent-up, nervous, energy that would otherwise fester within a person’s psyche.

Furthermore, the endorphins, chemicals released by the pituitary gland during vigorous

exercise, improve one’s mood. Regular exercise also decreases the risk of chronic health

conditions such as heart disease.

Carla Valencia (2010) explains that exercise is one of the best ways to improve

self- esteem because when the people do exercise they feel good about themselves.

Physical exercise is also excellent for the general health and social adjustment.

Zaak Self (2010)80 illustrates that physical fitness greatly enhances a person's

self-esteem and mental outlook while reducing stress. Self-esteem is a critical component of

any self-improvement. There is a close relationship between low self-esteem and such

problems as violence, alcoholism, drug abuse, eating disorders, school dropouts, teenage
 78

pregnancy, suicide, and low academic achievement but the physical fitness is close

relationship with high self-esteem. Maintaining some form of physical activity, beyond ones

every day cycle, helps reduce anxiety while building physical fitness. Regular exercise also

decreases the risk for chronic health conditions such as heart disease and cancer, and there

seems to be a connection between these illnesses and depression. It should never bother

someone to take the relatively minor steps necessary to improve their own health. Even

people who have not been active for many years can strengthen bones, muscle, heart and

lung capacity when they start and maintain a steady exercise. The goal is to increase activity

and as little as 20 minutes, three times per week can help to be good physical fitness and

high self-esteem.

From the discussion mentioned above, it can be summarized that self-esteem is a

confidence ability to think, to cope with the basic challenges of life, and confidence in the

right to be successful and happy. Positive self esteem is vital in development of a healthy

personality. High seif esteem people can surely be knocked down by an excess of troubles,

but they are quicker to pick themselves up again. To trust one’s mind and to know that one is

worthy of happiness is the essence of self-esteem. The increase of physical fitness is related

to the development of seif-esteem. Regular exercise can improve physical fitness and will

also improve self-esteem which leads to good shape and happy life. Physical fitness had a

positive relation with self-esteem. One who has more physically active had more physical

fitness and considerably higher levels of self-esteem. It can be said that physical activity

directly related to enhance physical fitness and lead to improve self-esteem. One who starts

building physical fitness is the right path to get healthy self-esteem.

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2.6 REVIEW OF THE PAST STUDIES

2.6.1 INTRODUCTION

In conducting of research, it is needed to study the connection of the work already

done, to attain an overall relevance and purpose. The review of literature thus becomes a link

between the research proposed and the past research studies because it tells the reader

about aspects that have been already established or concluded by other authors, and also

gives a chance to the reader to appreciate the evidence that has already been collected by

previous research, and thus projects the current research work in the proper perspective.
(V.Kumar. :2007)31

A large part of review of literature actually needs to be done even before the

research project is formalized. This is essential to make sure that you are not repeating the

work that someone has already done earlier. Sometimes, if the research has already been

undertaken earlier, then it provides an option of modifying the work by adding a new

perspective or altering someof the methods of research to obtain a perspective that will be

different from earlier works and thus more valuable. Occasionally, the work may be exact

repetition of the work done earlier, but with a different set of data or sources of facts, and

purpose of the research may just be seeing if the results are similar to earlier works or

otherwise.

A good researcher usually goes through a lot more literature than is actually

incorporated in the paper. This is because different literature may have differing relevance for

the current project and all of it may not worth reporting in the end, but in the initial phase,

when the researcher looking for all aspects of an issue that could be relevant one would like

to extensively explore the iterature and see if any relevant findings are already available.

Some of the literature reviewed is directly relevant and hence used as a preface to explain

the background of work. Then other reports may be relevant from the point of view of the

project as they provide some clues to the puzzle by suggesting a hypothesis, which may be

the subject matter of your research project.

Review of literature is also important to highlight difference in opinions,

contradictory findings or evidence, and the different explanations given for their conclusions
 80
and differences by different authors, in some cases, an analysis of these factors can help

one understand may facets of a complex issue and at other times, such analysis can lead to

a new possibility that can be researched upon in the current project. Thus review of literature

is a very important part of one's research and very important aspect of any research both for
Q2
planning the work as well as to show its relevance and significance. (V.Kumar)

2.6.2 Importance of the review of the related of literature

Before the researching, one must study a literature review which is needed for any

quality research endeavor. Research is defined as an endeavor that scholars “intentionally

set out to enhance the understanding of a phenomenon and expect to discover" (Leedy &
Ormrod. 2005: 4)83. Two critical considerations stem from this definition:

(a) Research must enhance the current understanding of a phenomenon, or

contribute to enhance the body of knowledge.

(b) Research must communicate what was discovered in the new study.

Knowing the current status of the body of knowledge in the given research field is an

essential first step for any research project.

An effective literature review accomplishes this step by:

(1) Helping the researcher to understand the existing body of knowledge

including where excess research exists (i.e. what is already know?) and where new research

is needed (i.e. what is needed to be known?).

(2) Providing a solid theoretical foundation for the proposed study (related to

“what is already known?”).

(3) Substantiating the presence of the research problem (related to “what is

needed to be known?”).

(4) Justifying the proposed study as one that contributes something new to

the body of knowledge.

(5) Framing the valid research methodologies, approach, goals, and research

questions for the proposed study.

The present chapter presented the review of past researches related to the

work effectiveness and the leadership behaviour.

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2.6.3 Past researches related to the physical fitness and physical fitness in terms
of achievement, adjustment and self-esteem
The researcher has reviewed 13 past studies related to the physical fitness and

physical fitness in terms of achievement, adjustment and self-esteem. The review of the

related literature has provided a thoughtful guideline in understanding the ,objectives of the

study, variables of the study, sample of the study, research design, tools used in the study,

analysis of data, and major findings. The reviews of past related studies are as follows:

STUDY 1: "Physical Activity, Physical Fitness, and All-Cause Mortality in Women”

(Blair, S.N., Kohl, H.W., Barlow, C.E.: 2001)34

Physical inactivity is associated with higher mortality rates in most studies in men,

but studies in women are more equivocal.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship of sedentary living

habits to all-cause mortality in women. A group of 3,120 adult women completed a preventive

medical examination, and were followed for approximately 8 years for mortality.

There were 43 deaths and a total of 25,433 person-years observed during follow­

up. Physical fitness was assessed at baseline by a maximal exercise test on a treadmill, and

physical activity was estimated by a self-administered questionnaire.

Results: Age-adjusted all-cause mortality rates were significantly inversely

associated with physical fitness. Death rates were 40,16, and 7 per 10,000 person-years of

follow-up across low, moderate, and high categories of physical fitness, respectively.

However, death rates did not differ across low, moderate, and high categories of physical

activity. These findings are different than for men in the same study, where both physical

activity and physical fitness were inversely associated with mortality risk. We attribute the lack

of association between physical activity and mortality in women to be due to inadequate

assessment of activity, and that this also is the likely explanation for the difference in results

between women and men in published studies of physical activity and mortality.

STUDY 2: "Physical Fitness and Physical Activity in Obese and Nonobese Flemish Youth"
(Benedicte D., Johan L., Use De B., Andrew P. H., William D. and Jacques B.: 2003)25

The purpose of this study was to assess different aspects of physical fitness and

physical activity in obese and non-obese Flemish youth.

 82
Research Methods and Procedures: A random sample of 3214 Flemish

schoolchildren was selected and divided into an “obese" and "non-obese" group based on

body mass index and sum of skin-folds. Physical fitness was assessed by the European

physical fitness test battery. Physical activity was estimated by a modified version of the

Baecke Questionnaire.

Results: Obese subjects had inferior performances on all tests requiring

propulsion or lifting of the body mass (standing-broad jump, sit-ups, bent-arm hang, speed

shuttle run, and endurance shuttle run) compared with their non-obese counterparts (p <

0.001). In contrast, the obese subjects showed greater strength on handgrip (p < 0.001).

Both groups had similar levels of leisure-time physical activity; however, non-obese boys had

a higher sport index than their obese counterparts (p < 0.05).

Results of this study shows that obese subjects had poorer performances on

weight-bearing tasks, but did not have lower scores on all fitness components. To encourage

adherence to physical activity in obese youth, it is important that activities are tailored to their

capabilities. Results suggest that weight-bearing activities should be limited at the start of an

intervention with obese participants and alternative activities that rely more on static strength

used.

STUDY 3: “Improving Physical Fitness and Emotional Well-Being in Adolescents of Low

Socioeconomic Status in Chile: Results of a School-Based Controlled Trial” (Marco

Bonhauser, Gonzalo F., Klaus P., Fernando Y., Joaquin M., Beti T. and Gloria C.^OOS)00

Regular physical activity is associated with a reduced risk of all-cause mortality,

and mortality due to cardiovascular disease and cancer. Among adolescents, physical

activity is associated with benefits in the prevention and control of emotional distress, and

improvement of self-esteem. Countries in transitional epidemiological scenarios, such as

Chile, need to develop effective strategies to improve physical activity as a way to face the

epidemic of chronic diseases.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of a school-based physical

activity program on physical fitness and mental health status of adolescents living in a low

socioeconomic status area in Santiago, Chile. A quasi-experimental design was used to

evaluate the effects of the program over one academic year. The study included 198
 33
students aged 15 years old. Two ninth grade classes were randomly selected as the

intervention group, with two classes of the same grade as controls. A social planning

approach was used to develop the intervention. The programme was designed and

implemented based on student preferences, teachers' expertise and local resources.

Changes in physiological and mental health status were assessed.

After the intervention, maximum oxygen capacity achieved a significant increase

of 8.5% in the intervention versus 1.8% in the control group (p < 0.0001). Speed and jump

performance scores improved significantly more in the intervention versus the control group

(p > 0.01). Anxiety score decreased 13.7% in the intervention group versus 2.8% in the

control group (p < 0.01), and self-esteem score increased 2.3% in the intervention group and

decreased 0.1% in the control group after the end of the programme (p < 0.0001). Mo

significant change was observed in the depressive score. Student participation and

compliance with the program was >80%.

To conclude, a school-based programme to improve physical activity in

adolescents of low socioeconomic status, obtained a high level of participation and achieved

significant benefits in terms of physical fitness and mental health status.

STUDY 4: “A Study of Physical Fitness and Academic Achievement” (James, B. Grissom:

2005)87

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relationship between physical

fitness and academic achievement. The study attempted to address some of the weaknesses

of earlier studies. For example, this study had valid and reliable measures,of both physical

fitness and academic achievement and a large sample size. However, the criticism that

correlation studies do not demonstrate causality is a weakness of the current study.

To do so, scores on the FITNESSGRAM, a physical fitness test, were

th
compared to reading and mathematics scores on the Stanford Achievement Test &
th th
edition, a standardized norm-referenced achievement test. Subjects were all 5 ,7 , and
th
9 grade California school children enrolled in public school in 2002 for whom there was

complete data on both the physical fitness and academic achievement tests. The sample

size was 884,715 students.

 84
The analysis had two parts. First, for each overall PFT score, which ranged from

zero to six, the average SAT/9 reading and mathematics scores were calculated in normal

curve equivalent (NCE) units. The NCE score is a normalized standard score with a mean of

50 and a standard deviation of 21. NCE scores range from 1 to 99. The average test score by

overall PFT score provides an indicator of the relationship between fitness and achievement.

Second, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the relationship between the overall

PFT score and achievement scores

Results indicate a consistent positive relationship between overall fitness and

academic achievement. That is, as overall fitness scores improved, mean achievement

scores also improved. This relationship between fitness and achievement appeared to be

stronger for females than males and stronger for higher socio-economic status (SES) than

lower SES students. Results should be interpreted with caution. It cannot be inferred from

these data that physical fitness causes academic achievement to improve. It is more likely

that physical and mental processes influence each other in ways that are still being,

understood.

STUDY 5: "Effect of Physical Education and Activity Levels on Academic Achievement in

Children” (Dawn, P. James, M. P., Christopher, J.W.: 2006)88

Purpose of this study was conducted to determine the effect of physical education

class enrollment and physical activity on academic achievement in middle school children.

Methods: Participants were 214 sixth-grade students randomly assigned to

physical education during either first or second semesters. Moderate and vigorous physical

activity (MVPA) (number of 30-min time blocks) outside of school was assessed using the 3-d

physical activity recall (3DPAR). The 3DPAR time blocks were converted to ordinal data with

scores of 1 (no activity), 2 (some activity), or 3 (activity meeting Healthy People 2010

guidelines).

Academic achievement was assessed using grades from four core academic

classes and standardized test scores (Terra Nova percentiles).

Results: Grades were similar regardless of whether students were enrolled in

physical education during first or second semesters. Physical education classes averaged

only 19 min of MVPA. Students who either performed some or met Healthy People 2010
 85
guidelines for vigorous activity had significantly higher grades (P G 0.05) than students

who performed no vigorous activity in both semesters. Moderate physical activity did not

affect grades. Standardized test scores were not significantly related to physical education

class enrollment or physical activity levels.

Conclusion: Although academic achievement was not significantly related to

physical education enrollment, higher grades were associated with vigorous physical activity,

particularly activity meeting recommended Healthy People 2010 levels.

A strength of the present study is that students were randomly assigned to first- or

second-semester physical education class enrollment without bias. In addition, it was able to

access semester grades and standardized test scores of all study participants. The possible

influence of socioeconomic status on the observed association between vigorous physical

activity and academic achievement cannot be ruled out. A limitation of this study was the lack

of data on socioeconomic status. This lack of information may lead to a misinterpretation of

the data in the observed relationship between physical activity and academic achievement. It

is possible that physical activity may be only a marker for greater levels of academic

achievement and may not be a causal factor. It is important to note that socioeconomic status

may be the major cause of academic performance (i.e., high socioeconomic status is

responsible for high grades), with physical activity level acting as a mediator in this

relationship.

STUDY 6: “An Experimental Study of Exercise and Physical Self-Esteem in Breast Cancer
Survivors" (Musanti, Rita.: 2007)89

Breast cancer survivors experience late physical and psychological effects of

treatment that diminish their fitness and self-esteem. Exercise improves physical fitness and

self-esteem. However, for breast cancer survivors the most beneficial type of exercise

program is unknown.

This study examined the effect of exercise type on physical fitness and physical

self-esteem. Aerobic exercise, resistance exercise and flexibility exercise were included.

Exercise theory states that certain types of exercise result in specific changes in physical

fitness. Physical self-esteem was studied because exercise is most related to this domain of

self-esteem. It consists of sub-domains of physical conditioning, physical strength and body

attractiveness. Different exercise affects different sub-domains. It was this type of change
 86
that was the focus of this study. The hypotheses tested were: (1) Aerobic (A) and

resistance (R) exercise would enhance the sub-domains of physical conditioning and

physical strength, respectively; and both would result in an increase of attractive body. (2)

A+R would lead to an increase in total physical self-esteem and global self-esteem greater

than the single modality exercise programs. Flexibility was the control.

Methods: Women were randomly assigned to one of four 12-week home-based

exercise programs: flexibility (F), aerobic (A), resistance (R), or aerobic plus resistance

(A+R). Measures of physical fitness and self-esteem were taken before and after the exercise

programme.
Results: 42 women completed the study (F=12, A=10, R= 9, A+R=11). A change

from pre to post study was seen in all sub-domains of physical self-esteem as hypothesized.

There were no differences between groups. All exercisers had a significant increase in

physical self-esteem over time (F = 8.62, p = .006). Resistance exercise predicted for

increases in abdominal strength and upper body strength. Resistance exercise combined

with a decrease in fat mass predicted for an increased sense of physical strength, physical

condition, and attractive body, and total physical self-esteem.

Conclusion: Participants increased their muscular strength and endurance, their

total physical self-esteem including the sub-domains of physical conditioning, physical

strength and attractive body.

STUDY 7: “A Study of Relationship between Physical fitness, Social Adjustment, and Self
an
Concepts of Thai Students" (Putthiwong Pramemas: 2007)

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between (1) physical

fitness and social adjustment, (2) physical fitness and self-concepts, and (3) social

adjustment and self-concepts of Thai students in tenth grade.

Research method: The subjects used in this study were tenth grade students in

Bangkok, enrolled in physical education classes during the academic year 2006.

The research instruments used were as follows: (1) the AAFIPER Youth Fitness

Test (to assess physical fitness), (2) the Cowell Social Adjustment indexes (teachers'

assessment of pupil’s social adjustment), (3) a sociometric questionnaire (peer status),

(4) the Twenty Statements Test (genera I self-concepts), and (5) a self appraisal check list

(self concepts of physical ability and aptitude .

 87
The test results were scored and organized by conversion to percentile scores .

For each test, the quartile division was calculated to provide a method of grouping the data

into convenient categories for subsequent analysis by the chi-square test. Individual chi

square tests were computed to test t he independence of different tests for similar

traits . If independence was indicated, each test was used individually in subsequent analysis

of the trait being measured. If the data indicated non- independence, those tests were

combined into a single index score for each trait.

Subsequent analyses were made to investigate the relationship between physical

fitness J social adjustment and self-concepts as assessed by the aforementioned tests.

Analysis by the chi square test was utilized to test the relationship of these traits. Where a

significant chi-square value resulted, the contingency coefficient was calculated to assess

the strength or degree of relationship.

Conclusions: Within the limits of this study, the following conclusions seemed

warranted :

(1) The Cowell Social Adjustment Indexes and the sociometric questionnaire were

significantly related.

(2) There was no significant relationship between the Twenty Statements Test as a

Measure of general self-concepts and a self appraisal check list representing specific

self-concepts of physical ability and aptitude .

(3) Social adjustment index s cores and the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test s cores

were significantly related.

(4) There was no significant relationship between general self -concepts as

measured by the Twenty Statements Test and physical fitness as measured by the AAFIPER

Youth Fitness Test.

(5) Self-concepts of physical ability and aptitude were significantly related to

physical fitness (AAFIPER Youth Fitness Test).

(6) There was a significant relationship between social adjustment and general

self- concepts.

(7) There was no significant relationship between social adjustment scores and

self-concepts of physical ability and aptitude.

 88
STUDY 8: “A Study of Relationship between Academic Achievement and Physical Fitness”
cm

(Martin, L.T., Gordon R. C.(2007)

Over the past 50 years research has typically demonstrated either no, ora weak

relationship between academic performance and physical performance. Nevertheless, the

fact that any positive relationship has been found has lead to the “healthy children leam

better” concept currently being promoted in schools, and used as a rationale to justify

physical education programs. The conclusions of previous studies have been based on the

statistical significance of the results, and have not incorporated the practical significance.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between academic

performance, as measured by scores on the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, and physical fitness,

as measured by performance on the President’s Challenge.

Subjects were 5847 Seattle School District students in grades three, five, six and

eight.

Results: The correlation between mean physical and academic percentile scores

was 0.19, p <.05. While statistically significant, this correlation indicated that only 3.6% of the

variance in academic performance could be explained by physical fitness. The low level

indicated that the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness is of little

practical importance. Accordingly, physical education programs should not be advocated as

a means to promote academic achievement in students.

STUDY 9: “A Study of Associations between Physical Activity, Fitness, and Academic

Achievement” (Welk, G.J.: 2009)92

The objectives of this study was to explore the associations between objectively

assessed intensity levels of physical activity and academic achievement and test whether

cardiovascular fitness mediates the association between physical activity and academic

achievement.

Research design: Cross-sectional data were gathered in Swedish 9th-grade

students (n = 232; mean age = 16 years; 52% girls). School grades, pubertal phase, skinfold

thickness, cardiovascular fitness, and physical activity were measured objectively. Mother's

education, family structure, and parental monitoring were self-reported. Data were aralyzed

with linear regression analyses.

 89
Results of the study: After controlling for confounding factors, academic

achievement was associated with vigorous physical activity in girls; explained variance of the

model 26%), which remained after inclusion of fitness; explained variance 29%). The

association was not mediated by fitness. In boys, academic achievement was associated

with pubertal phase. After inclusion of fitness, it was only associated with fitness; explained

variance of the model 30%).

Conclusion: In girls, academic achievement was associated with vigorous

physical activity and not mediated by fitness, whereas in boys only fitness was associated

with academic achievement. Further studies are necessary to investigate the potential

longitudinal effect of vigorous physical activity on academic achievement, the role of fitness

herein and the implications of these findings for schools.

STUDY 10: “A Study of Relationship between Physical Fitness and Academic

Achievement” (Virginia R.C., Meghan, M. S., Robert, J. M., Suzanne, E. M., Glen, F. D.,
Karen, A. H. (2009)93

The purpose of this study was to determine relationships between physical fitness

and academic achievement in diverse, urban public school children.

Method: This cross-sectional study used public school data from 2004 to 2005.

Academic achievement was assessed as a passing score on Massachusetts Comprehensive

Assessment System (MCAS) achievement tests in Mathematics (fourth, sixth, and eighth

grade, n = 1103) and in English (fourth and seventh grade, n = 744). Fitness achievement

was assessed as the number of physical fitness tests passed during physical education (PE).

Multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess the probability of passing

the MCAS tests, controlling for students' weight status (BMI z score), ethnicity, gender,

grade, and socioeconomic status (school lunch enrollment).

Results: The odds of passing both the MCAS Mathematics test and the MCAS

English test increased as the number of fitness tests passed increased (p < .0001 and p <

.05, respectively).

Conclusions: Results show statistically significant relationships between fitness

and academic achievement, though the direction of causation is not known. While more

research is required, promoting fitness by increasing opportunities for physical activity during

PE, recess, and out of school1 time may support academic achievement.
 90

STUDY 11: “Relationship between Physical Self-Concept and Physical Fitness in Italian
Adolescents” (Attilio Carrara: 2010)94

Physical self-concept exerts a central role in adolescence. In this phase of

life, individuals experience many physical, mental, and emotional changes, and sex

differences become evident.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between physical

self-concept and actual indicators of physical fitness among youth in early adolescence.

A total of 103 Italian boys and girls, ages 12 to 15 years (M = 13.2, SD = 0.7) were

studied. Physical self-concept was assessed using the Physical Self-Description

Questionnaire, EUROFIT tests were used to measure physical fitness, and BMI was

calculated based on height and weight measurements.

Results showed several significant correlations between the variables,

revealed some sex differences on physical self-concept and fitness, and indicated

significant correlations between EUROFIT scores and physical self-concept variables.

STUDY 12: “Effects of Ascetic Exercise on Health Related Physical Fitness in Female
Students of Sukhothai Business School” Amarin Phuangphae, Jakapong Khaothin, Ratree
Ruanthai:2010)“

The objective of this experimental research was to study the effects of ascetic
exercise on health related physical fitness in female students of Sukhothai Business School.
The subjects participated in the research were the students in diploma 2
majoring in Nursing Business, Sukhothai Business School, Dusit, Bangkok. The selection
criteria were 30 healthy female students at the age of 17-20 from the simple random sampling
method. The subjects were divided into 2 groups: the experimental group and the control
group. The experimental group practiced 15 positions of ascetic exercise according to the
Institute of Thai Traditional Medicine, Ministry of Health whereas the control group lived their
routine lives. The experimental group was required to practice each position 5-10 times and
to hold their muscles 5 minutes each time of practicing. The ascetic positions had to be
practiced continuously for 30 minutes, 3 times a week: Monday, Wednesday, Friday from
16:30-17:00. The exercise was practiced for 8 weeks. The experimented group was tested
before ascetic exercising on health related physical fitness and in the fourth week of the
experimentation. In the 8th week, effects of ascetic exercise on health related physical fitness

were analyzed.
 91
It was found that the average of body composition, flexibility, muscle strength
and endurance and cardiovascular endurance of the experimental group was statistically
different from the control group after the 4th week and 8th week. In conclusion, the ascetic

exercise has effects on health related physical fitness and is considered an option for healthy
exercise.

STUDY 13: “A Study of Relationship between Physical Fitness, Physical Activity, and Body

Mass Index of Adolescents” (Cruz, C., Sequeira, S., Gomes, H., Pinto, D., Marques, A.:
2011)86

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between physical fitness

(PF), physical activity (PA), and body mass index (BMI) among adolescents who attended

secondary school.

A total of 131 healthy students (49 boys, 82 girls) age 14 to 18 years (M=16±1)

participated in the study. PA was assessed by a questionnaire based on the practice of

organized and non-organized PA on a regular basis. PF level was determined by the Pacer

test and allowed to label the individuals as ‘not fit' or ‘fit1 according to the Fitnessgram. The

individuals were also profiled according to their fat levels as ‘not fat' or‘fat' also based on the

Fitnessgram.

Qui-square and t-test were performed to analyze the relationship between PF, PA,

and BMI. Boys and girls were analyzed separately.

Results: 66% of the boys and 38% of the girls were considered fit based on PF

test. Still the majority of students did not meet the recommended 1 h/day of MVPA. The

average time spent doing PA was 2.9±2.2 h/day for the boys and 1.8±1.5 h/day for the girls.

The difference in PA participation levels was significant between boys and girls (p=0.005).

Almost all students were considered fit based on BMI (84% boys, 79% girls) and no

differences were found between genders (p=0.531). Although the most active boys and girls

performed better on PF test, a relationship between PF and PA was not found (boys p=0.069,

gills p=0.079). For both genders, students with lower BMI had better results on the PF test,

however only for the boys the results were significant (p=0.009). Additionally, there was no

relationship between the practice of PA and BMI for boys (p=0.883) and girls (p=148). There

are no relationships between PF, PA and BMI. The only exception was observed for toe boys;

those with lower BMI had better results on the PF test

*******************
 QO

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