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Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis

Rare earth element and gold exploration in glaciated terrain: example from
the Mäkärä area, northern Finland
Olli Sarapää and Pertti Sarala

Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis 2013, v.13; p131-143.

doi: 10.1144/geochem2012-136

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© The Geological Society of London 2013

2012-136
2012
research-articleThematic set articleXXX10.1144/geochem2012-136O. Sarapää & P. SaralaRare earth element and gold exploration

Downloaded from http://geea.lyellcollection.org/ at Instituto Geologico Minero y Metalurgico on September 2, 2013

Rare earth element and gold exploration in glaciated terrain:

example from the Mäkärä area, northern Finland
Olli Sarapää* & Pertti Sarala
Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 77, FI-96101Rovaniemi, Finland
*Corresponding author (e-mail: olli.sarapaa@gtk.fi)

Abstract:  The Mäkärä Au-rare earth element (REE) prospect area is located in
the Tana Belt, south of the 1.9 Ga Lapland Granulite Belt, in northern Finland. The
Belt has prominent lanthanum (La) and yttrium (Y) anomalies in regional till and bed-
rock geochemical data. High Y indicates enrichment of heavy REE in the bedrock.
At Mäkärä, promising narrow Au-hematite-quartz veins occur in connection with
tensional fractures in the great shear zone.
Under the latest ice divide of the last glaciation, subglacial erosion was weak and
glacial transport distance short. High Au contents in saprolite and till together with
deep weathering have a strong positive correlation with the positive electromag-
netic anomalies caused by the sulphidic gneisses. The highest La and Y contents in
till correlate well with the Th maxima of airborne-radiometric datasets. Locally, the
<0.06 mm till size fraction contains up to 0.4% REE. A recent exploration project in
Mäkärä revealed a 13 m wide Au-hematite-quartz vein with a mean of 3 ppm Au and
0.04–0.1% REE in kaolinitic saprolite derived from arkosic gneiss. The elevated REE
content resembles that of ionic adsorption clays in China. Typical REE-rich minerals
are monazite, rhabdophane, xenotime and kaolinite. Till geochemistry proved useful
in REE exploration.

Keywords: Geochemistry, exploration, saprolite, till, gold, REE, lanthanum, yttrium,

hematite, kaolinite, heavy minerals, Tana Belt

Geochemical exploration has been for a long time one of the These data indicate high La and Y concentrations in
key methods in tracing gold and base metal ore deposits in Fin- both till and the arkosic gneiss bedrock in an area which is
land and other countries in glaciated terrains in the world (Shilts 200 km long × 15 km wide (Figs 1, 2). High Y contents, in
1976; DiLabio 1990; Kauranne et al. 1992). In Northern Fin- particular, in till and rock samples indicate enrichment of
land several gold deposits such as Suurikuusikko in Kittilä, the heavy REE in the bedrock. The Mäkärä area is charac-
Pahtavaara in Sodankylä and sulphide deposits such as Sakatti terised by a kaolinitic weathering crust, which provides
Ni-Cu-Pd in Sodankylä were found by means of basal till geo- potential for ionic adsorption type HREE deposits, well-
chemistry (Härkönen & Keinänen 1989; Pulkkinen et al. 1986; known in China (Castor & Hedrick 2006; Chi & Tian 2008;
Mining Journal 2012). Regional till geochemistry, based on Sanematsu et al. 2009). The region includes a number of
polymetallic analyses from basal till (Salminen 1995), has been a known, small Au occurrences related to hematite veins in
start for many successful exploration projects in Finland. In the bedrock and extensive areas of nugget gold in the rego-
particular areas and in the target-scale surveys, regional datasets lith (Eilu & Pankka 2009).
have been supplemented with detail geochemical sampling of Geochemical Y anomalies in the TB are the highest at
basal till using mainly percussion drilling and test pit surveys. Mäkärä, which have been the main exploration target so far.
However, till is rarely used in REE exploration in Finland, and One reason for selection of Mäkärä as the study site was exist-
there are also only a few cases from the world of such reported ing geological and geophysical data derived from earlier Au
projects (McConnell & Batterson 1987; Kerr & Rafuse 2011). exploration programs. Mäkärä was the main exploration tar-
This study will show that till geochemistry also works in explo- get for Au in previous decades from the 1950s to recent years.
ration of rare earths by determiningLa and Y from the basal till. The first Au-bearing erratic hematite boulders were discov-
The Mäkärä area is located in the Paleoproterozoic Tana Belt ered by Holger Jalander in 1949, 1.5 km south of the deposit
(TB), previously considered Archean (Nironen & Mänttäri (Härkönen 1987). The Geological Survey of Finland (GTK)
2003), immediately south of the Lapland Granulite Belt (LGB) (1949–1955), Suomen Malmi (1955–1957), Rautaruukki
in northern Finland (Fig. 1). The bedrock of the study area is (1970s) and GTK (1978–1985) subsequently carried out a gla-
poorly exposed, covered by a variably thick saprolite and till cial erratic boulder survey, bedrock mapping, trenching, a
blanket. The TB includes prominent REE anomalies in regional ground magnetic survey and an electric survey, an aerial pho-
till and bedrock geochemical data that cover Finland with a tographic survey, trenching, a till heavy mineral survey, till
density of one sample per 4 km2 and one sample per 30 km2, geochemistry and stratigraphy, high-altitude and low-altitude
respectively (Salminen 1995; Rasilainen et al. 2008). airborne magnetic, electromagnetic and radiometric surveys
Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Analysis, Vol. 13, 2013, pp. 131–143 © 2013 AAG/The Geological Society of London
doi: 10.1144/geochem2012-136
Published Online First on April, 17, 2013; updated May, 13, 2013
 Downloaded from http://geea.lyellcollection.org/ at Instituto Geologico Minero y Metalurgico on September 2, 2013

132 O. Sarapää & P. Sarala

20°0'0"E 22°0'0"E 24°0'0"E 26°0'0"E 28°0'0"E 30°0'0"E

70°0'0"N

LGB

20°0'0"E TB
Mäkärä

68°0'0"N Sokli
68°0'0"N

CLGB

Mäkärä
Sodankylä

CLGC

Rovaniemi
Rock lanthanum
La ppm
66°0'0"N 75 - 110
66°0'0"N
111 - 171
172 - 358

Till lant hanum

La ppm
75 - 128
129 - 296
297 - 920
Paleoproterozoic igneous rocks
Paleoproterozoic schists
Archean rocks
22°0'0"E 24°0'0"E 26°0'0"E 28°0'0"E 30°0'0"E

Fig. 1. Regional till and rock geochemistry anomalies on the bedrock map of Northern Finland, indicating that the most promising La anoma-
lous areas are located at Mäkärä in the Tana Belt between the Lapland Granulite Belt and the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt. Other potentially
anomalous areas are the Devonian Sokli carbonatite complex in the east and the Central Lapland granite in the west. The sample sites <75 ppm
La are not shown on this map.

and diamond drilling. Later claim holders were Conroy Plc.
(1995–2002) and Nordic Diamonds (2002–2003) (Eilu &
Pankka 2009).
The aim of this study was to clarify the REE and Au poten-
tial of the TB using existing geological data of the Mäkärä area
complemented with new geochemical sampling and target-
scale geological research. The study included re-analysis of old
drill cores, trenching of till and saprolite, a till stratigraphy
study, geophysical measurements, systematic geochemical
sampling by a percussion drill (grid 200 × 200 m, area 30 km2),
determination of stream water and sediment geochemistry,
diamond drilling and mineralogical and chemical analyses of
samples. The goal of the detailed study was to test different
exploration methods, and to find REE and Au occurrences
from the Mäkärä area.
Geological Settings
The LGB forms an arched, northwest-trending, 40–90 km
wide belt over northernmost Finland. A total length from the
Russian side to northern Norway is 400 km. The LGB is bor-
dered by the TB on its southern and western flanks.
The relatively narrow, highly sheared and strongly deformed
TB comprises banded high-grade amphibolite, migmatitic gar-
net-biotite and arkosic gneisses and some gabbroic and ultra-
mafic rocks, which mainly consist of Paleoproterozoic rocks.
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Rare earth element and gold exploration 133

Fig. 2. Regional till and rock geochemistry anomalies on the aeromagnetic map of Northern Finland, indicating that the most promising Y or
HREE anomaly is located at Mäkärä in the Tana Belt. The sample sites <40 ppm Y are not shown on this map.

The TB was thrusted to the west together with the LGB onto
the Central Lapland Greenstone Belt (CLGB) during the 1.9  was developed during overthrusting of the LGB and it can
Ga event (Nironen & Mänttäri 2003; Hanski & Huhma 2005;
Tuisku & Huhma 2006; Tuisku et al. 2006). During subsequent
over-thrusting to the southwest, the rocks attained their gen-
eral mylonitic structure. Metamorphic grade decreases from
the contact of LGB to the southwest from granulite to amphi-
bolite facies.
The Mäkärä area is located c. 15–25 km NW of the village
of Vuotso at Sodankylä. Exploration to date has focused on
Au and REE. There are only a few outcrops in the Mäkärä
area, mostly fragmented rocks. The geological map is mostly
based on geophysics, drilling data and observations made
from trenches. The great shear zone, 1 km wide at Mäkärä,
be traced to the southeast to Vuotso. The bedrock of the
Mäkärä area is generally composed of arkosic, mica and
hornblende gneisses and amphibolites (Lehtonen et al.
1998). The surface of the bedrock is covered by 5–30 m of
preglacial weathering, which reaches crust in places down
to 100 m, and consist of kaolinitic saprolite and saprock
(Hirvas 1991; Sarala & Ojala 2008). In many areas of Finland
this weathered bedrock has been preserved beneath glacial
deposits, particularly in topographical depressions. Of the
regolith, only the saprock has typically been preserved, but
in some shear zones there are saprolite and thick kaolin
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134 O. Sarapää & P. Sarala

Fig. 3. Overall view of the test trench in Mäkärä. The thickness of the till cover is only 1–2 m above the weathered bedrock surface. The location
of a large Au-hematite quartz vein (13 m in width; mean 3.3 ppm Au and 414 ppm REE tot) is also shown. Photo by P. Sarala.

occurrences (cf. Sarapää 1996; Lintinen & Al-Ani 2005;
Sarala et al. 2007).
Till cover is usually 1–2 m thick in the Mäkärä area (Fig. 3),
although a thickness of more than 20 m has been observed in
percussion drillings and diamond drill holes. In thin till areas,
only one till bed exists. The till is typically rich in silt and clay
due to the underlying preglacial weathering crust in the bed-
rock, a partial source of till (Sarala & Sarapää 2011). The con-
tent of local clay-rich material in till decreases upwards. The
inner structure of the till is usually massive but some lamina-
tion can also be found. Ice flow direction during till deposi-
tion was from west to southwest. In the areas of thicker
overburden, i.e. in lowland and mire areas, more than one till
unit can be found. The thickness of the upper till is 3–4 m and
the contact between the tills is depositional. Significant differ-
ences in composition and structure can be seen between the
tills, with the lower till being more compact and grey in col-
our. However, the exact number of till beds is difficult to
determine, because the deepest till sections (depth 20–31 m)
were observed during deep percussion drillings without con-
tinuous stratigraphical logging. During earlier stratigraphical
studies, the number of till beds was reported to be at least
three, which is a common number for the whole Central
Lapland area (cf. Hirvas 1991).
 Downloaded from http://geea.lyellcollection.org/ at Instituto Geologico Minero y Metalurgico on September 2, 2013
Rare earth element and gold exploration
The area is located in the latest ice divide zone of the last
(Late Weichselian) glaciation (Kujansuu 1967; Johansson et al.
2011). Subglacial erosion was weak and the glacial transport
distance short. On the northern side of the ice divide zone, the
ice flow direction was from the southwest towards the north-
east. According to earlier studies, hematite boulders have
drifted at least 7 m in distance, but in general 20–150 m down-
ice of their source (Härkönen 1987). Earlier studies in the area
suggest that the hydrothermal quartz-hematite-pyrite veins at
Mäkärä are narrow (1 mm–2 m) and occur in the shear zone or
along its diagonal joints (Härkönen 1987). The REE content is
low, with maximum cerium (Ce) content of only 200  ppm. In
contrast, in the area of Petäjälehto in TB (Sarala et al. 2009)
some 15 km west of Mäkärä, the highest REE content in arko-
sic gneiss (in drill core R419) is 1719 ppm and the average
755 ppm. In the fine fraction (<0.06 mm) of till, the highest
REE content is 0.4% and the Ce content 1070 ppm (Lehtonen
et al. 2011).
Materials and Methods
Stratigraphical studies were carried out in test pits and trenches
dug up by excavator. In 2009–2011, trenching comprised 30
pits and trenches, the location of which was based on electro-
magnetic and geochemical anomalies. The composition and
structure of different sedimentary units were studied mainly
using visual identification, i.e. based on grain size and stone
composition, and by identifying the relationships and contacts
of different stratigraphical deposits. Fabric analyses were car-
ried out to complement the stratigraphical observations. The
complete results will be provided in GTK reports.
The distribution of elements was studied in both horizontal
and vertical dimensions in till sections and underlying pregla-
cial weathered bedrock. The chemical analyses of till samples
(c. 200–300 g each) were carried out by the Labtium laboratory
(accreditation SFS-EN ISO/IEC 17025, T025). The till sam-
ples from the test pits and trenches in 2009 were first dried at
70°C, sieved (<0.06 mm size fraction) and partially leached
using aqua regia at 90°C. Inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectrometry (ICP-AES; Method 511P) was used for
the determination of 31 elements (Ag, Al, As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd,
Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, La, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, S, Sb, Sc,
Si, Sr, To, Ti, V, Y, Zn) in 0.15 g subsamples. Inductively cou-
pled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS; Method 511 M) was
used for the determination of Ag, Bi, Ce, In, Mo, Sb, Se, Sn,
Te, Th, U, W and Yb and graphite furnace atomic absorption
spectrometry (GFAAS; Hg co-precipitation using 5 g subsam-
ple; Method 521 U) for the determination of Au and Pd. In
2010 and later, the subsample size of till and weathered bed-
rock samples was 5 g (Method 515PM), but otherwise the ana-
lytical methods and elements determined were similar. The
weathered bedrock samples were pulverised in a carbon steel
bowl before leaching and then analysed by the same methods
as the till samples. Duplicate samples were not analysed, but
the reliability of the analyses during leaching and analysis steps
was estimated by inserting 10% of samples in random order as
duplicates. Furthermore, the certified reference samples were
added within the analytical batches in the laboratory (ILAC-
MRA arrangement).
The cyanide leaching method (236A-S) was also tested for
Au exploration. Ten weathered bedrock samples (c. 1 kg;
<2 mm fraction) were collected in 2009 from the test trenches.
From these samples, 500 g subsamples were pulverised and
cyanide-leached simultaneously using PAL equipment. After 2
hours of leaching, the solution was analysed by GFAAS with a
detection limit 100 ppb.
135
Detailed till and weathered bedrock sampling using a
200 m × 200 m grid was carried out in the area in 2009–2010
(Figs 7–9). In total, 803 till and 804 weathered bedrock samples
were taken by percussion drilling with a through-flow bit. At
each sampling site, the weathered bedrock sample was taken
first and then the till sample was taken c. 1 m above the weath-
ered bedrock surface. Otherwise, the stratigraphy of the upper
soil sections was not logged during drilling. The till and weath-
ered bedrock samples were handled in a similar way as described
for the test pit samples above. The till samples were dried and
sieved to obtain the <0.06 mm fraction and weathered bedrock
samples were milled, followed by aqua regia leaching. The sam-
ples were then analysed for 42 elements, including La, Y and
Au, by ICP-AES and ICP-MS (Method 515PM).
Gold and REE anomalies in till exist only at ppb or ppm
levels, but since they normally occur as heavy minerals they can
be concentrated using gravity separation methods. The total
volume of samples taken for heavy mineral studies was 12
litres (c. 19–25 kg/sample). The samples were collected from
the different till units and weathered bedrock. After sieving to
obtain the <2 mm fraction, heavy minerals were concentrated
in the laboratory using a Knelson concentrator (3”), the ferro-
magnetic fraction containing magnetite was removed and
heavy liquid (methylene iodide, d=3.3 g/cm3) separation was
carried out. The analysis of non-magnetic fractions mostly
consisted of visual and microscopic examination, but some
samples were further checked using a scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM+EDS).
The Au-bearing ancient drill cores (R301–304) from Mäkärä
were re-analysed by lead (Pb) fire assay methods with ICP-
AES and trace elements with ICP-MS. Trace elements and
REE from recent drill core and bedrock samples were deter-
mined after hydrofluoric acid-perchloric acid dissolution by
the ICP-MS-techniques (Method 307 M). Gold, Pd and Pt
were determined in 25 g subsamples, after lead fire assay pre-
concentration, by ICP-AES (Method 704P) at the Labtium
laboratory. Major and trace elements in trench channel sam-
ples were determined by XRF on pressed powder pellets
(Method 175X). Trace elements and REE in drill cores and
channel samples were determined by ICP-AES and ICP-MS
after hydrofluoric acid-perchloric acid dissolution (Method
307PM) or after sodium peroxide fusion (Method 720PM).
Results
Geochemistry of Mäkärä gold mineralisation
Re-analysis of old drill cores showed that core loss was a seri-
ous problem during earlier investigations for Au. Only a minor
part of the rock material from the hematite-quartz veins was
preserved in the drill cores. Physical and chemical weathering
in the main shear zone can locally reach down to a depth of
over 100 m. Based on the results of the re-analyses, the longest
Au-bearing intersections (9 m with a mean of 1 ppm, max
2.7 ppm) were in drill hole R301 and the highest Au content
(10 ppm/0.75  m) in drill hole R303 (Table 1). Typically,
Au-bearing hematite-quartz-pyrite veins in green sericite
quartzite contain high Fe (34.6% max), S (13.2% max) and Co
(514 ppm max), but La (97 ppm max) and Y (max 54  ppm)
contents are relatively low (Table 1) and sericite quartzite an
alteration product of arkosic gneiss, sericite an alteration prod-
uct of orthoclase and plagioclase. The wall rocks are horn-
blende and arkosic gneisses.
A number of trenches were dug to study the occurrence
of Au and REE in the hematite-quartz veins and in the sur-
rounding rocks. The trenches were positioned to coincide
with the electromagnetic anomalies, but only one trench was
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136 O. Sarapää & P. Sarala

Table 1. Statistical parameters for selected elements in the re-analysis of drilling cores from the Mäkärä area. Gold in ppb, other elements in ppm

Drill core Au Co Cu Fe La S Y W

301 Mean 905 54 21 77350 40 5276 17 6

N 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
SD 1093 42 24 83261 20 7381 14 4
Minimum 33 5 5 18000 2 30 6 1
Maximum 3840 134 91 346000 77 24900 54 15
302 Mean 726 151 141 180500 13 54757 13 12
N 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
SD 995 152 179 109602 4 76711 7 16
Minimum 22 43 14 103000 10 514 8 0
Maximum 1430 258 267 258000 16 109000 18 23
303 Mean 1943 98 13 138100 24 24587 10 70
N 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
SD 3660 161 11 116560 16 48158 11 91
Minimum 28 8 3 30500 2 421 1 2
Maximum 10000 460 34 273000 38 132000 31 201
304 Mean 337 114 229 55978 41 10792 9 5
N 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11
SD 628 190 469 38295 35 18608 10 7
Minimum 24 3 1 8660 4 20 3 1
Maximum 2160 514 1510 113000 97 51400 39 25
Total Mean 923 86 90 88363 36 13466 13 18
N 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
SD 1808 131 272 86181 25 29035 12 46
Minimum 22 3 1 8660 2 20 1 0
Maximum 10000 514 1510 346000 97 132000 54 201

SD: standard deviation

Table 2. Statistical parameters for selected elements in nine weathered bedrock samples from the 13-m wide Au-hematite-quartz vein in Mäkärä

N Minimum Maximum Mean SD

Au_ppb 9 1130 8450 3324 2804

Fe2O3_% 9 8.77 82.5 41.8 20,5
Co_ppm 9 3 23 8 6.0
Cu_ppm 9 4 49 17 12.7
La_ppm 9 32 144 85 43.2
Y_ppm 9 13 31 19 5.9
CIA 9 73 80 77 1.9
REE_ppm 9 186 667 414 183

SD: standard deviation

selected for more detailed study (Fig. 3). Figures 7–9 show
the location of the Au mineralization in the test trench and
associated Au, La and Y anomalies in till and weathered bed-
rock of the Mäkärä prospecting area. Continuous weathered
bedrock sampling clearly indicated anomalies for Au and
REE and also source rocks for these. High Au contents were
related to the hematite veins, ranging from millimetres to
several metres in thickness in the sericite quartzite. The
broadest vein observed was found in a 111- m long trench at
the edge of the electromagnetic anomaly. It was a 13- m wide
conformed red hematite-quartz-goethite vein, which con-
tained on average 3.3 ppm Au (1.1–8.5 ppm by fire assay
(Table 2) and 2.1 ppm by cyanide leaching, and 414 ppm
REE (Figs 4, 5). Goethite is an alteration product of pyrite
in weathered veins. The vein was bordered by kaolinitic sap-
rolite, originally sericite quartzite and arkosic gneiss (also
with elevated REE contents) and was restricted to amphibo-
lite. The saprolite contained kaolinite, illite, vermiculite and
smectite in the clay fraction according to XRD measure-
ments and was coloured red or yellowish brown near the
mineralisation site.
In channel samples from the test trench, the Au-hematite
vein had higher Fe, Bi, As and LREE (Ce and Eu) contents
than the weathered arkosic gneiss (Figs 5a, b). However, the
arkosic gneiss was more enriched in HREE such as Dy, while
Fe and Ce were also high. Total REE content in saprolite
ranged from 400–700 ppm. The chemical index of alteration
(CIA), which indicates alteration of feldspar into kaolinite
and other clay minerals (Nesbitt & Young 1982), varied from
51–90 and was highest in the Au-hematite vein and in the
saprolite near the contact with the vein (Fig. 5c). The vein
had the highest CIA values and La contents and saprolite the
lowest CIA values and highest Y contents. Typical REE-
bearing minerals were monazite, rhabdophane, xenotime, zir-
con and kaolinite.
Drill hole R318 penetrated the same Au-hematite vein. In
the drill core, Au and La contents were at the same level as in
the trench (Fig. 4). The upper part of the drill core consisted of
arkosic gneiss, hematite veins and sericite quartzite, which had
been weathered into saprolite down to a depth of 36 m and into
saprock to 56 m depth (total core loss 26 m, range 14–56 m).
The highest Au content was 8 ppm, 6 m @ 2.1 ppm Au (in
 Downloaded from http://geea.lyellcollection.org/ at Instituto Geologico Minero y Metalurgico on September 2, 2013

Rare earth element and gold exploration 137

La ppm

18
200

R3 100
0
87 m 0

500

te
oli 1000
pr
Sa
1500

2000

79
60 2500
Au ppb

8450 Hematite rock

Sericite quartzite
Arkose gneiss,
122.30 m Mica gneiss

Amphibolite

Trench

Fig. 4. The Au-hematite vein at Mäkärä penetrated by trenching and drill hole R318, including the 13- m wide weathered Au-hematite-quartz
vein at the surface, in which channel samples contained 3.3 ppm Au (range 1.1–8.5 ppm; analysis by fire assay). Drill hole R318 penetrated deeply
weathered hematite rock (max. 8 ppm Au), sericite quartzite, arkosic gneiss, mica gneiss and amphibolite. Transect A-B is the first 81 m of the
trench shown in Fig. 5.

D 6DSUROLWH
E 6DSUROLWH

P P

F 6DSUROLWH G 7LOO

P
P

Fig. 5. Chemical composition variations in test trench (0–11 m). (A) Bi, Fe, Ce, Eu and As contents, which were positively correlated with Au in
channel saprolites of the test trench. (B) LREE, HREE and total REE variation in the test trench, with LREE correlated with Au. (C) Au-hematite
vein show the highest CIA and La values and saprolite derived from arkosic gneiss show the lowest CIA values and the highest Y contents. (D) Bi,
Fe, Te, Ag contents, which were positively correlated with Au content in till in the test trench.
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138 O. Sarapää & P. Sarala

Fig. 6. Concentration of Au in saprolite and till from the test trench at Mäkärä. The Au content in channel samples of saprolite and in overly-
ing till is high. In saprolite, the anomaly disappears outside the hematite vein, but high Au contents in till can be traced nearly 100 m northeast
of the vein.

depth 8–14 m). The La content varied from 40–140 ppm.
Recent and earlier drilling and trenching programmes both
detected four side by side Au-bearing veins, which are con-
nected to the electromagnetic anomalies. In the Mäkärä area,
the highest REE content of arkosic gneiss in the drill core
was 1400 ppm.
Till geochemistry
Till geochemistry was studied using till and weathered bedrock
samples from both test trenches and percussion drill sites in
the Mäkärä area. High Au contents were found in till immedi-
ately above the Au-bearing hematite-quartz veins but decreased
quickly in the down-ice flow direction, not very clearly because
there could be other veins outside the trench (Fig. 6). The
highest Au content recorded was 1.52 ppm directly over the
hematite-quartz vein; 100 m down-ice of the vein Au was still
detectable (c. 100 ppb) in the till, Au contents in the weathered
bedrock were anomalous only directly above the vein. A fan in
till some tens of metres in length was also seen for Ag, Bi and
Te, which can be regarded as pathfinder elements for Au (Fig.
5d). The same type of secondary halo in the ice flow direction
was also seen in the colour of red till (oxidised hematite) and in
the occurrence of hematite boulders and pebbles in till.
Although the Fe content was highest close to the hematite
vein, it was highly anomalous across the entire trench due to
enrichment of Fe in surrounding rocks. High REE contents
were related both to the Au-hematite veins and the altered kao-
linitic saprolite. In particular, Ce (mean 160 ppm), La (mean
83 ppm) and Y (mean 63 ppm) contents in till were slightly
anomalous and may indicate mineralised bedrock.
Statistical parameters for the selected elements are pre-
sented in Table 3. Many elements were present in concentra-
tions above the background level in till and weathered bedrock.
For example, Y and U contents were 1.5 times and Cu content
2.0 times higher than the average values for the region (cf.
Koljonen 1992). However, the only element that was clearly
anomalous was Au, which was present in concentrations ten-
fold higher than the average for the region (0.8 ppb). The high
values together with high standard deviations indicated several
sources in the bedrock, as also indicated by the highest Au
anomalies in the weathered bedrock. However, many elements
such as Bi, Co, Sb, Te, W, which usually have a good correla-
tion with Au, were not anomalous.
The Au content in weathered bedrock and till samples
taken by percussion drilling at 200 m intervals was strongly
correlated with positive electromagnetic anomalies as
expressed by the high Slingram imaginary value (Fig. 7). These
electromagnetic anomalies are associated with the deeply
weathered shear zones caused by the oxidation of pyrite-bear-
ing gneisses. The Au content in till and weathered bedrock
correlated well with the known occurrence of hematite-rich
zones in the bedrock. The Y and Au anomalies in till occurred
separately in the Mäkärä bedrock map (Fig. 8), but both high
Y and Au concentration were roughly connected to the area
of arkosic gneiss. The Au content was highest in till over the
altered rocks in shear zones east of the Mäkärä area but the Y
content was highest over to the west, where fresh arkosic
gneiss prevails. On the other hand, the highest Y content in
till correlated well with the maxima of the radiation datasets
(Fig. 9). The mean REE content in saprolite at Mäkärä was
0.005% (max. 0.1%).
Heavy minerals
Typical heavy mineral species recovered from both till and
saprolite samples were Au and Fe oxides such as hematite,
magnetite and goethite together with fresh pyrite. They indi-
cate both hydrothermal alteration of source rocks during
Au-rich hematite-quartz vein formation and formation of sec-
ondary iron hydroxide minerals such as goethite as a result of
chemical weathering during regolith formation. Silicates such
as epidote, garnet and kyanite were also common among heavy
minerals. Garnet and kyanite are derived from the high-grade
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Rare earth element and gold exploration 139

Table 3. Statistical parameters for selected elements in the percussion drilled till samples (<0.06 mm) from the Mäkärä area; n=803 for till and 804 for WB

Material Au_ppb Co_ppm* U_ppm Cu_ppm Fe_% La_ppm Li_ppm Sc_ppm Th_ppm Y_ppm

Till Mean 7.0 20.6 3.19 94.3 4.25 49.6 11.0 9.90 13.6 35.6
< 0.06 mm SD 14.0 8.67 4.12 69.5 1.67 41.7 4.32 4.91 6.18 28.4
Maximum 209 71.7 94.5 695 18.30 448 42.1 82.2 71.0 284
WB Mean 4.3 16.9 1.86 78.8 3.78 32.3 8.93 7.77 11.7 26.5
SD 23.0 14.5 1.69 82.5 1.99 30.2 40.2 4.48 3.85 26.4
Maximum 419 183 20.0 888 20.70 293 1130 30.0 36.0 344

*337 samples were analysed by ICP-AES and 467 by ICP-MS.

SD: standard deviation

Fig. 7. Concentration of Au in percussion drill till samples (grid 200 × 200 m; <0.06 mm fraction analysed by ICP-MS after aqua regia digestion)
on a ground electromagnetic map. Also shown are weathered bedrock samples (wr), Drill hole R318; the location of test trench in Fig. 4.
 Downloaded from http://geea.lyellcollection.org/ at Instituto Geologico Minero y Metalurgico on September 2, 2013

140 O. Sarapää & P. Sarala

Fig. 8. Concentration of Y and Au in till over the geological map of the Mäkärä area. Black-line shows the Au-hematite vein, intersected with drill
hole R318. Modified after the Bedrock of Finland - DigiKP.

metamorphic stage during granulite formation. Furthermore,
heavy mineral studies including SEM and MLA analyses
revealed that typical REE minerals were monazite, rhab-
dophane, xenotime and zircon.
Gold grains were common in saprolite (max. 19 nuggets
per 12 litres) above the hematite vein and near the contact
with the vein, as described earlier. Gold grains were also
found in till near the vein (max. 31 nuggets) although 8 nug-
gets were still observed as far away as 35 m from the vein.
Grain size of Au nuggets varied from some tens of microme-
tres to millimetres in scale. Grain shape was usually eudhedral,
with clear crystal surfaces (Fig. 10a), but plates and wires were
also common (Fig. 10b). Signs of secondary crystallisation (cf.
Macdonald 2007; Hough et al. 2009) were also apparent in
some grains, where dendritic grains existed at the surface of
eudhedral grains (Figs 10c, d). The Au content of grains was
commonly high (94–97%) and many grains were composed of
pure Au.
Discussion
The results show that the regional geochemical datasets
which include regional till (1 sample per 4 km2) and bedrock
geochemistry (1 sample per 30 km2) are useful for identifying
potential areas for REE in Finland. Although, the regional till
geochemical data only included La and Y as REE (<0.06 mm
fraction, aqua regia, ICP-AES), the similarity in REE behav-
iour means that total REE content and LREE and HREE
 Downloaded from http://geea.lyellcollection.org/ at Instituto Geologico Minero y Metalurgico on September 2, 2013
Rare earth element and gold exploration
Fig. 9. Concentration of Y in till (grid 200 m × 200 m; <0.06 mm fraction analysed by ICP-MS after aqua regia digestion), presented on the tho-
rium (Th) radiation map. Y has a clear positive correlation with Th.
distribution can be predicted. High La indicates high LREE,
while high Y indicates high HREE. Mineral analysis of till
and weathered bedrock samples from Petäjälehto at TB by
Mineral Liberation Analyzer (MLA) shows that monazite,
rhabdophane, xenotime and zircon are typical REE-bearing
minerals (Lehtonen et al. 2011). LREE are more concentrated
in monazite and rhapdophane, while HREE follow Y in
xenotime and zircon. However, the effect of long-distance
transport on the indicator mineral content of till is not clear,
because the heavy minerals such as garnet, ilmenite, rutile,
monazite and zircon are also common in granulites (Tuisku
& Huhma 2006; Tuisku et al. 2006), located north of the
Mäkärä area. Considering the ice flow direction towards the
east and northeast, the latest influence of granulitic sources is
probably not significant.
In terms of regional bedrock geochemistry, anomalous Y
and La contents are concentrated in the arkosic gneiss area of
the TB. The reason for the enrichment of REE in arkosic
gneisses might be hydrothermal processes related to granulite
overthrusting or intrusion of post-orogenic granite of Nattanen
type, as in the case for the Au-hematite veins closely related to
the shear zones. However, based on recent mapping, arkosic
gneiss has been interpreted as a metasedimentary rock because
of the primary bedding and composition of arkosic gneiss
(Bedrock of Finland - DigiKP). Primary texture is also seen in
well-preserved saprolite. REE-bearing minerals such as xeno-
time, monazite and zircon could be concentrated in heavy
mineral placers or enriched in late pegmatite veins (Sarala et al.
2009). Paleoplacers could explain the exceptionally high and
widespread Y anomalies in the geochemistry of the Tana Belt
contrast with other parts of Northern Finland.
The ionic adsorption type REE deposits of China cur-
rently produce all the HREE in the world. At Mäkärä, sapro-
lite has very similar total REE content to the underlying
bedrock. The total REE content at Mäkärä is 0.005% (max
0.1%) which is nearly at the same level as in the Chinese
deposits (Chi & Tian 2008; Sanematsu et al. 2009). Saprolite-
type weathering is mainly concentrated in the shear zones at
141
Mäkärä, where chemical weathering has been stimulated by
oxidation of sulphides such as pyrite and pyrrhotite. Analyses
from diamond and percussion drilling and trench samples
have established that the Au-hematite deposit and the highest
REE concentrations occur separately (Figs 5c, 9) In the
Mäkärä area, kaolinitic saprolite derived from arkosic gneisses
contains more LREE and less HREE than saprock because it
represents the basal part of the weathering profile, as also
indicated by the CIA index (Nesbitt & Young 1982).
Hydrothermal alteration during the formation of Au-hematite
veins may have produced altered material depleted in REE
(cf. Nesbitt 1979).
Systematic geochemical till sampling by percussion drill in a
200- m grid can be useful for Au and REE exploration. The
correlation between Au in till and in weathered bedrock sam-
ples is significant because the glacial transport distance at
Mäkärä is short, 100–200 m. Although till is locally derived, it
has a much wider distribution than weathered bedrock. Thus,
while high Au content in samples from weathered rock is a
direct indication of mineralisation, in target-scale exploration
analysis of till is more effective because of its wider distribu-
tion. In the case of La and Y in particular, our sampling at
200- m spacing accurately indicated potentially anomalous
areas. Gold in till in grid sampling correlates well with the
occurrence of hematite-rich zones in the bedrock (cf. Sarala &
Sarapää 2011), but the sampling density could be higher for Au
exploration.
Conclusions
Systematic geochemical sampling of till and underlying weath-
ered bedrock were used for exploration of Au and REE, com-
bined with geophysical electromagnetic and radiation data in a
poorly exposed area of Northern Finland. Yttrium and other
REE and Au showed mineral exploration potential in the
Mäkärä area related to Au-hematite-quartz veins and surround-
ing hydrothermally altered and weathered (kaolinitic saprolite)
arkosic gneiss bedrock. Based on detailed geochemical studies
 Downloaded from http://geea.lyellcollection.org/ at Instituto Geologico Minero y Metalurgico on September 2, 2013
142 O. Sarapää & P. Sarala
Fig. 10. Backscattered photos of (A) eudhedral Au nugget with clear crystal surfaces; (B) plates and wires of Au; (C, D) marks of secondary
crystallisation; dendritic grains at the surface of eudhedral grains. Photos by Marja Lehtonen.
with trenching and diamond drilling, Au was found to be
closely related and to have strong correlations to the positive
electromagnetic anomalies caused by the sulphidic bedrock.
The concentrations of La, Y and other REE correlated well
with the Th maxima of the radiation datasets.
The authors want to thank Mr. Antero Karvinen and Mr. Aki Magga
for assistance during field work and Mr. Jorma Valkama for assis-
tance in the field and heavy mineral studies. Personnel at the GTK
mineral laboratories in Outokumpu and Espoo are also thanked for
heavy mineral analyses. Dr. Marja Lehtonen and Dr. Thair Al-Ani
are acknowledged for the SEM analyses. We would like to thank the
reviewers Dr. Gwendy Hall and Dr. Isabelle McMartin for their con-
structive comments and corrections.
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Received 23 January 2012; revised typescript accepted 1 May 2012.

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