Design and Implementation of Three Phase Inverter Based On Microcontroller

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"Design And Implementation Of Three Phase Inverter Based On

Microcontroller"
Thesis · July 2013
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“Design And Implementation Of Three Phase Inverter Based On
Microcontroller”
(A Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science
(B.Sc.) in Electrical Engineering).
By Students:
Ahmed M‐Merza Amjed H‐Abdul Shaheed
Supervisors
Dr.Mahmoud Shaker Dr.Haider Mehdy
-i-

‫‪ Academic year 2012/2013‬‬
‫ﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ ﻭﺗﻧﻔﻳﺫ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﻛﺱ ﺃﻟﺛﻼﺛﻲ ﺃﻟﻁﻭﺭ ﺃﻟﻣﺑﻧﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻟﻣﺗﺣﻛﻡ ﺃﻟﺩﻗﻳﻖ"‬

‫ﻗﺪﻡ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺃﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻉ ﻷﺳﺘﻜﻤﺎﻝ ﺟﺰء ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺃﻟﺒﻜﺎﻟﻮﺭﻳﻮﺱ ﻓﻲ‬
‫ﺃﻟﻬﻨﺪﺳﺔ ﺃﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺃﻷﻟﻜﺘﺮﻭﻧﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺃﻋﺩﺍﺩ ﺃﻟﻁﻼﺏ‪:‬‬
‫ﺃﻣﺟﺩ ﺣﻣﻳﺩ ﻋﺑﺩ ﺃﻟﺷﻬﻳﺩ‬ ‫ﺃﺣﻣﺩ ﻣﺣﻣﺩ ﻣﺭﺯﺓ‬
‫ﺃﺷﺭﺍﻑ ﺃﻻﺳﺎﺗﺫﺓ‬
‫‪ ‬‬
‫ﺩ‪.‬ﺣﻳﺩﺭ ﻣﻬﺩﻱ‬ ‫‪ ‬ﺩ‪.‬ﻣﺣﻣﻭﺩ ﺷﺎﻛﺭ ﺃﻟﺷﻣﺭﻱ‬
‫‪ - ii -‬‬
‫‪ ‬‬
Copyright © 2013. All rights reserved, no part of this project may be
reproduced in any form, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy,
recording, scanning, or any information, without the permission in writing
from the author or the department of electrical engineering, university of
Babylon.
- iii -

Certificate
The project entitled:
Microcontroller”
Which is being submitted by:
AHMED MUHAMMAD MERZA
AMJED HAMEED ABDUL-SHAHEED
In the fulfillment of requirement for the award of the B.Sc. degree in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering. This has been carried out under my
supervision and accepted for presentation & examination.
Signature:
Dr. MAHMOUD SHAKER
Date:……… /……/.2013
The Supervisor…….
- iv -

CERTIFICATE
The project entitled:
Microcontroller”
Which is being submitted by:
AHMED MUHAMMAD MERZA
AMJED HAMEED ABDUL-SHAHEED
In the partial fulfillment of requirement for the award of the B.Sc. degree in
Electrical Engineering has been discussed by us and all the suggested
recommendations during the discussion are carried out.
1st Examiner ( The supervisor) 2nd Examiner (The co-supervisor)
Signature: Signature :
Name : Name:
Date: / / 2013 Date: / / 2013
3rd Examiner
Signature:
Name :
Date: / / 2013
4th Examiner
Signature:
Name :
Date: / / 2013
-v-

‫ﺑﺳﻡ ﷲ ﺍﻟﺭﺣﻣﻥ ﺍﻟﺭﺣﻳﻡ‬
‫‪‬ﷲ ُ‬
‫ﻧﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺳﻣﺎﻭﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻷﺭﺽ ﻣﺛ ﻝ ﻧ ﻭﺭﻩ ﻛﻣﺷ ﻛﻭﺓ‬
‫ﻓﻳﻬﺎ ﻣﺻﺑﺎﺡ ﺍﻟﻣﺻﺑﺎﺡ ﻓﻲ ﺯﺟﺎﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺯﺟﺎﺟ ﺔ َﻛﺄﻧﻬ ﺎ‬
‫َﻛ ّﻭ َﻛ ٌ‬
‫ﺏ ُﺩﺭ ﱞ‬
‫ﻱ ﻳﻭﻗ ﺩ ﻣ ﻥ ﺷ ﺟﺭﺓ ﻣﺑﺎﺭﻛ ﺔ ﺯﻳﺗﻭﻧ ﺔ ﻻ‬
‫ﺷ ﺭﻗﻳﺔ ﻭﻻ ﻏﺭﺑﻳ ﺔ ﻳَﻛ ﺎ ْﺩ ﺯﻳﺗﻬ ﺎ ﻳﺿ ﻲء ﻭﻟ ﻭ ﻟ ﻡ‬
‫ﻭﺭ ﻋﻠ ﻰ ﻧ ﻭﺭ ﻳﻬ ﺩﻱ ﷲ ﻟﻧ ﻭﺭﻩ ﻣ ﻥ‬
‫ﺗﻣﺳﺳ ﻪ ﻧ ﺎﺭ ﻧ ٌ‬
‫ﻳﺷﺎء ﻭﻳﺿﺭﺏ ﷲ ﺍﻷﻣﺛ ﺎﻝ ﻟﻠﻧ ﺎﺱ ﻭﷲ ﺑﻛ ﻝ ﺷ ﻲء‬
‫ﻋﻠﻳﻡ ‪‬‬
‫ﺻﺩﻕ ﷲ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻅﻳﻡ‬
‫ﺳﻭﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻧﻭﺭ ) ‪( 35‬‬
Abstract
This project is about three phase DC/AC inverter. Generally, inverter is used for high power
applications such as induction motor, air_ conditioner and ventilation fans. This project is to
control the sequence frequency of an induction motor using three phase DC/AC inverter
controller. Three phase inverter can be formed by three single phase inverters which are
connected parallel. The gating signals of single phase inverters should be advanced or delayed by
120 degree with respect to each other to obtain three phase balanced voltages. A three phase out
put can be obtained from a configuration of six-MOSFET. In our project, we used a
MICROCONTROLLER to control the gate signal.
Also, we used the technique of PWM for the purpose of control the magnitude of the output
voltage , the frequency of the output (at need), magnitude and frequency together, as a result, we
control the speed of the motor for variable loads.
Today, most industrial applications and factories begin to use (induction motor) instead of
(DC motor) for some advantages ,from which, the induction motor is:
1. Rigid construction.
2. It has little maintenance.
3. From the point of cost , it is available.
4.Very easy to starting operation.
All these features made us to use (THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR) in our project.

‫‪ ‬ﺃﻟﺧﻼﺻﺔ‬
‫ﺃﻟﺧﻼﺻﺔ‬
‫ﻳﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺃﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻉ ﺗﺼﻤﻴﻢ ﻭﺗﻨﻔﻴﺬ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﻛﺲ ﺃﻟﺜﻼﺛﻲ ﺃﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﺃﻟﻤﺒﻨﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻟﻤﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺃﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ‪ .‬ﺑﺼﻮﺭﺓ ﻋﺎﻣﺔ ﻳﺴﺘﺨﺪﻡ‬
‫ﺃﻟﻌﺎﻛﺲ ﺃﻟﺜﻼﺛﻲ ﺃﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻓﻲ ﻛﺜﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺃﻟﺘﻄﺒﻴﻘﺎﺕ ﻭﺃﻟﻤﺠﺎﻻﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺣﻴﺎﺗﻨﺎ ﺃﻟﻴﻮﻣﻴﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ )ﺃﻟﺘﺴﺨﻴﻦ ﺃﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﻱ ‪،‬ﻣﺼﺎﺩﺭ ﺃﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺃﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ‪،‬ﺃﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻟﻤﺤﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﺃﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺑﻤﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﺃﻟﺴﺮﻉ ( ﺃﻟﺦ‪...‬‬
‫ﺗﻜﻤﻦ ﺃﻫﻤﻴﺔ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﻛﺲ ﺃﻟﺜﻼﺛﻲ ﺃﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺮﻋﺔ ﺃﻟﻤﺤﺮﻛﺎﺕ ﺃﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺗﻐﻴﺮ ﺃﻷﺣﻤﺎﻝ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﻛﺲ ﺃﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺑﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺃﻟﻘﺪﺭﺓ ﺃﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺃﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻰ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﻨﺎﻭﺑﺔ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺃﻟﺘﻴﺎﺭ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺃﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ ﻭﺃﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺃﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺏ‪ .‬ﻭﺃﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﺣﻞ ﺃﻟﻤﺤﺮﻙ ﺃﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺃﻟﻤﺘﻨﺎﻭﺏ ﺃﻟﺜﻼﺛﻲ ﺃﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻜﺎﻥ ﺃﻟﻤﺤﺮﻙ ﺃﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺃﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺮ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺃﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﻟﺴﻬﻮﻟﺔ ﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻪ ﻭ ﻗﻮﺗﻪ ﻭﻗﻠﺔ ﺣﺎﺟﺘﻪ ﻟﻠﺼﻴﺎﻧﺔ ﻭﻏﻴﺮﻫﺎ‪.‬‬
‫ﻳﺘﺮﻛﺐ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﻛﺲ ﺃﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻲ ﺃﻟﺜﻼﺛﻲ ﺃﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻣﻦ ﺛﻼﺛﺔ ﻋﺎﻛﺴﺎﺕ ﻛﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻧﺼﻔﻴﺔ ﻣﺮﺑﻮﻁﺔ ﻣﻊ ﺑﻌﻀﻬﺎ ﺃﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﺃﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻱ ﻭﺗﺘﻢ ﺃﻟﺴﻴﻄﺮﺓ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺃﻟﻤﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺃﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ ‪،‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﺃﻟﻤﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﺃﻟﺪﻗﻴﻖ ﺑﺘﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺃﻷﺷﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﺃﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺃﻟﻼﺯﻣﺔ‬
‫ﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﺃﻟﻤﻔﺎﺗﻴﺢ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻌﺎﻗﺐ ﻟﺘﻮﻟﻴﺪ ﺃﻟﻔﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺃﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴﺔ ﺃﻟﻄﻮﺭ ﻭﺑﺰﺍﻭﻳﺔ ﻓﺮﻕ ﻁﻮﺭ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭﻫﺎ ‪120‬ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻁﻮﺭ ﻭﺃﺧﺮ‪.‬‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺃﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻉ‪ ،‬ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺃﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﺛﺎﺑﺖ )ﺃﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ ﺃﻟﻤﺮﺑﻌﺔ( ‪،‬ﻭﻓﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﺛﺎﺑﺘﺔ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ‬
‫ﻭﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺃﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ ﻁﺮﻳﻖ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺯﻣﻦ ﺃﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ ﻭﺯﻣﻦ ﺃﻷﻁﻔﺎء ﻟﻠﻤﻔﺎﺗﻴﺢ‪ .‬ﻛﺬﻟﻚ ﻳﻤﻜﻨﻨﺎ ﺃﻟﺤﺼﻮﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ‬
‫ﻓﻮﻟﺘﻴﺔ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮﺓ ﻭﺗﺮﺩﺩ ﻣﺘﻐﻴﺮ ‪ .‬ﺗﺘﻢ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﺃﻟﺘﺮﺩﺩ ﺑﺄﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺔ )ﺗﻀﻤﻴﻦ ﻋﺮﺽ ﺃﻟﻤﻮﺟﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫ﻭﻳﺘﻨﺎﻭﻝ ﺃﻟﻤﺸﺮﻭﻉ ﺳﺘﺔ ﻓﺼﻮﻝ ﺗﺘﻀﻤﻦ ﺷﺮﺡ ﺗﻔﺼﻴﻠﻲ ﻭﻭﺍﻓﻲ ﻟﻬﺬﺍ ﺃﻟﻌﻤﻞ‪.‬‬
Contents:

Chapter one : Switches Used by Inverters (1)

1.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) (1)
1.2 Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) (6)
1.3 Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) (9)
Chapter two : DC/AC converter (Inverter) (12)
2.1 Introduction (12)
2.2 Applications of inverters
2.3 Types of Inverters (12)
2.4 Principles of operation (15)
2.5 Voltage and Frequency control technique (24)
2.6 Evaluation of an Inverter (29)
Chapter three: Overall System Components (31)
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Control cct. (µc) (32)
3.3 Isolation cct. (Optocoupler) (36)
3.4 Three Phase Induction Motor (38)
Chapter four : Practical Design and Implementation (43)
4.1 Power cct. (Inverter cct)
4.2 Control (µc) [Hardware, software]
4.3 Control Strategy

Chapter Five: Results
Chapter Six: Conclusion and Future Work

Chapter one switches used by inverters
CHAPTER ONE
SWITCHES USED BY INVERTERS
The devices used in inverters are turn on and turn off devices like , BJT , FET,
IGBT , MOSFET ,….etc.
The type of switch used depend on the application. And we will have some of these
switches as below:
1.1The Bipolar Junction Transistor( BJT)
A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed

of doped semi conductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching
applications. Bipolar transistors are so named because their operation involves
both electrons and holes.
Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a

junction between two regions of different charge concentrations. This mode of operation
is contrasted with unipolar transistors. By design, most of the BJT collector current is
due to the flow of charges injected from a high-concentration emitter into the base
where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the collector, and so BJTs are
classified as minority-carrier devices. There are two types of BJT transistor, NPN and
PNP, the symbols of which are shown in figure (1).
-1-

Figure (1) Schematic symbols for PNP‐ and NPN‐type BJTs.

Transistor 'alpha' and 'beta'

The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and reach the collector is a
measure of the BJT efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping
of the base region causes many more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the
base than holes to be injected from the base into the emitter. The common-
emitter current gain is represented by βF or hFE; it is approximately the ratio of the DC
collector current to the DC base current in forward-active region. It is typically greater
than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-
power applications. Another important parameter is the common-base current gain, αF.
The common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to
collector in the forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity;
between 0.98 and 0.998. Alpha and beta are more precisely related by the following
identities (NPN transistor):
-2-

The output Characteristics

This is the most important characteristics for the power transistor when used in power
electronics converters. It is the relationship between the collector current Ic and
collector-emitter voltage VCE at a certain value of IB.(see figure 2). It is clear that the
base current controls the collector current.
Figure (2) Output characteristics of BJT‐NPN transistor.

Regions of Operation
Referring to figure (2), bipolar transistors have three important distinct regions of
operation, defined by BJT junction biases, namely:
 Cut-off region: This is the case where the transistor is essentially inactive.

In cutoff, the following behavior is noted:
* IB = 0 (no base current)

* Ic = 0 (no collector current)
* VBE < 0.7V(emitter-base junction is not forward biased)
-3-

 In cutoff, the transistor appears as an open circuit between the collector and
emitter terminals. In the circuit above, t Saturation Region: This is where the
base current has increased well beyond the point that the emitter-base junction is
forward biased. In fact, the base current has increased beyond the point where it
can cause the collector current flow to increase. In saturation, the transistor
appears as a near short circuit between the collector and emitter terminals.
In saturation, the following behavior is noted:
* VCE <= 0.2V. This is known as the saturation voltage, or VCE(sat)
* IB = maximum allowable value ( according to its specification).
* VBE >= 0.7V
Using the two states of cutoff and saturation, the transistor may be used as a
switch. The collector and emitter form the switch terminals and the base is the
switch handle. In other words, the small base current can be made to control a
much larger current between the collector and emitter.
 Active Region: In this region the transistor can act as a fairly linear ampliﬁer. In
this region, we see that:
* 0.2 < VCE < Vcc ; where Vcc is the supply voltage
* IB > 0 and Ic > 0
* VBE >= 0.7V
Thus the transistor is on and the collector to emitter voltage is somewhere between the
cutoff and saturated states. In this state, the transistor is able to amplify small variations
in the voltage present on the base. The output is extracted at the collector. In the forward
active state, the collector current is proportional to the base current by a constant
multiplier called “beta”, denoted by the symbol β. Thus in the forward active region we
will also observe that:
Ic = β * Ib
-4-

The transistor as a switch

To illustrate this, the simplest way to use an NPN bipolar transistor as a switch is
to insert the load between the positive supply and its collector, with the emitter
terminal grounded (as shown in Figure 3). Applying no voltage at the base of the
transistor will put it in the cut-off region, preventing current from flowing through it
and through the load, which is a resistor in this example. In this state, the load is 'off'.
Applying enough voltage at the base of the transistor will cause it to saturate and
become fully conductive, effectively pulling the collector of the transistor to near
ground. This causes a collector-to-emitter current to flow through the load that's
limited only by the impedance of the load. In this state, the load is 'on'.
One limitation of this simple design is that the switch-off time of the transistor is
slower than its switch-on time if the load is a resistor. This is because of the stray
capacitance across the collector of the transistor and ground, which needs to charge
through the load resistor during switch-off. On the other hand, this stray capacitance
is easily discharged to ground by the large collector current flow when the transistor
is switched on. There are, of course, other better designs for using the bipolar
transistor as a switch.
Figure (3) A simple switch of NPN transistor.
-5-

The transistor can be damaged if ,
(1) a large positive voltage is applied across the CE junction (breakdown

region), or
(2) product of iC VCE exceed power handling of the transistor, or
(3) a large reverse voltage is applied between any two terminals.
1.2. Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

MOSFETs come in four different types. They may
be enhancement or depletion mode, and they may be n-channel or p-channel. The
symbol of each is shown in figure (4 ). It has three terminals : D (drain), S (source), and
G (gate). The gate of a MOSFET is isolated electrically from the source by a layer of
silicon oxide. The gate draws only a minute leakage current on the order of
nanoamperes. Hence, the gate drive circuit is simple and power loss in the gate control
circuit is practically negligible.
Figure (4) Symbols of a MOSFET.
-6-

I-V characteristics (Output characteristics)

It is the relationship between iD and VDS in many VGS conditions. (Refer to Figure (5).
It is divided into the ohmic region, the saturation (=active) region, and the cut-off
region.
Ohmic region: A constant resistance region. If the drain-to-source voltage is zero,

the drain current also becomes zero regardless of gate–to-source voltage. This region is
at the left side of the VGS – VGS(th) = VDS boundary line (VGS – VGS(th ) >VDS > 0).
Saturation region: A constant current region. It is at the right side of the VGS –
VGS(th ) = VDS boundary line. Here, the drain current differs by the gate–to source
voltage, and not by the drain-to-source voltage. Hence, the drain current is called
saturated.
Cut-off region: It is called the cut-off region, because the gate-to-source voltage is
lower than the VGS(th) (threshold voltage).
A power MOSFET is a unipolar, majority carrier, "zero junction". Voltage-controlled

device.
If the gate voltage is positive and beyond a threshold value (VGTH). An N-type
conducting channel will be inducted that will permit current flow by majority carrier
(electrons) between the drain and the source. Although the gate impedance is extremely
high at steady state. The effective gate-source capacitance will demand a pulse current
during turn-on and turn-off. The device has asymmetric voltage-blocking capability.
And had an integral body diode. as shown. Which can carry full current in the reserve
direction. The diode is characteristics by slow recovery and is often by assed a external
fast-recovery diode in high frequency application.
The V-I characteristics of the device have two distinct regions. A constant resistance
(RDS(on) ) region and constant current region. The RDS(ON) of MOSFET is an important
parameter which determines the conduction drop of the device. For a high voltage
2.5
MOSFET . The longer conduction channel makes this drop large (RDS(ON) α V ). it is
interesting to note that modern trench gate technology tends to lower the conduction
resistance. The positive temperature coefficient of this resistance makes parallel
-7-

operation of MOSFET easy. In fact, large MOSFETS are fabricated by parallel

connection of many devices.

Figure (5) MOSFET Output characteristics
Advantages of a MOSFET
1. High input impedance - voltage controlled device - easy to drive .To maintain
the on-state, a base drive current which is 1/5th or 1/10th of collector current is
required for the current controlled device (BJT). And also a larger reverse base
drive current is needed for the high speed turn-off of the current controlled
device (BJT). Due to these characteristics base drive circuit design becomes
complicated and expensive. On the other hand, a voltage controlled MOSFET is
a switching device which is driven by a channel at the semiconductor’s surface
due to the field effect produced by the voltage applied to the gate electrode,
which is isolated from the semiconductor surface. As the required gate current
during switching transient as well as the on and off states is small, the drive
circuit design is simple and less expensive.
2. Unipolar device - majority carrier device - fast switching speed. As there are no
delays due to storage and recombination of the minority carrier, as in the BJT,
-8-

the switching speed is faster than the BJT by orders of magnitude. Hence, it has
an advantage in a high frequency operation circuit where switching power loss is
prevalent.
3. Forward voltage drop with positive temperature coefficient - easy to use in

parallel. When the temperature increases, the forward voltage drop also
increases. This causes the current to flow equally through each device when they
are in parallel. Hence, the MOSFET is easier to use in parallel than the BJT,
which has a forward voltage drop with negative temperature coefficient .
Disadvantage
In high breakdown voltage devices over 200V, the conduction loss of a MOSFET is
larger than that of a BJT, which has the same voltage and current rating due to the on-
state voltage drop.
1.3 IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor )

The insulated gate bipolar transistor or IGBT is a three-terminal power semiconductor
device, noted for high efficiency and fast switching. It switches electric power in many
modern appliances: electric cars, trains, variable speed refrigerators, air-conditioners
and even stereo systems with switching amplifiers.
In order to combine the low forward voltage drop of the power BJT and the high input
impedance of the power MOSFET, the IGBT is invented as a new power device.
The structure of the IGBT is the combination of the P+ layer added to the MOSFET
structure. As such, IGBT is easier to drive, and it combines the advantages of
MOSFET’s faster switching speed and power BJT’s lower conduction loss. IGBT is a
useful device in that it overcomes the shortfall of MOSFET in that it is not suitable for
high voltage, high current applications due to its high conduction loss, while IGBT has
the advantage over power BJT, which has limitations in high frequency applications due
to its switching speed.
Symbol and V-I characteristics of an IGBT is shown in figure (6). Referring to its
characteristics The IGBT has the high input impedance and high-speed characteristics
-9-

of a MOSFET with the conductivity characteristic (low saturation voltage) of a bipolar

transistor. The IGBT is turned on by applying a positive voltage between the gate and
emitter and, as in the MOSFET, it is turned off by making the gate signal zero or
slightly negative. The IGBT has a much lower voltage drop than a MOSFET of similar
ratings.
Figure (6) Symbol and characteristics of an IGBT.
- 10 -

Chapter Two DC/AC converter(inverter)
CHAPTER TWO
DC/AC CONVERTER (INVERTER)
2.1Introduction
Inversion is the conversion of dc power to ac power at a desired output voltage or current
and frequency. A static inverter circuit performs this transformation.
So a converter which converts a DC power to a desired voltage and frequency AC power of is
known as "INVERTER".
The devices used in inverter circuits are turn-off and turn-on devices like BJTs, MOSFETs,
IGBTs, MCTs, SITs, GTOs, and forced commutated thyristors depending on applications.
2.2Applications of inverters:
 Variable speed AC motors drives.
 Induction heating.
 Standby Power Supply.
 UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply).
The input of an inverter may be rectifier output, battery, fuel cell, solar cell, or other dc
supply.
2.3 Types of inverters
There are two types of inverter from the point of view of number of phases, there are two
types:
1. Single phase .
2. Three phase inverters.
If we like to classified the inverter circuits from the point of view of the type of the input
source, there are mainly two types:
- 12 -

a. Current Source Inverter (CSI).
A current-fed inverter (or current source inverter) is one in which the source, hence
the load current is predetermined and the load impedance determines the output
voltage. The supply current cannot change quickly. This is achieved by series dc
supply inductance which prevents sudden changes in current. The load current
magnitude is controlled by varying the input dc voltage to the large inductance, hence
inverter response to load changes is slow. Being a current source, the inverter can
survive an output short circuit thereby offering fault ride-through properties.
For current-source inverters (CSIs), where the independently controlled ac output is a
current waveform. These structures are still widely used in medium-voltage industrial
applications, where high-quality voltage waveforms are required.
Figure (1) shows a typical CSI circuit.
Figure (1) CSI circuit
- 13 -

a. Voltage Source Inverter (VSI).
A Voltage Source Inverter (or voltage-fed inverter) is one in which the dc input voltage is
essentially constant and independent of the load current drawn (see figure 2). The inverter
specifies the load voltage while the drawn current shape is dictated by the load. Voltage
control may be required to maintain a fixed output voltage when the dc input voltage
regulation is poor, or to control power to a load. The inverter and its output can be single-
phase, three-phase or multi-phase. Variable output frequency may be required for ac motor
speed control where, in conjunction with voltage or current control, constant motor flux can
be maintained.
Inverter output waveforms are usually rectangular in nature and as such contain harmonics
which may lead to reduced load efficiency and performance. Load harmonic reduction can be
achieved by either filtering, selected harmonic reduction chopping or pulse-width
modulation.
Figure (2) Single phase Voltage Fed Inverter.
* The function of an inverter is to change a DC input voltage to a AC output voltage of

desired frequency and magnitude. In case of 3-phase inverter, the inverter circuit changes a
DC input voltage to a symmetrical AC output voltage of desired magnitude and frequency.
Output voltage could be fixed or variable at a fixed or variable frequency. Variable output
voltages are obtained by varying the input DC voltage with maintaining the gain of the
inverter constant. Meanwhile, if the DC input voltage fixed and not controllable, variable
output voltage can be obtained by varying the frequency of the inverter which is usually
done by implementing PWM control within the inverter. The output voltage of an inverter
has a periodic waveform which is not purely sinusoidal, but with number of techniques it can
be designed to closely approximate to this desired waveform. Inverter can be built with any
- 14 -

number of output phases. Practically, single-phase and three-phase inverters are most
commonly used. It depends on the user requirement whether in the industrial applications,
transportations and home appliances. In most circumstances, three-phase inverter offered
better performances as compared to single-phase inverter.
2.4. Principle of Operation of inverter
2.4.1Operation of half bridge
The principle of single-phase inverter can be explained with figure (3). The inverter the
instantaneous voltage across the load Vo is Vs/2. If transistor Q2 only is turned on for a time
To/2, -Vo/2 appears across the load. The logic circuit should be designed such that Q1 an Q2
are not turned at the same time. Figure (3-b) shows the waveforms for the output voltage and
transistor currents with a resistive load. This inverter requires a three wire dc source, and
when a transistor is off, its reverse voltage is Vs instead of Vs/2. This inverter is known as a
half-bridge inverter.Q1 or Q2 can be replaced by MOSFET that we used in our project.
Figure (3) Single phase half bridge
- 15 -

The rms output voltage can be found from
/
𝑉𝑜 𝑑𝑡 ………. (2-1)
The instantaneous output voltage can be expressed in Fourier series as
𝑣𝑜 ∑∞ , , ,… sin 𝑛𝑤𝑡 ……………. (2-2)
= 0 for n = 2, 4, 6, ……
Where w = 2πfo is the frequency of the output voltage in rad/sec. For n=1, equation (2-1)
gives the rms value of fundamental component as
𝑉1 0.45 𝑉𝑠 …………………… (2-3)

√
Foe an inductive load, the load current cannot change immediately with the output voltage. If
Q1 is turned off at t=To/2, the load current would continue to flow through D2, load, and the
lower half of the dc source until the current falls to zero.
Similarly, when Q2 is turned off at t=To, the current flows through D1, load, and the upper
half of the dc source. When D1 or D2 conducts, energy is fed back to the dc source and these
diodes are known as feedback diodes. Figure (3-c) shows the load current and conduction
intervals of the devices for a purely inductive load. It can be noticed that for a pure inductive
load, a transistor conducts only To/2 (or 90o). Depending on the load power factor, the
conduction period of a transistor can be varied from 90o to 180o.
In practice, even the transistors require a certain turn-on and turn-off time. For success
operation it is necessary to take this into account when design the switching signal of Q1 and
Q2, otherwise a short circuit condition will result through the two transistors.
- 16 -

For R-L load, the instantaneous load current io can be found from
𝑖 ∑ , , ,.. sin 𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝜃 ………… (2-4)
Where 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 . If I01 is the rms fundamental load current, the fundamental output
power ( for n=1) is
P01 = V1 Io1 cos 𝜃 = I2o1 R
= 𝑅 ………………….( 2-5)
√
Note : In most applications (e.g. electrical motor drives) the output power due to the
fundamental current is generally the useful power, and the power due harmonic currents is
dissipated as heat and increases the load temperature.
2.4.2 Three Phase Inverter
Single phase inverter covers low range power applications. Meanwhile, 3-phase
inverters are usually used for a high-power application. The 3-phase inverters generally are
used for supplying 3-phase load especially in AC motor drives and uninterruptible AC power
supplies. A 3-phase output can be obtained from a configuration of six transistors as shown in
Figure 2.1. The transistors are numbered in the sequence of gating transistor (
123, 234, 345, 456,561,612….) and each of the transistors conducts for 180º. In order to
avoid undefined states in the VSI, and undefined AC output line voltages, switches between
upper leg and lower leg of the inverter cannot be switched off simultaneously as this will
result in voltages that will depend upon respective line current polarity. In addition, it is also
would result in a short circuit across the DC link voltage supply which will damage the
inverter system if the switches is switching on simultaneously. There are six modes of
- 17 -

operating the switches ,where in a cycle the phase shift of each mode is 60º. In order to
generate a desired voltage waveform, the transistor condition moves from one states to
another. The gating signals shown in Figure (4) are shifted from each other by 60º to obtain
3-phase balanced (fundamental) voltages as shown in Figure 4(a). The load can be connected
in wye or delta connection. The line current is determined when the phase current are known.
For a wye connected load, the line to neutral voltages must be determined to find the phase
current.
Three single half bridge are connected together to form three phase inverter as shown below:
Q1 Q3 Q5
Vs B
Q4 Q6 Q2 C
(a) Full bridge 3-phase inverter
- 18 -

(b)waveforms
Figure 4:Three phase inverter
The load may be connected in STAR or DELTA as shown in figure (5). For a delta
connection load, the phase currents can be obtained directly from line to line voltages. Once
the phase currents are known, the line currents are determined.
For STAR connected load, the line-to-neutral voltages must determined to fined the line (or
phase) currents. There are three modes of operation in a half-cycle and the equivalent circuits
are shown in figure (6-a) for STAR connected load.
- 19 -

Figure (5) DELTA/STAR connection load
2.4.3 Modes of operation

There are three modes of operation in half cycles ,and the equivalent circuits are shown
*During mode (1) for 0 ≤ wt ≤ π/3
(a)
Req = R + R/2,
i1= Vs/Req = 2 Vs / 3R,
Van = R i1/2 = Vs/3 = Vcn
Vbn = - i1 R = - 2 Vs/3
- 20 -

*During mode (2) for π/3 ≤ wt ≤ 2π/3
Req = R + R/2,
i1= Vs/Req = 2 Vs / 3R,
Vbn = - R i1/2 = -Vs/3 = Vcn
Van = i1 R = 2 Vs/3
(b)
*During mode (3) for 2π/3 ≤ wt ≤ π
Req = R + R/2,
i1= Vs/Req = 2 Vs / 3R,
Van = R i1/2 = Vs/3 = Vbn
Vcn = - i1 R = - 2 Vs/3
(c)
Figure(6):equivalent ccts. For modes
- 21 -

Figure(7):output voltage of 3-phase inverter
The instantaneous line-to-line voltage Vab shown in figure (7) can be expressed in Fourier
series, recognizing that Vab is shifted by π/6 and the even harmonics are zero.
𝒏
𝟒𝑽𝒔 𝒏𝝅 𝝅
𝑽𝒂𝒃 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 𝒘𝒕 … … … 𝟐. 𝟔
𝒏𝝅 𝟔 𝟔
𝒏 𝟏,𝟑,𝟓,…
and
𝒏
𝟒𝑽𝒔 𝒏𝝅 𝝅
𝑽𝒃𝒄 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 𝒘𝒕
𝒏𝝅 𝟔 𝟐
𝒏 𝟏,𝟑,𝟓,…
𝒏
𝟒𝑽𝒔 𝒏𝝅 𝟕𝝅
𝑽𝒄𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 𝒘𝒕
𝒏𝝅 𝟔 𝟔
𝒏 𝟏,𝟑,𝟓,…
We can notice from the above equations that the triplen harmonics (n=3, 9, 15, ..) would be
zero in the line-to-line voltages.
- 22 -

The line-to-line rms voltage can be found from,
𝟏 𝟐𝝅/𝟑 𝟐 𝟏/𝟐 𝟐
𝑽𝑳 𝟎
𝑽𝒔 𝒅 𝒘𝒕 𝑽𝒔 𝟎. 𝟖𝟏𝟔𝟓 𝑽𝒔
𝝅 𝟑
The rms of nth component of the line voltage is,
𝟒𝑽𝒔 𝒏𝝅
𝑽𝑳𝒏 𝐜𝐨𝐬
√𝟐 𝒏𝝅 𝟔
Which for n=1 gives the fundamental line voltage,
𝟒𝑽𝒔 𝝅
𝑽𝑳𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟗𝟕 𝑽𝒔
√𝟐 𝝅 𝟔
The rms value of the line-to-neutral voltages can be found from the line voltages
Vph= VL/√3 = 0.8165 Vs /√3 = 0.4714 Vs
With resistive loads, the diodes across the transistors have no functions.
If the load is inductive, the current in each arm of the inverter would be delayed to its voltage
as shown in figure (8). When the transistor Q4 is off, the only path for the negative line
current ia is through D1. And When Q1 is off at To/2 the path for the positive current through
D4.
For a STAR connected load, the phase voltage is Van = Vab/√3 with a delay angle of 30o.
Using equation (2.6), the line current io for an RL load is given by
𝒏
𝟒𝑽𝒔 𝒏𝝅
𝒊𝒐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏𝒘𝒕 𝜽𝒏 … … … 𝟐. 𝟕
𝑹𝟐 𝒏𝒘𝑳 𝟐 𝟔
𝒏 𝟏,𝟑,𝟓,… √𝟑𝒏𝝅
𝟏 𝒏𝒘𝑳
Where 𝜽𝒏 𝒕𝒂𝒏
𝑹
- 23 -

Figure (8) Three phase inverter with R-L load.
2.5Voltage and Frequency Control Technique
Application control of output voltage of inverters is necessary to cope with the

variation of DC input voltage and to regulate voltage of inverters. Furthermore, it satisfies
the constant volts and frequency control requirements. Controlling an inverter output to meet
operational requirements can be done by a number of techniques. However, it is all depends
on the available hardware and the nature of the DC source. Normally, the inverter output
voltage and frequency are controlled continuously. For applications of motor drives, the
range of voltage and frequency is wide. The voltage and frequency control requirement
depends on the motor load variations. Meanwhile, inverter frequency control is very
straightforward. The control command can be generated either from an analogue-digital
circuit, microprocessor, microcontroller, digital signal processor or FPGA to supply the gate
signal for driving the switches of the converter. Generally, inverter output voltage is
controlled by inverter’s supply voltage or by the PWM voltage control.
Common desirable arrangement permits varying the ratio of the DC input voltage
and the AC output voltage using PWM. The quality of the inverter operation can be
improved by implementing the PWM which deals with the control schemes. The
implementation of multiple switching within the inverter makes it possible to control and
optimize the harmonic content of output voltages. There are many kind of PWM technique
available for a 3-phase inverter.
The VSI have been used widely for low and medium rating of motor drives. The controlled
variables are the amplitude and frequency of the fundamental output voltage in VSI. The
PWM schemes for VSI are used for either the output voltage or output current control.
- 24 -

Classification of the PWM schemes broadly on the basis of voltage control or current control
techniques makes it becomes the control schemes for the VSI.
The commonly used techniques are:

a. Single Pulse Width Modulation.
b. Multiple Pulse Width Modulation.
c. Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation.
d. Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation.
e. Pulse Displacement Control.
We will choose the two most commonly used and important techniques ,they are:
2.5.1 Multiple Pulse Width Modulation.
The harmonic contents can be reduced by using several pulses in each half cycle of output
voltage. The generation of gating signals (in figure 9-b) for turning on and off of transistor is
shown in figure (9-a) by comparing a reference signal with a triangular carrier wave. The gate
signals are shown in figure (9-b). The frequency of reference signal sets the output frequency
fo and the carrier frequency fc determines the number of pulses per half cycle (p). The
modulation index controls the output voltage. This type of modulation is also known as
uniform pulse width modulation (UPWM). The number of pulses per half cycle is found from
P = fc / (2 fo) = mf/2
Where mf = fc / fr is defined as the frequency modulation ratio.

The instantaneous output voltage is vo = Vs (g1 - g4). The output voltage for single phase
bridge inverters is shown in figure (12-c) for UPWM.
If δ is the width of each pulse (on-state), the rms output voltage can be found from,
𝝅
𝒑 𝜹 /𝟐 𝒑𝜹
𝒑
𝑽𝒐 𝝅 𝑽𝟐𝒔 𝒅 𝒘𝒕 𝑽𝒔 …………………… (2.8)
𝝅 𝜹 /𝟐 𝝅
𝒑
The variation of modulation index M from 0 to 1 varies the pulse width δ from 0 to π/p and
the rms output voltage Vo varies from 0 to Vs.
- 25 -

Figure (9) Multiple PWM.
2.5.2 Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM).
Instead of maintaining the width of all pulses the same as in the case of multiple-pulse
modulation, the width of each pulse is varied in proportion to the amplitude of a sine wave
evaluated at the center of the same pulse. The DF and LOH are reduced significantly. The
gating signals as shown in Figure (10-a) are generated by comparing a sinusoidal reference
signal with a triangular carrier wave of frequency fc. This sinusoidal pulse-width modulation
(SPWM) is commonly used in industrial applications. The frequency of reference signal fr
determines the inverter output frequency fo; and its peak amplitude Ar controls the
modulation index M, and then in turn the rms output voltage Vo. Comparing the bidirectional
carrier signal Vcr, with two sinusoidal reference signals Vr, and -Vr, shown in Figure (10-a)
- 26 -

produces gating signals g1 (with g2) and g4 (with g3), respectively, as shown in Figure (10-
b).The output voltage is
Vo = Vs(g1 – g4).
However g1 and g4 cannot be conduct at the same time. The number of pulses per half-cycle
depends on the carrier frequency. Within the constraint that two transistors of the same arm
(Q1 and Q4) cannot conduct at the same time, the instantaneous output voltage is shown in
Figure (10-c). The same gating signals can be generated by using unidirectional triangular
carrier wave as shown in Figure (10-d). It is easier to implement this method preferable. The
algorithm for generating the gating signals is similar to that for the uniform PWM, except the
reference signal is a sine wave vr=Vr sin wt, instead of a dc signal. The output voltage is vo =
Vs (g1 - g4).
The rms output voltage can be varied by varying the modulation index M. It can be observed
that the area of each pulse corresponds approximately to the area the sine wave between the
adjacent midpoints of off periods on the gating signals. If δm is the width of mth pulse, the
rms output voltage is
𝜹𝒎
𝑽𝒐 𝑽𝒔 ∑𝟐𝒑
𝒎 𝟏 𝝅 ……………………………………… (2.9)
- 27 -

Figure (10) Sinusoidal PWM.
The output voltage of an inverter contains harmonics. The PWM pushes the harmonics into a
high-frequency range around the switching frequency fc and its multiples, that is, around
harmonics mf, 2mf, 3mf, and so on. The frequencies at which voltage harmonics occur can be
related by,
fn = (jmf ± k) fc
where the nth harmonic equals the kth sideband of jth times the frequency to modulation
ratio mf.
n = jmf ± k
=2 j p ± k for j =1, 2, 3, …. And k=1,3,5, ….
The peak fundamental output voltage for PWM and SPWM control can be found
proximately from
- 28 -

Vm1 = M Vs for 0 ≤ M ≤ 1.0 …………… (2.10)
For M=1 Eq.(2.10) gives the maximum peak amplitude of the fundamental output voltage as
Vm1(max) =Vs.
As we studied previously that Vm1(max) could be as high as (4 Vs /π = 1.273 Vs) for a square-
wave output. To increase the fundamental output voltage M must be increased greater than
1.0. The operation at M >1.0 is called overmodulation.
The value of M at which Vm1(max) equals 1.273 Vs is dependent on the number of per half-
cycle p and is approximately 3 for p = 7. Overmodulation basically leads to a square-wave
operation and adds more harmonics as compared with operation in the linear range (with M =
1.0). Overmodulation is normally avoided in applications requiring low distortion (e.g.,
uninterruptible power supply (UPS).
2. 6Evaluation of an Inverter
The quality of an inverter output is normally evaluated in terms of :
a) Harmonic factor, HFn can be defines as a measure of individual harmonic

contribution, and can be found from:
| |
𝐻𝐹𝑛 | |
…………….. (2.11)
Where V1 is the rms value of the fundamental component and Vn is the rms value
nth harmonic component.
b) Total harmonic distortion, THD. is the measure of the closeness in shape between
a waveform and its fundamental component.
∑∞
𝒏 𝟐,𝟑,𝟒,… 𝑽𝒏
𝟐
𝟏
𝒕𝒉𝒅 𝑽𝟐𝒐 𝑽𝟐𝟏 .……………...(2.12)
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟏
Where Vo is the rms value of the output voltage.
- 29 -

c) Distortion factor , DF , since THD gives the total content, but it does not indicate
the level of each harmonic component.
If a filter is used at the output of the inverters, the high order harmonics would be
attenuated more effectively. Therefore, a knowledge of both frequency and
amplitude of each harmonic is important.
The distortion factor DF indicates the amount of harmonic distortion remains in a
particular waveform after the harmonics of that waveform have been subjected to
a second-order attenuation (i.e. divided by n2 ). Thus DF is a measure of
effectiveness in reducing unwanted harmonics without having to specify the
values of a second-order load filer and is defines as,
𝑽𝒏 𝟐
𝑫𝑭 ∑∞
𝒏 𝟐,𝟑,𝟒,… 𝒏𝟐 /𝑽𝟏 ………….. (2.13)
The DF of an individual ( or nth) harmonic component is defined as
𝑽𝒏
𝑫𝑭𝒏 …………………… (2.14)
𝑽𝟏 𝒏𝟐
d) Lowest Order Harmonic LOH. The lower order harmonic is that harmonic
component whose frequency is closest to the fundamental one, and its amplitude
is greater than or equal to 3% of the fundamental component.
The factor Vn /n is used since the harmonic currents produced in an inductive load attenuate
with frequency. The harmonic currents produce unwanted heating and torque oscillations in
ac motors, although such harmonic currents are not a drawback to the power delivered to a
resistive heating load.
- 30 -

Chapter Three Overall System Components
CHAPTER THREE
OVERALL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
3.1. Introduction
The overall block diagram considered in this project is shown in figure (3.1). It consists
mainly of the following components:
1. The power circuit ( Inverter circuit) which is presented in the previous

chapter.
2. Control circuit (Microcontroller).
3. Isolation circuit (Optocoupler).
4. Load circuit (Three phase induction motor ).
DC input voltage(12V)
12/ 5V
ISOLATION POWER
MICROCONTR‐
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT
OLLER
(OPTOCOUPL‐
(ATMEG‐16) (SWITCHES)
ER)
3‐ph‐IM
Figure (3.1) Block diagram of 3-ф inverter based on µC.
- 31 -

3.2.Control circuit (Microcontroller)

3.2.1. What is a Microcontroller?
A microcontroller is a computer-on-a-chip, or, if you prefer, a single-chip computer.

Micro suggests that the device is small, and controller tells you that the device might be
used to control objects, processes, or events. Another term to describe a microcontroller is
embedded controller, because the microcontroller and its support circuits are often built
into, or embedded in, the devices they control.
You can find microcontrollers in all kinds of things these days. Any device that measures,
stores, controls, calculates, or displays information is a candidate for putting a
microcontroller inside. The largest single use for microcontrollers is in automobiles—just
about every car manufactured today includes at least one microcontroller for engine
control, and often more to control additional systems in the car. In desktop computers, you
can find microcontrollers inside keyboards, modems, printers, and other peripherals. In test
equipment, microcontrollers make it easy to add features such as the ability to store
measurements, to create and store user routines, and to display messages and waveforms.
Consumer products that use microcontrollers include cameras, video recorders, compact-
disk players, and ovens. And these are just a few examples.
A microcontroller is similar to the microprocessor inside a personal computer. Both
microprocessors and microcontrollers contain a central processing unit, or CPU. The CPU
executes instructions that perform the basic logic, math, and data-moving functions of a
computer.
To make a complete computer, a microprocessor requires memory for storing data and
programs, and input/output (I/O) interfaces for connecting external devices like keyboards
and displays.
In contrast, a microcontroller is a single-chip computer because it contains memory and
I/O interfaces in addition to the CPU. Because the amount of memory and interfaces that
can fit on a single chip is limited, microcontrollers tend to be used in smaller systems that
require little more than the microcontroller and a few support components.
Memory: Most systems also require a way to store data for temporary use. Usually, this is
RAM, whose contents you can change as often as you wish. Unlike EPROM, ROM,
EEPROM, and NVRAM, the contents of the RAM disappear when you remove power the
chip (unless it has battery back-up).
- 32 -

Most microcontrollers include some RAM, typically a few hundred bytes.

I/O options. Input/output (I/O) requires design decisions. Most systems require interfaces
to things like sensors, keypads, switches, relays, and displays. Most micro-controllers have
ports for interfacing to the world outside the chip. The 8052-BASIC uses many of its ports
for accessing external memory and performing other special functions, but some port bits
are available for user applications, and you can easily increase the available I/O by adding
support chips.
3.2.2. Writing the Control Program
When it’s time to write the program that controls your project, the options include using
machine code, assembly language, or a higher-level language. Which programming
language you use depends on things like desired execution speed, program length, and
convenience, as well as what’s available in your price range.
Machine code. The most fundamental program form is machine code, the binary
instructions that cause the CPU to perform the operations you desire.
Assembly language. One step removed from machine code is assembly language, where
abbreviations called mnemonics (memory aids) substitute for the machine codes. The
mnemonics are easier to remember than the machine codes they stand for.
Since machine code is ultimately the only language that a CPU understands, you need
some way of translating assembly-language programs into machine code. For very short
programs, you can hand assemble, or translate the mnemonics yourself by looking up the
machine codes for each abbreviation. Another option is to use an assembler, which is
software that runs on a desktop computer and translates the mnemonics into machine code.
Most assemblers provide other features, such as formatting the program code and creating
a listing that shows both the machine-code and assembly-language versions of a program
side -by-side
3.2.3. Microcontroller structure.
- 33 -

3.3. Isolation circuit (Optocoupler)
In electronics, an opto-isolator, also called an optocoupler, photocoupler, or optical

isolator, is a component that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by
using light. Opto-isolators prevent high voltages from affecting the system receiving the
signal. Commercially available opto-isolators withstand input-to-output voltages up to
10 kV and voltage transients with speeds up to 10 kV/μs. A common type of opto-isolator
consists of an LED and a phototransistor in the same package. Opto-isolators are usually
used for transmission of digital (on/off) signals, but some techniques allow use with analog
(proportional) signals.
Figure (3.2) Optocoupler circuit.
3.3.1. Operation:
An opto-isolator contains a source (emitter) of light, almost always a near infrared light-
emitting diode (LED), that converts electrical input signal into light, a closed optical
channel (also called dielectrical channel), and a photosensor, which detects incoming light
and either generates electric energy directly, or modulates electric current flowing from an
external power supply. The sensor can be a photoresistor, a photodiode, a phototransistor, a
silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) or a triac. Because LEDs can sense light in addition to
emitting it, construction of symmetrical, bidirectional opto-isolators is possible. An
optocoupled solid state relay contains a photodiode opto-isolator which drives a power
switch, usually a complementary pair of MOSFETs. A slotted optical switch contains a
source of light and a sensor, but its optical channel is open, allowing modulation of light by
external objects obstructing the path of light or reflecting light into the sensor.
- 34 -

3.3.2. Electric isolation:
Electronic equipment and signal and power transmission lines can be subjected to voltage
surges induced by lightning, electrostatic discharge, radio frequency transmissions,
switching pulses (spikes) and perturbations in power supply. Remote lightning strikes can
induce surges up to 10 kV, one thousand times more than the voltage limits of many
electronic components. A circuit can also incorporate high voltages by design, in which
case it needs safe, reliable means of interfacing its high-voltage components with low-
voltage ones.
The main function of an opto-isolator is to block such high voltages and voltage transients,
so that a surge in one part of the system will not disrupt or destroy the other parts.
Historically, this function was delegated to isolation transformers, which use inductive
coupling between galvanically isolated input and output sides. Transformers and opto-
isolators are the only two classes of electronic devices that offer reinforced protection —
they protect both the equipment and the human user operating this equipment. They
contain a single physical isolation barrier, but provide protection equivalent to double
isolation. Safety, testing and approval of opto-couplers are regulated by national and
international standards .An opto-isolator connects input and output sides with a beam of
light modulated by input current. It transforms useful input signal into light, sends it across
the dielectric channel, captures light on the output side and transforms it back into electric
signal. Unlike transformers, which pass energy in both directions with very low losses,
opto-isolators are unidirectional and they cannot transmit power. Typical opto-isolators can
only modulate the flow of energy already present on the output side. Unlike transformers,
opto-isolators can pass DC or slow-moving signals and do not require matching
impedances between input and output sides. Both transformers and opto-isolators are
effective in breaking ground loops, common in industrial and stage equipment, caused by
high or noisy return currents in ground wires
The physical layout of an opto-isolator depends primarily on the desired isolation voltage.
Devices rated for less than a few kV have planar (or sandwich) construction. The sensor
die is mounted directly on the lead frame of its package (usually, a six-pin or a four-pin
dual in-line package). The sensor is covered with a sheet of glass or clear plastic, which is
topped with the LED die. The LED beam fires downward. To minimize losses of light, the
- 35 -

useful absorption spectrum of the sensor must match the output spectrum of the LED,
which almost invariably lies in the near infrared. The optical channel is made as thin as
possible for a desired breakdown voltage. For example, to be rated for short-term voltages
of 3.75 kV and transients of 1 kV/μs, the clear polyimide sheet in the Avago ASSR-300
series is only 0.08 mm thick.] Breakdown voltages of planar assemblies depend on the
thickness of the transparent sheet and the configuration of bonding wires that connect the
dies with external pins. Real in-circuit isolation voltage is further reduced by creepage over
the PCB and the surface of the package. Safe design rules require a minimal clearance of
25 mm/kV for bare metal conductors or 8.3 mm/kV for coated conductors.
Opto-isolators rated for 2.5 to 6 kV employ a different layout called silicone dome. Here,
the LED and sensor dies are placed on the opposite sides of the package; the LED fires into
the sensor horizontally. The LED, the sensor and the gap between them are encapsulated in
a blob, or dome, of transparent silicone. The dome acts as a reflector, retaining all stray
light and reflecting it onto the surface of the sensor, minimizing losses in a relatively long
optical channel. In double mold designs the space between the silicone blob ("inner mold")
and the outer shell ("outer mold") is filled with dark dielectric compound with a matched
coefficient of thermal expansion.
3.4.Three phase induction motor.
3.4.1. Introduction
The induction motor is characterized by simplicity, reliability, and low cost,

combined with reasonable overload capacity, minimal service requirements, and good
efficiency. An induction motor utilizes alternating current supplied to the stator directly.
The rotor receives power by induction effects. The stator windings of an induction motor
are similar to those of the synchronous machine. The rotor may be one of two types. In the
wound rotor motor, windings similar to those of the stator are employed with terminals
- 36 -

connected to insulated slip rings mounted on the shaft. The rotor terminals are made
available through carbon brushes bearing on the slip rings. The second type is called the
squirrel-cage rotor, where the windings are simply conducting bars embedded in the rotor
and short-circuited at each end by conducting end rings.
When the stator of the motor is supplied by a balanced three-phase alternating current
source, it will produce a magnetic field that rotates at synchronous speed as determined by
the number of poles and applied frequency fs.
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒇
𝑵𝒔 𝒓/𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑷
In steady state, the rotor runs at a steady speed nr r/min in the same direction as the
rotating stator field. The speed nr is very close to ns when the motor is running low, and is
lower as the mechanical load is increased. The speed difference (ns – nr) is termed the slip
and is commonly defined as a per unit value (s).
𝑵𝒔 𝑵𝒓
𝑺
𝑵𝒔
Because of the relative motion between stator and rotor, induced voltages will
appear in the rotor with a frequency fr called the slip frequency.
𝑭𝒓 𝑺 ∗ 𝑭𝒔
From the above we observe that the induction motor is simply a transformer but that it has
a secondary frequency fr.
3.4.2. Motor operation

When the rated AC supply is applied to the stator windings, it generates a magnetic flux of
constant magnitude, rotating at synchronous speed. The flux passes through the air gap,
sweeps past the rotor surface and through the stationary rotor conductors.
An electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the rotor conductors due to the relative speed
differences between the rotating flux and stationary conductors. The frequency of the
induced EMF is the same as the supply frequency. Its magnitude is proportional to the
- 37 -

relative velocity between the flux and the conductors. Since the rotor bars are shorted at the
ends, the EMF induced produces a current in the rotor conductors.
The direction of the rotor current opposes the relative velocity between rotating flux
produced by stator and stationary rotor conductors (per Lenz’s law). To reduce the relative
speed, the rotor starts rotating in the same direction as that of flux and tries to catch up
with the rotating flux. But in practice, the rotor never succeeds in ‘catching up’ to the stator
field. So, the rotor runs slower than the speed of the stator field. This difference in speed is
called slip speed. This slip speed depends upon the mechanical load on the motor shaft.
3.4.3. Torque - speed characteristics of induction motors

Figure 2 shows the typical speed-torque characteristics of an induction motor. The X axis
shows speed and slip. The Y axis shows the torque and current. The characteristics are
drawn with rated voltage and frequency supplied to the stator. During start-up, the motor
typically draws up to seven times the rated current. This high current is a result of
stator and rotor flux, the losses in the stator and rotor windings, and losses in the bearings
due to friction. This high starting current overcomes these components and produces the
momentum to rotate the rotor. At start-up, the motor delivers 1.5 times the rated torque of
the motor. This starting torque is also called locked rotor torque (LRT). As the speed
increases, the current drawn by the motor reduces slightly (refer to figure (3.3).
- 38 -

Figure (3.3)Torque - speed curve.
3.4.4. V/f control strategy
As we can see in the torque - speed characteristics, the induction motor draws the rated
current and delivers the rated torque at the base speed. When the load is increased (over-
rated load), while running at base speed, the speed drops and the slip increases. As we have
seen in the earlier section, the motor can take up to 2.5 times the rated torque with around
20% drop in the speed. Any further increase of load on the shaft can stall the motor.
The torque developed by the motor is directly proportional to the magnetic field produced
by the stator. So, the voltage applied to the stator is directly proportional to the product of
stator flux and angular velocity. This makes the flux produced by the stator proportional to
the ratio of applied voltage and frequency of supply. By varying the frequency, the speed
of the motor can be varied. Therefore, by varying the voltage and frequency by the same
ratio, flux and hence, the torque can be kept constant throughout the speed range.
- 39 -

Figure (3.4) v/f control curve.
- 40 -

Chapter Four Practical Design and Implementation
CHAPTER FOUR
PRACTICAL DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
The overall block diagram of a system is shown in figure below, also all the components
of the system were discussed in general in previous chapters. In this chapter we will
concentrate on the practical work and practical devices that we used.
Three
DC I/P Phase 3‐ф‐IM
Inverter
Driving &Isolation cct
Reference Feed Back
Microcontroller
Fig.(4.1) block diagram
4.1 power circuit (inverter circuit)
This part is discussed in detail in chapter one, but it discussed in general form.
The switch that we used in the project is [MOSFET-IRF540] that can bear 40A of current
and its data sheet are shown in appendix (A1).
4.2 Control Circuit (microcontroller)
The microcontroller structure is discussed in detail in chapter three, in this chapter we will
discuss the practical parts .
4.2.1 Hardware.

- 43 -

We used the microcontroller ATMEGA16 of which the following pins utilized:
1. Port B ( B0 , B1…B5) for getting the square pulses to gate of switches.

2. Pin (ADC1) from port A to change the delay time of ON & OFF ,laterally, change
the output frequency.
3. Pin (ADC0) from port A to change the duty cycle of the pulses , laterally, change
the output voltage.
4. Pin19 (OC1A) from port D (PD5) to achieve the PWM signal.
4.2.2. Software.
In the presented project , we used the FLOWCODE program to program the AVR –
ATMEGA16 microcontroller because this program is:
1. Easy for using.

2. It has a complete functions .
3. Speed of programming.
4. Don’t need experience programmer.
5. We can test the program before compiling to the chip. etc
Other branches have been discussed enough in previous chapters.
4.3 Control Strategy
For this project ,we have two types of control, these are:
1.Voltage Control.
2.Frequency Control.
4.3.1Voltage control
To derive a varying AC voltage from the power inverter, pulse width modulation (PWM)
is required to control the duration of the switches’ ON and OFF times. Three PWMs are

- 44 -

required to control the upper three switches of the power inverter. The lower switches are
controlled by the inverted PWM signals of the corresponding upper switch. A dead time is
given between switching off the upper switch and switching on the lower switch and vice
versa, to avoid shorting the DC bus. (ATMEGA16)has the required PWMs implemented
in the hardware. The PWM frequency can be set using the (clock speed) option in the
project options of the FLOWCODE program.
The pins of ATMEGA-16 microcontroller that relative to PWM are [OC1A & OC1B)
and they appear as pins {18} & {19} respectively . Also, the PWM techniques are
discussed in chapter two.
Now , we will show on pictures the pwm using MC by using FLOWCODE program.
Fig.(4.2) PWM using flowcode.
A potentiometer connected to the ADC channel on the ATMEGA16 microcontroller

determines the motor speed. The microcontroller uses the ADC results to calculate the duty
cycle of the PWMs and thus, the motor frequency. The ADC is checked every (t)
milliseconds, which provides smooth frequency transitions.
4.2.2. Frequency Control
The output frequency of the inverter may be change if the load is change (increased),
therefore we must control the frequency of the inverter.
This can be done with the ATMEGA 16 microcontroller by using the timers.

- 45 -

This process can be performed by varying the period of ON & OFF times of the gate
pulses of the switches of the inverter, and practically can be done by making the time delay
changeable by using a potentiometer ( variable resistance) on the pin (ADC1) from port A.
Start
Enable (PWM)
While 1
ADC (Frequency)
PWM(set duty cycle)
ADC(Magnitude)
Out Port
Delay
END
Fig.(4.3) flow chart of system.
Finally the overall circuit of the project is shown in figure (4.4 ) and the practical photo is
of the implemented prototype is shown in figures (4.5 ).

- 46 -

Figure (4.4) a photo of practical circuit.

- 47 -

Chapter Five Conclusion and future work
Chapter Five
Conclusion and Future Work
CONCLUSION
To control the speed of a 3-phase induction motor in open loop, supply voltage and
frequency need to be varied with constant ratio to each other. A low cost solution of this
control can be implemented in a ATMEGA16 microcontroller. This requires three PWMs
to control a 3-phase inverter bridge. Many ATMEGA microcontrollers have two hardware
PWMs. The third PWM is generated in software and output to a port pin.
Future Work
In the future , the project may be develop to become automatic control instead of manually
control.
This can be done by using a controller likes (PID) controller to perform that.
The PID controller operation will be as follows :
It will be take the output and compare it with a reference signal , if there are not confined , the PID will
generate a control signal that will be take a command to the power circuit to compensate the decrement
occurred in the output , laterally, the normal operation achieved.

REFERENCES
[1] Zainal Salam, Khosru Mohammad Salim and Faridah Taha. 2000. Design and
Development of a Three- Phase, 5kW Power Conditioning Unit for Fuel-cell Application.
Journal – Institution of Engineers, Malaysia. 61(2): 71 -- 77.
[2] “SAB 80C166/83C167 16-bit CMOS Single-chip microcontro11ers for embedded control
applications, User's Manual, Siemens AG. 1996.
[3] Bowes, S. R. 1975. New sinusoidal pulse width-modulated inverter. Proc. IEE. 122(11):
1279 -- 1285.
[4] Bowes, S. R. and Mount, M. J. 1981. Microcontroller control of PWM inverters. IEE
proc., Pt. B. 128(6): 293 -- 305.
[5] Siemens, GmBH. 1995. MCB-167 prototype board with Siemens C167 CPU, User’s
Guide 5.95, Kiel Electronics.
[6] Kiel, GmBH. 1992. C166 Professional Developers Kit, Kiel Software, GmbH.
Untitled-20
[7] M. Bounadja, A. Mellakhi, B. Belmadani: A High Performance PWM Inverter Voltage-

fedInduction Machines Drive with an Alternative Strategy for Speed Control, Serbian Journal
of Electrical Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 1, June 2007, pp.35 – 49.
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Design and Implementation of a Wireless Mobile Phone Charger View project

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(A Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

‫ﺗﺻﻣﻳﻡ ﻭﺗﻧﻔﻳﺫ ﺃﻟﻌﺎﻛﺱ ﺃﻟﺛﻼﺛﻲ ﺃﻟﻁﻭﺭ ﺃﻟﻣﺑﻧﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻟﻣﺗﺣﻛﻡ ﺃﻟﺩﻗﻳﻖ"‬

‫ﺃﻣﺟﺩ ﺣﻣﻳﺩ ﻋﺑﺩ ﺃﻟﺷﻬﻳﺩ‬ ‫ﺃﺣﻣﺩ ﻣﺣﻣﺩ ﻣﺭﺯﺓ‬

‫ﺩ‪.‬ﺣﻳﺩﺭ ﻣﻬﺩﻱ‬ ‫‪ ‬ﺩ‪.‬ﻣﺣﻣﻭﺩ ﺷﺎﻛﺭ ﺃﻟﺷﻣﺭﻱ‬

AHMED MUHAMMAD MERZA

AMJED HAMEED ABDUL-SHAHEED

AHMED MUHAMMAD MERZA

AMJED HAMEED ABDUL-SHAHEED

1st Examiner ( The supervisor) 2nd Examiner (The co-supervisor)

2. It has little maintenance.

3. From the point of cost , it is available.

4.Very easy to starting operation.

Chapter one : Switches Used by Inverters (1)

1.2 Metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) (6)

1.3 Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) (9)

Chapter two : DC/AC converter (Inverter) (12)

2.1 Introduction (12)

2.2 Applications of inverters

2.3 Types of Inverters (12)

2.4 Principles of operation (15)

2.5 Voltage and Frequency control technique (24)

2.6 Evaluation of an Inverter (29)

Chapter three: Overall System Components (31)

3.2 Control cct. (µc) (32)

3.3 Isolation cct. (Optocoupler) (36)

3.4 Three Phase Induction Motor (38)

Chapter four : Practical Design and Implementation (43)

4.1 Power cct. (Inverter cct)

4.2 Control (µc) [Hardware, software]

4.3 Control Strategy

Chapter Six: Conclusion and Future Work

1.1The Bipolar Junction Transistor( BJT)

A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed

Charge flow in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a

Transistor 'alpha' and 'beta'

The output Characteristics

 Cut-off region: This is the case where the transistor is essentially inactive.

* IB = 0 (no base current)

* VBE < 0.7V(emitter-base junction is not forward biased)

In saturation, the following behavior is noted:

* VCE <= 0.2V. This is known as the saturation voltage, or VCE(sat)

* IB = maximum allowable value ( according to its specification).

* VBE >= 0.7V

* IB > 0 and Ic > 0

* VBE >= 0.7V

The transistor as a switch

Figure (3) A simple switch of NPN transistor.

The transistor can be damaged if ,

(1) a large positive voltage is applied across the CE junction (breakdown

(2) product of iC VCE exceed power handling of the transistor, or

(3) a large reverse voltage is applied between any two terminals.

1.2. Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)

I-V characteristics (Output characteristics)

Ohmic region: A constant resistance region. If the drain-to-source voltage is zero,

A power MOSFET is a unipolar, majority carrier, "zero junction". Voltage-controlled

operation of MOSFET easy. In fact, large MOSFETS are fabricated by parallel

3. Forward voltage drop with positive temperature coefficient - easy to use in

1.3 IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor )