FAILURE

Material Science and

Engineering

Marcharlie Caesar P. Padilla

 Introduction
Preventing the failure of engineering
materials is a challenging task,
despite our understanding of the
causes of failure and material
behavior.

This difficulty arises from the

significant consequences associated
with material failure, including threats
to human safety, financial losses, and
disruptions to the availability of
products and services.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Describe the mechanism of crack propagation
1 for both ductile and brittle modes of fracture.

Explain why the strengths of brittle materials are much lower than
2 predicted by theoretical calculations.

Define fracture toughness in terms of (a) a brief statement and (b) an

3 equation; define all parameters in this equation.

Make a distinction between fracture toughness

4 and plane strain fracture toughness.

Name and describe the two impact fracture

5 testing techniques.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Define fatigue and specify the conditions under
6 which it occurs.

Define creep and specify the conditions under

7 which it occurs.
 Introduction
Engineers are tasked with the duty of
foreseeing and preparing for potential
failures. When failures do happen,
engineers are responsible for
investigating their root causes and
implementing suitable preventative
measures to avoid future
occurrences.
MODES OF FAILURE

1 FRACTURE

2 FATIGUE

3 CREEP
Fundamentals of
FRACTURE
Simple Fracture
• separation of a body into two or
more pieces in response to an
imposed stress

Any fracture process involves two

steps: (1) crack formation and (2)
propagation; in response to an imposed
stress.
 Mechanism of Crack Propagation
Ductile Fracture
Ductile materials undergo plastic deformation before failure. In the mechanism
of crack propagation in ductile fracture, a small crack initiates at a weak point
within the material. The material near the crack tip experiences plastic
deformation due to stress concentration. As the load continues, the crack
propagates slowly, with plastic deformation occurring ahead of the crack tip.
This plastic deformation helps absorb energy, making the material tough and
able to resist catastrophic failure.

Brittle Fracture
Brittle materials do not exhibit significant plastic deformation before failure. In
brittle fracture, a crack initiates and propagates rapidly through the material
without noticeable plastic deformation. The fracture occurs abruptly, often with
a characteristic “cleavage” pattern, as the bonds holding the material together
break.
 Mechanism of Crack Propagation
Ductile Fracture
Ductile materials undergo plastic deformation before failure. In the mechanism
of crack propagation in ductile fracture, a small crack initiates at a weak point
within the material. The material near the crack tip experiences plastic
deformation due to stress concentration. As the load continues, the crack
propagates slowly, with plastic deformation occurring ahead of the crack tip.
This plastic deformation helps absorb energy, making the material tough and
able to resist catastrophic failure.

Brittle Fracture
Brittle materials do not exhibit significant plastic deformation before failure. In
brittle fracture, a crack initiates and propagates rapidly through the material
without noticeable plastic deformation. The fracture occurs abruptly, often with
a characteristic “cleavage” pattern, as the bonds holding the material together
break.
Strengths of Brittle Materials vs. Theoretical Calculations

• The strengths of brittle materials are often lower than

predicted by theoretical calculations due to various factors
such as the presence of defects, microcracks, or impurities
within the material. These imperfections act as stress
concentrators, causing local stress concentrations that can
initiate cracks at lower stress levels than expected.
Additionally, brittle materials are highly sensitive to flaws and
exhibit minimal plastic deformation, making them susceptible
to sudden and catastrophic failure.
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS

• Fracture toughness is a material property that quantifies its

resistance to crack propagation. It measures the amount of
stress a material can withstand while containing an existing
crack or flaw.
• The fracture toughness, often denoted as , is defined by the
following equation:
Fracture Toughness vs. Plane Strain Fracture Toughnes

• Fracture toughness () is a measure of a material's resistance to

crack propagation in a mode loading condition (opening mode),
where the crack is under plane stress. Plane strain fracture
toughness () refers to the resistance to crack propagation under
plane strain conditions, where the material experiences
deformation in the thickness direction. The key difference lies in
the stress state, with plane stress being a more severe condition
for crack propagation than plane strain.
 Impact Fracture Testing Techniques
Charpy Impact Test
In the Charpy impact test, a notched specimen is struck by a pendulum
hammer, causing it to fracture. The energy absorbed by the specimen during
fracture is measured. This test is used to evaluate a material's toughness and
its ability to withstand sudden impact loading.

Izod Impact Test

The Izod impact test is similar to the Charpy test but involves a different
specimen configuration. A notched specimen is fixed vertically, and a
pendulum hammer strikes it. The energy required to fracture the specimen is
measured. Like the Charpy test, this is used to assess a material's resistance
to impact loading.
FATIGUE
• Fatigue is the progressive and localized
structural damage that occurs when a
material is subjected to repeated cyclic
loading conditions. It typically occurs under
conditions of fluctuating stress or strain,
leading to the initiation and growth of cracks
over time. Fatigue failure often occurs at
stress levels significantly lower than the
material's static strength.
Conditions Under Which Fatigue Occurs:
• Cyclic Loading: Fatigue typically arises when a material is subjected to cyclic or
fluctuating loads. These loads can include tension, compression, bending, or
torsion. The material experiences alternating periods of stress and relief,
creating a cyclical stress profile.
• Stress Amplitude: Fatigue failure is sensitive to the stress amplitude, which is
the difference between the maximum and minimum stresses experienced
during each loading cycle. It's not just the magnitude of the stress but also
how it fluctuates that matters.
• Large Number of Cycles: Fatigue occurs over a large number of cycles rather
than in a single loading event. Even if the stress levels are well below the
material's ultimate strength, repeated loading and unloading can lead to
fatigue damage.
Conditions Under Which Fatigue Occurs:
• Notch Sensitivity: Materials with stress-concentrating features like
notches, scratches, or other defects are more prone to fatigue failure.
These features can act as stress raisers, intensifying the localized stresses.
• Environmental Effects: Environmental factors, such as high temperatures,
corrosive atmospheres, or humidity, can accelerate fatigue crack growth.
These factors can cause the crack to propagate more quickly, reducing the
material's fatigue life.
CREEP
Materials are frequently utilized under
conditions where they are subjected to
elevated temperatures and enduring
static mechanical forces. This gradual
and time-dependent deformation that
materials experience when exposed to
a consistent load or stress in such
situations is known as “CREEP.”
Conditions Under Which Creep Occurs:
• Elevated Temperatures: Creep typically occurs at temperatures well above
ambient, often exceeding 30-40% of the material's melting point. At these
elevated temperatures, the atomic and molecular movements within the
material become more pronounced.
• Constant Load or Stress: Creep deformation takes place under a constant load
or stress. This sustained stress causes the material to slowly deform over time.
• Time-Dependent: Unlike traditional elastic deformation, where the material
returns to its original shape when the load is removed, creep deformation is
time-dependent and irreversible. The material gradually deforms under the
applied stress.
Conditions Under Which Creep Occurs:
• Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Creep: Creep can be divided into three
stages:
-Primary Creep: In the initial stage, the creep rate is relatively high
but decelerates over time.
-Secondary Creep: This stage features a more constant and
sustained creep rate.
-Tertiary Creep: In the final stage, the creep rate accelerates
rapidly, leading to eventual failure.
THANK YOU!