GFF volume 00 (2012), pp. 1–15.

A Scandinavian Journal of Earth Sciences Article

Palaeoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary succession hosting

the Dannemora iron ore deposits, Bergslagen region, Sweden
P. DAHLIN1, R. ALLEN2 and H. SJÖSTRÖM1
Dahlin, P., Allen, R. & Sjöström, H., 2012: Palaeoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary succession hosting
the Dannemora iron ore deposits, Bergslagen region, Sweden. GFF, Vol. 00 (Pt. x), pp. 1–15. q Geologiska Föreningen.
doi: 10.1080/11035897.2012.674551.
Abstract: The Dannemora supracrustal inlier is located in the north-eastern part of the Bergslagen region
in south-central Sweden and hosts the second largest iron ore deposit in the region. The metasupracrustal
succession of the inlier consists of c. 1.9 Ga Palaeoproterozoic rocks that are mainly sub-alkaline, rhyolitic
to dacitic, pyroclastic deposits, reworked pyroclastic deposits and metalimestone. It is c. 700–800-m thick
and termed the Dannemora Formation. The formation is divided into lower and upper members and the
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former is in turn subdivided into subunits 1 and 2. The great thickness of individual pyroclastic deposits
indicates deposition within a caldera. The rocks show characteristics of a pyroclastic origin by containing
abundant pumice, cuspate and Y-shaped former glass shards, and fragmented crystals of quartz and
subordinate feldspars. Scattered spherulites and lack of welding-compacted fiamme suggest that the lower
member was slightly welded, where as the upper member contains sericite-replaced glass shards with
preserved primary shapes indicating no welding. Undisturbed layers of ash-siltstone with normal grading
and fluid– escape structures are attributed to subaqueous deposition below storm wave base in the eastern
part of the inlier, where as erosion channels and cross-bedding in some of the volcaniclastic deposits imply
deposition and reworking above wave base in the central part of the inlier. Epidote spots, previously
interpreted as altered limestone fragments and an indicator for subaquatic deposition, are here reinterpreted
as the result of selective alteration related to the intrusion of mafic dykes and to Ca release during
dolomitisation of limestone.
Keywords: Bergslagen; Dannemora; Palaeoproterozoic; pyroclastic rocks; volcanic textures;
ignimbrites
1
Earth Sciences, Villavägen 16, SE-75236 Uppsala, Sweden; peter.dahlin@geo.uu.se, hakan.sjostrom@geo.uu.se
2
Division of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luleå,
Sweden; rodney.allen@ltu.se
Manuscript received 14 October 2011. Revised manuscript accepted 7 March 2012.

Introduction
The Dannemora inlier contains some of the best preserved
metasupracrustal rocks in the Bergslagen region, south-central
Sweden. These rocks therefore provide a unique opportunity to
study primary structures and textures of both pyroclastic and
sedimentary rocks within the Palaeoproterozoic, Svecofennian
supracrustal succession including the palaeoenvironment in which
the Dannemora iron ore deposit is formed. The aim of the study
presented in this paper was to define and interpret the primary
textures and deposition environment, and to refine the existing
evolutionary model of the Dannemora inlier (Lager 2001).
Particular emphasis was put on defining the eruption style, i.e.
eruption, transport and deposition processes of the volcanic
products, subaerial versus subaqueous deposition environment,
evidence for emplacement temperature and distance from eruption
centre. As the entire region has been subjected to at least two
episodes of folding, the establishment of stratigraphy and younging
directions is crucial for structural interpretations.
Geological setting – Bergslagen region
The Bergslagen region is situated in the south-central part of the
Fennoscandian Shield (Fig. 1). This region is intensely mineralised
and known for a long mining history, going back to the Early
Middle Ages.
The region constitutes a component of the plate-tectonic collage
making up the Palaeoproterozoic Svecofennian (Svecokarelian)
accretionary orogen (e.g. Gaál & Gorbatschev 1987; Nironen
1997; Korja & Heikkinen 2005). It is bounded to the north by a
deformation zone (e.g. Tirén & Beckholmen 1990; Stephens et al.
1994; Högdahl et al. 2009) coinciding with a metamorphic break
(Stålhös 1991). This deformation zone, which is accompanied by
migmatites, has been suggested to represent a crustal scale domain
or terrane boundary (Lahtinen et al. 2005; Högdahl et al. 2009) or
a separate tectonic domain (ductile high-strain belt; Hermansson
et al. 2007). To the west and south, the supracrustal and plutonic
rocks of the Bergslagen region were tectonically reworked and
 2 Dahlin et al.: Palaeoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary succession . . . deposits
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Fig. 1. Geological map of the Fennoscandian shield with the Bergslagen region outlined by the rectangle, see Fig. 2 (modified after Koistinen et al.
2001 in Stephens et al. 2009).
intruded by plutonic rocks along the transscandinavian igneous
belt (TIB; e.g. Högdahl et al. 2004).
The southern part of the Bergslagen region mainly consists of
clastic metasedimentary rocks, 1.89 –1.87 Ga subduction-related
metagranitoids and subordinate 1.91 – 1.89 Ga metavolcanic
rocks (Fig. 2; Andersson et al. 2006; Stephens et al. 2007, 2009).
The latter mainly consist of felsic ignimbrites and their reworked
equivalents (e.g. Allen et al. 1996) that were predominantly
deposited in relatively shallow marine environments (Beunk &
Valbracht 1991; Allen et al. 1996).
Metagranitoids dominate the entire region. Narrow synclinal,
dominantly felsic metavolcanic inliers occur in the northern
parts and are more frequent and wider to the west (Fig. 2). A suite
of 1.85 – 1.75 Ga granites and pegmatites is found in the northern
and western parts of the region and locally in the eastern part
(Stephens et al. 2009).
The metamorphic grade of Bergslagen ranges from greenschist
to amphibolite facies in the western parts and from amphibolite
to granulite facies in the southern parts (Stephens et al. 2007,
2009). Lager (2001) suggested that the well-preserved rocks of
the Dannemora inlier have been affected by lower greenschist
facies metamorphism. But, uppermost greenschist facies
conditions are indicated by a recent study (Dahlin & Sjöström
2010). Dating of metamorphic overgrowths on magmatic zircons
from the northern part of the Bergslagen region suggests two
major metamorphic peaks at 1.87 and 1.80 Ga, respectively
(e.g. Andersson et al. 2006; Hermansson et al. 2008).
Based on the bimodal character and geochemistry of the
volcanic rocks, the tectonic setting of the Bergslagen region was
interpreted as a thinned and incipiently rifted continental crust
GFF 00 (2012)
(Oen et al. 1982; Van der Velden et al. 1982). Beunk & Valbracht
(1991) and Allen et al. (1996) extended this interpretation and
suggested that it represents a continental back-arc magmatic
region. The extensive thinning of the crust and formation of a
back-arc basin resulted in decompression, and as a consequence,
partial melting of the upper mantle, and an increased geothermal
gradient in the crust. Mafic melts intruded the extended crust and
caused the formation of large volumes of rhyolitic magma that
partly crystallised to batholiths but also produced large felsic
caldera volcanoes. Eruptions of voluminous pyroclastic flows
resulted in extensive and thick ignimbrites.
Allen et al. (1996) divided the volcanic evolution of the
Bergslagen region into an intensive volcanic stage followed by a
waning volcanic stage. The intensive stage, characterised by
crustal thinning and subsidence (competing with thermal
doming), created accommodation space for more than 8 km of
mainly poorly stratified, juvenile volcaniclastic deposits in less
than 15 million years in the western part of the region (Allen
et al. 1996). These rocks were deposited in mainly shallow
marine to locally subaerial environments. During the waning
volcanic stage, subsidence episodically prevailed over volcani-
clastic influx creating periods and sites with deeper but still
moderately shallow marine environments of hundreds of metre
water depth, where stromatolitic microbial limestones and
stratified volcaniclastic sediments were deposited (Allen et al.
1996). Numerous iron oxide and base metal sulphide deposits
formed during the waning stage. The sulphide ores vary from
stratiform Zn – Pb –Ag deposits to stratabound Zn –Pb – Ag –Au
and Cu – Zn –Pb – Ag – Au deposits (Allen et al. 1996). The iron
oxide ores are mainly metamorphosed banded iron formations
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Fig. 2. Map showing the geology of the Bergslagen region (modified after Stephens et al. 2009). The Dannemora inlier is highlighted by a square,
see Fig. 3. The deformation zones in the northern part of the Bergslagen region are the SSZ and the GRZ. The outline of the continuous SSZ – GRZ
is from Högdahl et al. (2009).
(BIF), magnetite replacement deposits and a few large intrusion-
related apatite occurrences (Magnusson 1970). Generally, the
supracrustal rocks are the host to the ore deposits.
On the basis of volcanic and sedimentary facies, presence of
intrusive rocks and alteration, Allen et al. (1996) defined three
main facies associations related to volcanic centres in the
Bergslagen region: proximal (within a caldera), medial (just
outside a caldera on gentle slopes) and distal (volcano margin).
The proximal facies association typically consists of very thick
ignimbrites, with or without thick air-fall deposits, multiple and
both chemically and texturally different intrusions (e.g. various
different porphyritic rhyolites and basalts), and strong hydro-
thermal alteration. The medial facies association is characterised
by massive in situ and reworked thin ignimbrites (compared to
proximal facies), ash-siltstone, volcaniclastic sandstones and
limestone beds, and the distal facies association is characterised
by ash-siltstone and limestone beds. These facies associations
may fluctuate with time at any given location and also interfinger
laterally.
The north-eastern part of the Bergslagen region is character-
ised by large-scale folds and major deformation zones (e.g.
Stålhös 1991; Persson & Sjöström 2003; Hermansson et al.
2007). The region has been affected by at least two episodes of
ductile deformation, D1 and D2, resulting in folds (F1 and F2)
and shear zones. In the eastern part of the region, F1 folds are
isoclinal to tight, upright to slightly overturned and generally
have north– south trending horizontal to sub-horizontal fold
axes, whereas F2 folds have steep to moderately plunging axes
with a shallower plunge in the higher metamorphic grade rocks
in the Stockholm area to the south (Stålhös 1991).
3
Dannemora inlier
The stratigraphy of the Dannemora inlier (Figs. 2, 3) was
subdivided into a lower and an upper formation by Lager (2001).
The lower formation lacks known mineralisation; it consists
mainly of ignimbrites and is correlated with the intensive
volcanic stage of Allen et al. (1996). The upper formation
consists of fine-grained reworked volcaniclastic metasedimen-
tary rocks and subordinate metalimestones, and may be
correlated with the waning volcanic stage of Allen et al.
(1996). Dating of a massive pyroclastic flow deposit from the
upper part of the lower formation returned a U-Pb zircon TIMS
age of 1894 ^ 4 Ma (Stephens et al. 2009). The Dannemora iron
ore deposit, which is the second largest iron ore deposit in
Bergslagen, is hosted by predominantly dolomitic metalimes-
tones and subordinate metavolcanic rocks of the upper formation
within the Dannemora syncline (Allen et al. 1996).
Mafic dykes of basaltic composition (Table 1) have been
recorded in almost every outcrop. The dykes range in thickness
from a couple of centimetres to c. 1.5 m and have a typical
greenschist facies metamorphic mineral assemblage of amphi-
bole, chlorite, epidote and plagioclase, some of which is
saussuritised. The chemical and isotopic characteristics of the
dykes and their relationships to ultramafic to mafic intrusive
rocks in the eastern part of the Bergslagen region (Johansson
et al. 2011) will be reported in a forthcoming paper.
Few folds have been recorded in the Dannemora inlier.
Mesoscale F1 folding is indicated by bedding/cleavage
relationships (Dahlin & Sjöström 2010 and work in progress),
and 2 km-scale F1 synclines and an intervening anticline have
been defined from variations in stratigraphic younging
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Fig. 3. Map of the Dannemora inlier with the older supracrustal rocks surrounded by slightly younger granitoids (modified after Stålhös, 1991).
Boreholes are projected to the surface. The prefix “meta-” has been omitted from rock names. The deformation zone is the Österbybruk
Deformation Zone (ÖDZ). The dacitic PQP and PQ are grouped as feldspar . qz-phyric, massive volcanic rock. Key localities: 1. Flotation pumice
deposit (cf. Fig. 7D), northern part of the Bennbo area at location E1612190/N6679475, Swedish national grid, 2. Accretionary lapilli in
ash-siltstone (cf. Fig. 7A) located in the north-western part of the Dannemora area at E1614290/N6678825, 3. Bennbo area is a c. 50 m wide
outcrop area oriented east – west, i.e. perpendicular to the general strike of the bedding (at location E1612115/N6679030), 4. Outcrop with spherical
spherulites (cf. Fig. 6C), at location E1613560/N6679980, 5. Reworked volcaniclastic deposit with spherulite-bearing fragments (cf. Fig. 6B) at
location E1612440/N6679415.

directions interpreted from sedimentary structures (Fig. 3;
Bennbo and Dannemora synclines). These structures were
overprinted by F2 folds with moderately north– west plunging
axes and steep axial surfaces. As in most parts of the Bergslagen
region, F2 folds are often accompanied by a distinct lineation.
A major, east-side-up, ductile shear zone, the Österbybruk
deformation zone (ÖDZ; Fig. 3), truncates the eastern limb of
the Dannemora syncline (Dahlin & Sjöström 2010). The ÖDZ
was reactivated under brittle – ductile and brittle conditions
(Persson & Sjöström 2003; Engström & Skelton 2003), and it
has been documented at depth by a reflection seismic
investigation (Malehmir et al. 2011). Persson & Sjöström
(2003) suggested that ductile shear zones in the southern
continuation of the ÖDZ represent a folded splay of the Singö
shear zone (SSZ; Fig. 2). The SSZ had pervasive ductile
deformation at 1.87– 1.86 Ga (Hermansson et al. 2007) and more
localised deformation after 1.85 Ga (Hermansson et al. 2008).
The SSZ and its continuation westward, the Gävle Rättvik zone
(GRZ; Fig. 2), represent a part of the crustal scale domain or
terrane boundary that has been suggested to separate the
Bergslagen region from higher metamorphic grade tectonic units
to the north (Högdahl et al. 2009).
Methods
Mapping of outcrops was carried out during 2007– 2009.
In addition, over 2000 m of drill core from boreholes Bh 276, 286
and 494 was geologically logged. The latter borehole penetrates
nearly the entire supracrustal succession, including the iron ore-
bearing metalimestones. Bh 276 and Bh 286 are situated close to
each other and both are inclined east –south– east, whereas Bh
494 is located c. 1 km to the south and is inclined south– east
(Fig. 3). As Bh 494 is the only borehole that penetrates the entire
succession, interpretation of the stratigraphy is mainly based on
this drill core and supported by field observations.
Thin sections were prepared from both field and drill core
samples. Due to the small grain size of the metavolcanic rocks,
point counting to determine the modal composition of the rocks
was not feasible. Geochemical analyses are used in combination
with field observations to define rock compositions.
Results
All the rock types are referred to by their pre-metamorphic
equivalents in the subsequent text. Generally, the beds
dip steeper than 758W and strike about south –south– west if
nothing else is stated (Fig. 3). Fieldwork and drill core logging
show that the entire supracrustal succession of the Dannemora
inlier has a true stratigraphic thickness of about 700 –800 m. The
succession is referred to as the Dannemora Formation (DFm),
and is divided into a lower and an upper member, which broadly
correspond to the upper and lower formations of Lager (2001).
The lower member is further divided into two subunits (Fig. 4).
 GFF 00 (2012) Dahlin et al.: Palaeoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary succession . . . deposits 5

Table 1. Mean concentrations of major and trace elements of the volcanic rocks,
grouped into lower and upper subunit of the lower member, the upper member,
and of the basaltic dykes of the Dannemora inlier. n is number of samples.

Lower member – Lower member – Upper Mafic

Subunit 1 Subunit 2 member dykes
n 30 16 10 18
SiO2 % 74.0 71.6 76.0 46.4
Al2O3 % 12.7 13.7 11.3 15.4
Fe2O3 2 tot % 2.3 3.0 2.1 11.6
MgO % 1.0 0.7 0.6 7.3
CaO % 0.9 1.8 2.6 9.9
Na2O % 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.3
K2O % 5.7 5.8 3.6 1.4
TiO2 % 0.1 0.2 0.1 1.0
P2O5 % ,0.01 0.0 0.0 0.2
MnO % 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.3
Cr2O3 % ,0.002 ,0.002 ,0.002 0.0
Ag ppm ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.1
As ppm ,0.5 ,0.5 2.9 8.6
Au ppb ,0.5 ,0.5 ,0.5 ,0.5
Ba ppm 836.7 668.3 695.8 232.9
Be ppm 2.1 1.9 2.2 ,1
Bi ppm ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.1
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Cd ppm ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.1

Ce ppm 88.1 70.4 71.3 23.2
Co ppm 1.2 1.7 0.9 35.5
Cs ppm 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.8
Cu ppm 2.3 3.3 1.4 14.3
Dy ppm 4.8 4.3 6.1 2.6
Er ppm 3.0 2.6 3.7 1.5
Eu ppm 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.0
Ga ppm 16.0 15.7 14.2 15.5
Gd ppm 5.4 4.6 6.2 2.8
Hf ppm 5.5 6.0 6.0 1.6
Hg ppm 0.0 ,0.01 ,0.01 ,0.01
Ho ppm 1.0 0.9 1.3 0.5
La ppm 42.6 33.9 32.6 10.2 Fig. 4. The stratigraphic column of the DFm. It is mainly based on the
Lu ppm 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.2
Mo ppm 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.5 logging of drill core 494. Levels containing granitoids marked with
Nb ppm 13.5 10.9 16.0 4.2 black stars. The location of the borehole is shown in Fig. 3. The arrow
Nd ppm 39.1 30.6 34.4 13.6 shows the stratigraphic position of the radiometric dating. Two granite
Ni ppm 0.7 0.7 0.7 34.2 dykes have been recorded and as they are not part of the DFm, their
Pb ppm 2.8 2.2 3.2 3.8 respective stratigraphic levels are indicated by black stars.
Pr ppm 10.4 8.2 8.7 3.1
Rb ppm 126.2 154.6 108.0 58.2
Sb ppm ,0.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 the intervening anticline (Fig. 3). Rocks of the lower member are
Sc ppm 8.3 7.5 5.0 40.1 exposed only in the anticline and those of the upper member
Se ppm ,0.5 ,0.5 ,0.5 ,0.5 only in the synclines. In the following text, the rocks are
Sm ppm 6.8 5.5 6.9 3.0
Sn ppm ,1 1.9 2.2 ,1 described in stratigraphic order from oldest to youngest.
Sr ppm 46.8 51.6 85.6 308.6 The lower member consists of thick massive pyroclastic
Ta ppm 1.0 0.9 1.1 0.3 breccia deposits and their reworked counterparts, whereas a
Tb ppm 0.9 0.8 1.1 0.5
Th ppm 12.8 10.6 11.9 1.4 thinner pyroclastic breccia, limestones and ash-siltstones
Tl ppm ,0.1 ,0.1 0.2 ,0.1 constitute the upper member. The lower boundary of DFm is
Tm ppm 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.2
U ppm 4.4 3.6 4.2 0.6 not exposed but the highest level of the formation is exposed in
V ppm ,8 ,8 ,8 261.4 the Bennbo and Dannemora synclines (Fig. 3).
W ppm 2.0 1.3 1.0 0.8
Y ppm 27.9 24.6 34.7 14.0
Yb ppm 3.0 2.7 3.7 1.4
Zn ppm 11.3 10.7 8.2 71.7 Lower member
Zr ppm 177.2 200.5 182.8 56.9 Most of the observations of the lower member are based on
logging of drill cores 276, 286 and 494, but also field
Chemical compositions (average values) of the two subunits observations in the western part of the inlier (Fig. 3). Core 494
of the lower member, the upper member and the mafic dykes are starts in the western limb of the anticline and passes the inferred
listed in Table 1. The volcanic rocks classify as sub-alkaline, axial surface at , 350 m along the core (Fig. 3). The division of
mainly rhyolitic and subordinately dacitic with two outliers that the lower member into two subunits is based on the presence of
plot as comendite/pantellerite in Fig. 5A. Based on a bivariate an ash-siltstone bed containing accretionary lapilli that separates
plot with La and Yb, the rocks are interpreted to be mainly calc- two thick massive and reworked pyroclastic breccias. The bed
alkaline with three exceptions, which plot as transitional that defines the top of subunit 2 is missing in drill core 494, but it
between tholeiitic and calc-alkaline (Fig. 5B). is exposed in an outcrop east of Gruvsjön (key locality 2, Fig. 3).
The lower member has a total thickness of 500–600 m. Subunit 1
Stratigraphy is c. 150 m thick and consists of a lower massive juvenile and partly
Apart from the drill cores, the stratigraphic interpretation is reworked pyroclastic breccia overlain by ash-siltstone. The massive
based on mapping of the rock successions in three separate pyroclastic breccia contains abundant red to brown, compact lapilli-
structural domains: the Bennbo and Dannemora synclines and sized clasts with ,2 mm quartz phenocrysts and the matrix has
 6 Dahlin et al.: Palaeoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary succession . . . deposits
Fig. 5. A. In the Nb/Y vs. Zr/TiO2 diagram (after Winchester & Floyd 1977), 48 of the 62 samples plot as rhyolite, 12 as rhyodacite-dacite and all
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except two are sub-alkaline. Two samples plot as comendite/pantellerite. B. The bivariate plot of Yb vs. La classifies all the rocks in the Dannemora
inlier as calc-alkaline with three exceptions which plot as transitional to tholeiitic (after Barrett & Maclean 1999).
unevenly distributed ,3 mm quartz crystal fragments (Fig. 6A).
The compact lapilli-sized clasts are rod-like and, importantly, they
are not flattened. At some locations, they contain a weak internal
foliation bending around phenocrysts. Apparently, they have
similar rheological characteristics as the matrix, because the
tectonic foliation does not bend around the clasts. The latter have
their longest axis parallel to the tectonic lineation, L2, generally
plunging moderately to steeply towards north–west. The clasts are
equant in sections perpendicular to the lineation indicating that they
have been affected by constrictional ductile strain.
The reworked parts of subunit 1 consist of 15– 60 cm thick,
plane-parallel layers of matrix-supported breccias to conglom-
erates (Fig. 6B). White, compact clasts up to 3.5 cm in size with
spherulitic texture are common. The top part of subunit 1 is a
25 –30 m thick, stratified ash-siltstone, with matrix-supported
accretionary lapilli of , 5 mm diameter.
Subunit 2 is c. 400 m thick and has the same appearance as
subunit 1. Both spherical (Fig. 6C) and pectinate-shaped
spherulites (Fig. 6D) occur sporadically in this subunit of
pyroclastic sandstone-breccia.
In the western part of the Dannemora inlier, west of the
Bennbo area (Fig. 3), a dacitic plagioclase-quartz-phyric (PQP)
sandy textured rock (sandstone) contains 3 –5%, 0.5 –2 mm
plagioclase phenocrysts, mainly as fragments, and , 1%
subhedral, generally 2– 3 mm quartz phenocrysts. In addition,
black, 3 mm long, wavy fiamme have been documented south of
road 292 (Fig. 3). Via a contact, which dips moderately south–
south – west and strikes 1258, the PQP is overlain by plagioclase-
phyric (PP) volcanic sandstone to the south –west (Fig. 3). Here,
the PQP sandstone contains , 1% brown, , 10 cm long clasts
with millimetre-sized plagioclase phenocrysts. The PP sand-
stone has c. 3% of 2 –3 mm-sized plagioclase phenocrysts.
On the basis of similarities in texture and geochemistry, the PP
and PQP are both classified as rhyodacite –dacite. They are
grouped as feldspar . quartz-phyric (more feldspar than quartz-
phyric), massive volcanic rock on the geological map (Fig. 3).
Dannemora area
One outcrop in the western limb of the Dannemora syncline
exposes the top part of subunit 2 (key locality 2, Fig. 3). It consists
GFF 00 (2012)
of massive pyroclastic breccia overlain by a c. 8 m thick
accretionary lapilli-bearing ash-siltstone unit with 10–20 cm
thick, grey and brown planar layers. The stratified sections contain
structures such as load casts and graded bedding, indicating
stratigraphic younging towards the east. The accretionary lapilli
have diameters of 5–10 mm. They are zoned and display light
grey cores and dark grey rims (Fig. 7A). In thin sections, it is
obvious that the colour zonation is due to grain size differences;
coarser in the grey core and finer in the dark rim (Fig. 7B).
The basal contact to the upper member is not exposed. This
member begins with c. 50 m thick massive pyroclastic breccia
with scattered epidote spots. It contains ,3–4 mm-sized sericite-
aggregates with Y-shaped and concave margins (Fig. 7C) and
,2 mm quartz crystals unevenly distributed in the matrix. About
80 m of dolomitic to calcitic limestone, the host rock to the iron
ores, succeeds the pyroclastic breccia. The limestone contains
relict stromatolites, observed in this study only in drill cores.
Folded ash-siltstone laminae and beds are intercalated in the
limestone.
Bennbo area
Subunit 2 is partly exposed in the western limb of the Bennbo
syncline and can be traced more than 1 km along strike. It consists
of a more than 100 m thick, light grey, quartz crystal-rich massive
pyroclastic deposit, here referred to as Bennbo ignimbrite 1
(Big 1). The ignimbrite contains heterogeneously distributed
1 –5 mm-sized quartz crystal fragments in a recrystallised and
altered, formerly glassy, ash matrix. The upper part of the unit
contains scattered , 15 cm long crystal-rich clasts with pinched
tips (Fig. 7D). The top part of Big 1 (key locality 1, Fig. 3) consists
of crystal-rich, 10 –60 cm long clasts embedded in ash-siltstone
(Fig. 8A). The boundary between the lower and upper member is
not exposed, but Big 1 is overlain by a succession of c. 70 m thick,
bedded volcanic breccia-conglomerate, sandstone and ash-
siltstone. Beds range from 5 to 30 cm in thickness.
An iron oxide-bearing limestone bed with intercalated ash-
siltstone layers overlies the bedded sedimentary succession.
However, the contact has not been observed. The , 20 m thick
limestone bed contains a , 0.5 m thick ash-siltstone layer, which
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Fig. 6. A. Pyroclastic breccia with pink pumice lapilli. Some of the pumice clasts contain quartz crystals, indicated by arrows. The rod-like pumice
clasts are elongated parallel to the regional tectonic lineation. Photograph of sample from the lower member at location E1612530/N6678100
Swedish national grid. B. Photograph of a reworked part of the lower member. Reworking is evident in the layering within the matrix-supported
breccia to conglomerate (parallel to the black dashed line). The rounded fragments contain spherulites, evidence of hot deposition. Photograph from
outcrop at key locality 5. Scale bar is 2 cm. C. Spherical spherulite with the characteristic “extinction cross” is encircled by a white solid line
(from drill core Bh 286). The sample is from key locality 4 in Fig. 3. Microphotograph, crossed nicols and scale bar is 0.5 mm. D. Sketches of
pectinate shaped spherulites from lower member (both from drill core Bh 286). Crystal growth perpendicular to delimitation, resemble a pectinate,
and the grey areas are sericite aggregates. Note the difference in scale bar: upper is 1000 mm and lower is 200 mm.

displays an undulating bulbous western (lower) contact and a
planar eastern (upper) contact (Fig. 8B). Ash-siltstone laminae
that have been replaced by skarn to varying degrees are
intercalated with the limestone.
A second c. 20– 30 m thick pyroclastic breccia, Bennbo
ignimbrite 2 (Big 2), overlies the limestone, although the contact
is not exposed. Big 2 contains unevenly distributed, 1 –4 mm,
euhedral to subhedral and broken quartz crystals and white,
irregular , 3 –4 cm long compact clasts (Fig. 8C).
In the western limb of the Bennbo syncline, Big 2 grades
eastwards and stratigraphically upwards into a well-stratified,
felsic volcaniclastic succession. The transition from Big 2 to the
stratified succession comprises a couple of small erosion channels
filled with stratified volcanic sandstone, pebbly sandstone and
siltstone (Fig. 8D). This transition zone has been traced 370 m
northwards along strike. The stratified succession (Fig. 9) is c. 50 m
thick and consists of well-sorted volcanic sand- and siltstone, up to
2 m thick BIF beds, a skarn layer and c. 0.5 m thick, faintly layered,
fiamme-bearing pumice breccia (Fig. 10A). The succession is
dominated by volcanic sandstone and grades in several places
upwards into fine-sand/siltstone with intercalated BIF beds that
show eroded and/or reworked tops towards the overlying volcanic
sandstone bed. Four of these cycles are recognised in an area of
good outcrops where a profile was mapped in detail (Fig. 9).
Sedimentary structures are common in the silt- and sandstone
succession and include fluid–escape structures, graded bedding,
cross-bedding, erosion channels and scour-and-fill structures, and
they consistently indicate stratigraphic younging towards the east.
The BIF beds comprise laminae dominated by magnetite with
subordinate haematite and display an affinity to the uppermost,
most fine-grained parts of the normally graded cycles
(cf. deposition cycles, Fig. 9). Two texturally different types of
BIF can be distinguished. Type 1 comprises iron oxide-rich layers
(5 – 50 mm thick) with subordinate interbedded fine-grained, light
green and pink coloured skarn– rich laminae (Fig. 10B); this type
is confined to the first cycle. Type 2 mainly consists of fine-
grained volcanic sandstone –siltstone with thin (, 5 mm thick)
iron oxide – rich laminae, and subordinate skarn laminae
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Fig. 7. A. Elongated accretionary lapilli, shown by arrows, in ash-siltstone from lower member. Outcrop photograph from key locality 2. Scale bar
is 5 cm. B. Upper part– layered ash-siltstone with accretionary lapilli from lower member, drill core 494. The accretionary lapilli are shown by black
arrows and layering by the broken line. Scale bar is 2 cm. Lower part – microphotograph displaying rim-type accretionary lapilli. Note the slightly
coarser -grained core and finer-grained rim. Parallel nicols and scale bar is 1 mm. C. Microphotograph from the upper member displaying glass
shard replaced by sericite. Note the preserved inwards concave delimitation. Crossed nicols and scale bar is 0.5 mm. D. Outcrop photograph from
the upper part of subunit 2 of the very crystal-rich ignimbrite (Big 1) and clast with pinched tips. The 20 black dots to the left illustrate the density of
quartz crystals in this deposit. The eastern part of this outcrop contains the crystal-rich pumice blocks shown in Fig. 8A. Location is approx. 130 m
south of key locality 1. Pencil is 15 cm.

(Fig. 10C). The BIF shows evidence of soft sediment deformation
such as convolute bedding and fluid – escape structures, which
indicate stratigraphic younging towards the east (Fig. 10B).
A symmetrically zoned, 0.5 m thick, boudinaged skarn layer is
intercalated in the sandstone at the 24 m level in the BIF-bearing
succession (Fig. 9). The zoning of the skarn is, from rim to core,
epidote (light green), pyroxene and/or amphibole (dark green) to
garnet (brownish red) in the core.
Green spots of epidote and magnetite with a diameter of up to
20 cm (Fig. 10D –E) are scattered through the stratigraphy in the
vicinity of mafic dykes. Some of the spots are cored by
magnetite and others are rimmed by magnetite.
Discussion
All the rocks encountered in the Dannemora inlier show
characteristics typical for a clastic origin, such as pumice clasts,
cuspate and Y-shaped glass shards, and unevenly distributed
crystals and crystal fragments. The pyroclastic breccias are
interpreted as ignimbrites on the basis of the texturally juvenile
volcanic composition, great thickness of individual units, lack of
sorting, presence of matrix-supported breccia textures and
fiamme (cf. McPhie et al. 1993). In the upper member of the
Dannemora area, the preserved Y-shaped and cuspate margins
of the altered glass shards (Fig. 7C) imply lack of welding. Both
the pumices and the glass shards have a sericite-rich
composition. This is a common phenomenon for non-welded
juvenile clasts that have been replaced by clay during diagenesis
and subsequently by mica with increasing metamorphism
(McPhie et al. 1993; Gifkins et al. 2005).
The lower member contains scattered spherical (Fig. 6C) and
pectinate spherulites (Fig. 6D) that are mostly constrained to
juvenile clasts but also occur in the matrix. Such spherulites,
consisting of radiating crystal fibres of cristobalite and/or feldspar,
form when devitrification processes turn thermodynamically
unstable glass into crystal aggregates (Lofgren 1971; Drever et al.
1973).
Spherulites may form many different shapes depending on
cooling history (Lofgren 1974). They can occur in pyroclastic
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Fig. 8. A. Dark crystal-rich pumice blocks intercalated with white ash-siltstone. One of the pumice blocks is encircled by the black broken line.
The outcrop surface dips c. 308 towards east and the layers have vertical dip. Hammer for scale. Outcrop photograph from key locality 1.
B. Horizontal surface and steep bedding with brownish limestone (lower half) and skarn-replaced ash-siltstone (light middle part) with planar upper
contact and convex lower contact implying stratigraphic younging towards the east. The upwards dome shaped part is interpreted as relict
stromatolites (cf. Allen et al. 2003). Hammer for scale and the outcrop location is E1612035/N6678800 Swedish national grid. C. Massive
crystal-rich ignimbrite (Big 2). The white, dense crystal-rich pumices are highlighted by arrows. The surface is horizontal and scale bar is 5 cm.
Outcrop located at E1612090/N6678770 Swedish national grid. D. Top part of Big 2 with faint bedding, (lower 2/3 of the figure), 2 – 3 cm rounded
dense clasts and rivulet (upper 1/3 of the figure) filled with siltstone which indicate reworking and erosion, and stratigraphic younging direction
towards the east (upwards in the photograph). Surface is horizontal and bedding is steep. Pen is 15 cm long.

deposits, lavas and shallow intrusions (cf. McArthur et al. 1998).
In high temperature deposits, glassy fragments are welded
together, i.e. plastically compacted, and form fiamme that
subsequently devitrify to various types of quartzo-feldspathic
spherulites. The presence of such spherulites in pyroclastic
deposits is thus an indication of hot emplacement and probably
welding. In this study, the scattered occurrences of spherulites
observed both in primary deposits (Fig. 6C) and in fragments of
reworked deposits of the lower member show that the deposition
temperature was high enough to produce spherulites and
probably welding. On the other hand, the absence of spherulites
at higher stratigraphic levels suggests that these deposits were
most likely non-welded, and consequently the depositional
temperature was too low to produce spherulites.
The lack of lithophysae in the rocks of the Dannemora inlier
yields additional support for a moderate deposition temperature
of the pyroclastic flows. Lithophysae can be regarded as
spherulites with internal vugs (Ross & Smith 1961) and are
common in densely welded ignimbrites and lavas (McPhie et al.
1993).
If hot enough, welding compaction starts during deposition
and continues during early cooling of the deposit (Branney &
Kokelaar 2002). As a result, the fiamme will be oblate-shaped
and folded by subsequent tectonic deformation. Rod-shaped
fiamme are also known to occur in ignimbrites (Branney &
Kokelaar 1992), but this shape can be produced or enhanced by
subsequent tectonic deformation. The pink and white compact
clasts recorded in the lower member are interpreted as pumices
replaced by feldspar. The rod-shape, together with a lack of syn-
depositional or tectonic flattening, argues against welding
compaction in these rocks.
Fiamme can occur in both pyroclastic and other volcaniclastic
rocks (Bull & McPhie 2007). Their shapes and especially the
tips or ends are indicative of depositional and subsequent
conditions. Welding compaction results in fiamme with feathery
and ragged tips, whereas fiamme produced by tectonic or
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Fig. 9. Fifty meters of the Bennbo stratigraphy showing the
volcaniclastic succession in the western limb of the Bennbo syncline,
with skarn layer at c. 25 m and pumice breccia at c. 35 m. Note the four
fining upwards depositional cycles at 0 – 5 m, 5 – 13 m, 13 – 18 m and
18 – 20 m. Location of the Bennbo stratigraphy, see Fig. 3.
diagenetic compaction have pinched tips (Bull & McPhie 2007).
The recorded fiamme at Dannemora (cf. Figs. 7, 10) have
pinched tips, which indicate diagenetic and/or tectonic
constrictional deformation. The matrix-supported pumice
breccia at the Bennbo area (cf. Fig. 6B) is faintly layered and
contains fiamme with pinched tips. As pumices are very fragile
and are abraded or break during sedimentary reworking, the
layering is interpreted as the result of only slight reworking.
Accretionary lapilli are ash aggregates that form in turbulent
subaerial ash clouds through the accretion of liquid-coated
particles, building concentric layers into spheroidal ash balls
(Gilbert & Lane 1994). A relationship between the size of the
accretionary lapilli and the ash cloud thickness has been
suggested by Gilbert & Lane (1994). With a maximum diameter
of 10 mm for the accretionary lapilli found in the Dannemora
inlier, the estimated ash cloud thickness was more than 4 km (cf.
Fig. 7B, Gilbert & Lane 1994). Such great thickness of an ash
cloud is further evidence for subaerial eruption (Schumacher &
Schmincke 1991).
The layers with dewatering structures and normal grading, and
lack of evidence for erosion and reworking, indicate that the
accretionary lapilli-bearing ash-siltstone units of the inlier were
deposited in water, below storm wave base, i.e. a minimum
depth of 150– 200 m in the open ocean (Immenhauser 2009).
GFF 00 (2012)
However, the Bergslagen region was more likely a restricted
back-arc basin as suggested by Beunk & Valbracht (1991) and
Allen et al. (1996). In this case, storm wave base would have
been shallower.
Accretionary lapilli may have subspherical shape especially in
distal ash-fall deposits (Schumacher & Schmincke 1995),
although later deformation may obliterate the original shape. A
bed thickness of c. 8 m implies a proximal (near vent) position
for this bed in the Dannemora area. The absence of this
characteristic bed in the stratigraphy of the Bennbo area and drill
core 494 may be due to erosion or faulting. As evidence of
reworking and erosion is prominent within the volcaniclastic
deposits (see below), the absence of the accretionary lapilli
deposit in the Bennbo area might be due to erosion following
subaerial to shallow water deposition. This can also explain the
absence of such a bed terminating subunit 2 in drill core 494. As
no fault breccias or shear zones were recorded during the drill
core logging, faulting is a less likely explanation for the
discontinuous distribution of the accretionary lapilli beds.
The dacitic PQP sandstone and subordinate PP sandstone
recorded in the western part of the Dannemora inlier are part of
the lower member and are interpreted to occur in an anticline
located to the west of the Bennbo area (Fig. 3). The presence of
fragmented phenocrysts and fiamme indicates a pyroclastic
origin for this unit. The textural variation of these dacitic
sandstones is probably due to lateral, proximal/distal changes in
the deposit and/or a progressive change in composition during
eruption (e.g. Lipman et al. 1966). In the northernmost part, the
PQP volcanic sandstone contains PP clasts with the same texture
as the adjacent PP volcanic sandstone. This implies that the PQP
bed overlies the PP bed and hence that the stratigraphic
younging direction is towards north –east (Fig. 3).
During subaqueous emplacement of pumiceous pyroclastic
density currents, buoyant pumice clasts float up to the surface of
the water column. As long as they have lower density than water
they stay afloat, but eventually the pumice clasts become
waterlogged, sink and get embedded in fine ash, derived from
both co-ignimbrite ash fall and attrition products from the
floating pumice (Whitham & Sparks 1986; Cas et al. 1990).
Buoyant ash-clouds of great volume commonly accompany
pyroclastic density currents and the deposits of these ash clouds
are called co-ignimbrite ash (Sparks & Walker 1977). As wind
and waves easily disperse floating pumice, the formation of such
a deposit from a single eruption requires that ash and pumices
sink shortly after the subaqueous emplacement (Fisher &
Schmincke 1984) or are deposited in a restricted area such as a
caldera, lake or local deep-sea basin. This deposit type, here
called flotation pumice, occurs in the Dannemora inlier in the
uppermost part of Big 1. The deposit consists of large pumice
blocks intercalated with ash-siltstone (Fig. 8A). This deposit is
attributed to subaqueous emplacement of a pumiceous
pyroclastic density current (Fisher & Schmincke 1984) although
the eruption might have been subaerial.
An alternative interpretation for the origin of a rock
comprising large blocks rhyolite in a rhyolitic ash-siltstone or
sandstone matrix is that of peperite, a deposit of intermingled
sediment and magma. Such deposits form when wet and non-
consolidated sediments are intruded by magma, which quenches
and becomes fragmented (Skilling et al. 2002). However, a
clastic (pyroclastic flow deposit overlain by flotation pumice)
rather than intrusion-related (peperite) origin for Big 1 is
strongly supported by the existence of fiamme (Fig. 8C) and the
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Fig. 10. Field photographs of pyroclastic (A), sedimentary (B – C) and alteration features (D). The outcrop surfaces are horizontal; the dip of the
beds is steep and strike is north– south. In figures A– C, the stratigraphic younging direction in the photographs is upwards, i.e. to the east. A. Faintly
layered pumice breccia with fiamme (arrows) from the Bennbo succession. B. Contact between the lowermost BIF of type 1 and volcaniclastic
sandstone in the Bennbo succession. The uneven and disturbed top surface suggests high energy deposition of the overlying massive volcaniclastic
sandstone. Arrows show convolute bedding indicating soft sediment deformation of the BIF. The central arrow points at a closed fold structure.
C. The upper contact of the third depositional cycle with BIF of type 2 (lower 2/3 of photograph) is overlain by massive volcaniclastic sandstone
(upper 1/3 of photograph) of the fourth depositional cycle. The white, c. 6 cm thick layer is ash-siltstone with small amounts of iron-oxides is
overlain by a BIF-layer that is disturbed which is an indication of high energy deposition of the overlying massive volcaniclastic sandstone.
D. Epidote spots with the same quartz crystal-rich texture as the surrounding red matrix. This variety of spots lacks the accompanying magnetite
enrichment. Photograph of drill core 494 from the lower member. Scale bar is 1 cm. E. Outcrop surface displaying rounded epidote spots,
highlighted by black circles, and subordinate magnetite enrichment. The location is E1612590/N6678100 Swedish national grid.

very crystal-rich matrix of the main part of the deposit. In
addition, the deposit can be traced along strike . 1000 m and has
a thickness in excess of 100 m. The flotation pumice unit is an
excellent marker horizon in the northern part of the Bennbo area
and provides a reliable stratigraphic younging direction towards
the east. Unfortunately, this bed is only present in the Bennbo
area (key locality 1, Fig. 3).
The ground around volcanoes is generally domed upwards
during an eruption (Fiske & Kinoshita 1969) but the vertical
movement rarely exceeds 1 m (cf. Amato & Chiarabba 1995; Lu
et al. 2002). We believe that larger uplift is possible during
major volcanic eruptions and in this type of tectonic setting.
Hence, parts of subaerially deposited ignimbrites and/or ash-
falls may be reworked during post-eruptive submergence, or
alternatively the deposit may subside to below storm wave base
where erosion is negligible. This could explain why massive,
apparently non-reworked and reworked pyroclastic rocks are
closely associated in the Dannemora area.
Deposition cycles with fining upwards in the Bennbo
succession may have formed by two alternative processes. (1)
The four cycles of fining upwards could be the result of repeated
uplift and subsidence of the basin, coupled to volcanic eruptions.
The vertical movement caused the deposition surface to rise
above the wave base resulting in erosion and/or reworking of the
siltstone with iron-rich laminae (BIF). Subsequent subsidence to
below wave base and deposition of more sediment produced a
fining upwards sequence. (2) Each fining-upwards-cycle could
result from catastrophic input of volcaniclastic sediment into an
environment below wave base, which generated a subaqueous
mass flow that eroded the BIF on the sea floor, caused soft
sediment deformation and convolute bedding within the BIF
deposit and deposited a normal-graded volcaniclastic turbidite.
 12 Dahlin et al.: Palaeoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary succession . . . deposits
This scenario implies that Big 2 was deposited during a major
volcanic eruption, which was followed by subsidence/transgres-
sion from a subaerial/shallow water environment to below storm
wave base. During this process, Big 2 was first eroded and
reworked and then, when located below storm wave base,
overlain by the fining upwards sequence of the first deposition
cycle (Fig. 9). The second to fourth cycles are in turn attributed
to cyclic/episodic mass flow input of volcaniclastic debris that
eroded the substrate in a subaqueous environment below wave
base. The planar-bedded siltstones suggest a quiescent
environment below wave base.
Erosion and reworking of sediments can theoretically occur at
any water depth, but extensive erosion and reworking are
characteristic of subaerial conditions and shallow water
environments above wave base. Certain features of erosion
and reworking, such as cross bedding or rivulets, constrain the
palaeobathymetry to shallow water depth (Immenhauser 2009).
The eroded top of ignimbrite Big 2 displays a silt- and
sandstone-filled shallow channel or rivulet and thus indicates a
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shallow water depositional environment (cf. Clifton 1988).
However, undisturbed parallel laminae in the BIF higher up in
the stratigraphy imply a greater depth below storm wave base
and/or calmer conditions. If a water depth of , 200 m is
presumed, the storm wave base is at 50 ^ 30 m depth
(Immenhauser 2009), or even shallower in an isolated basin.
However, channels and cross bedding stratigraphically above
the BIF indicate that the water depth must either have oscillated
or that strong currents occurred episodically during the
deposition of the section overlying Big 2. These strong currents
could correspond to episodic mass flows of volcaniclastic debris.
Microbial stromatolitic limestone is common in the Bergsla-
gen region (Boekschoten et al. 1988; Allen et al. 1996, 2003).
Generally, the formation of such limestone is dependent on
water temperature, amount of sediment input and growing
conditions, e.g. below wave base and within the photic zone,
which today is at , 200 m water depth (Allen et al. 2003;
Garrison 2006). Photosynthesis is only possible in the upper part
of the photic zone (the euphotic zone), restricting the depth even
more (Garrison 2006). Low sediment input is essential to allow
growth of microbial stromatolites since a sediment-filled water
column would both inhibit photosynthesis and bury the growth
surfaces. Evidence for episodic sediment input that covered the
stromatolite colonies is documented in the stratigraphic record
of the Bergslagen region (Allen et al. 2003). A bulbous lower
boundary to a volcaniclastic sandstone-siltstone bed that
conformably overlies stromatolitic limestone is likely to indicate
that silty-sandy sediments were deposited onto the bulbous
surface of the stromatolite colony (Allen et al. 2003).
Prolific volcaniclastic sedimentation in the shallow water
environment of Bergslagen may have inhibited the growth of
microbial stromatolites (Allen et al. 2003). In the Dannemora
inlier, there is a large variation in the thicknesses of limestone
beds, , 20 m in the Bennbo area and c. 80 m in the Dannemora
area. This suggests either a larger accommodation space in the
Dannemora area and/or that growth of the limestone in the
Bennbo area was curtailed by influx of volcaniclastic debris.
The latter scenario is evident in the intercalation of ash-siltstone
to coarser and crystal-rich layers in the limestone, implying that
air fall ash from volcanic eruptions or volcaniclastic sediments
occasionally covered the stromatolites.
Lager (2001) attributed the presence of epidote-rich spots in
the volcanic host-rocks to subaqueous deposition and interpreted
GFF 00 (2012)
them as eroded limestone fragments that were altered to epidote
within the pyroclastic flows. However, limestone has only been
recorded in the upper member of the Dannemora succession,
whereas the spots are scattered throughout the stratigraphy. In
addition, the texture within these spots is similar to that of the
enclosing volcanic host-rock. Therefore, we suggest that they
formed through selective alteration within the host-rock rather
than from former limestone clasts (Fig. 10D). The spots are
elongated parallel to the regional lineation (L2) indicating that
the alteration preceded the second tectonic deformation.
As these spots commonly occur in the vicinity of mafic dykes,
the latter may have provided chemical components and possibly
also fluids that facilitated the alteration. Although mafic magmas
are not rich in water, the heat released during cooling could
possibly have triggered the alteration process. However, the
dykes still contain Ca-rich amphiboles and epidote and there is
no imprint of Ca-releasing processes in the rocks; therefore,
another source for Ca is likely.
Generally, the rocks containing epidote spots show more than
10 times higher Ca-content than rocks without spots, implying
that the Ca to form epidote was added through secondary
processes. Three possible Ca-releasing processes and sources
for the formation of the epidote ^ magnetite spots are
(1) breakdown of plagioclase during alteration or metamorph-
ism, (2) calcite cement in the volcaniclastic rocks and
(3) dolomitisation of limestone.
Ca release by albitisation of Ca-rich plagioclase, to form
keratophyre (Hughes 1972), is less likely because remnants of
plagioclase are scarce in the Dannemora inlier and the rocks do
not show any signs of albitisation. However, later overprinting
by sericitisation could have obscured such evidence. Ca from
calcite cement within the volcaniclastic rocks is unlikely since
no Ca-rich mineral has been recorded in these rocks, neither
during fieldwork nor in thin section. In contrast, dolomitisation
of the near-by limestone would have released considerable
amounts of Ca to become available for alteration processes.
Despite the stratigraphically long distance between limestone
and some of the volcaniclastic rocks containing the spots, the
limestone is considered the most likely potential source for Ca as
the mobility of it during hydrothermal alteration of rhyolite is
thought to be in the order of 10– 100 m (Sturchio et al. 1986).
Reinterpretation of the existing stratigraphic
model
Lager (2001) divided the stratigraphy into a lower and an upper
formation. The lower formation was subdivided into three first-
order depositional sequences. The upper formation was
subdivided into a basal and an upper unit. The upper unit was
further divided into second-order depositional sequences that
correspond to different deposition environments such as lagoon,
salina, terrestrial and open marine. Third-order deposition
sequences were attributed to different facies within the second-
order sequences. The presence of volcaniclastic turbidite layers
and/or epidote lithoclasts was interpreted as a result of
subaqueous deposition, and conversely the absence of these
layers and features indicated subaerial conditions. The basal unit
of the upper formation was interpreted as subaqueous air-fall
deposits with accretionary lapilli, and key location 2 displays this
stratigraphic position (Fig. 3).
We suggest that the term DFm is used to denote the stratigraphic
succession of the Dannemora inlier. This formation is divided into
 GFF 00 (2012) Dahlin et al.: Palaeoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary succession . . . deposits
an upper and a lower member, and the latter is subdivided into
subunits 1 and 2. Compared to Lager’s (2001) interpretation, our
lower member roughly corresponds to the lower formation, but
includes the basal unit of his upper formation. Lager’s (2001)
deposition sequence 1 is most likely equivalent to subunit 1 of this
study, and subunit 2 would correspond to the deposition
sequences 2 and 3 (cf. Plate 2, Lager 2001). His division of the
stratigraphy, especially the lower formation, into thousands of
beds, was based substantially on colour variations. In this study,
we prefer textural and compositional variations as criteria in
defining different deposition units and emplacement mechan-
isms, and apply them in our reinterpretation below.
An idealised deposition sequence from the upper unit of Lager
(2001; plate 4) is c. 40 m thick and bounded by unconformities.
Redeposited volcaniclastic sediments at the base are overlain by
massive, layered and stromatolitic limestone with pseudo-
morphs of gypsum and halite. The stromatolitic limestone is
occasionally intercalated with millimetre- to metre-thick,
normally graded layers of siltstone to conglomerate with quartz
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crystals. The clastic sediments were interpreted as deposits of
volcaniclastic turbidity currents or tempestites.
A skarn unit overlain by a layered and weakly normally
graded ash-siltstone with accretionary lapilli terminates the
sequence. The latter bed was interpreted as a subaerial air-fall
deposit, but layering, normal grading and presence of
accretionary lapilli are not diagnostic of subaerial deposition
and may also form subaqueously (Allen et al. 1996).
The evaporites, with pseudomorphs after gypsum and halite,
are also intercalated with the interpreted volcaniclastic turbidites
or tempestites. The evaporite beds were suggested to represent
open sabkha and closed salina environments. However, turbidites
are characteristic of most environments below wave base
contrary to evaporites that commonly form in shallow sabkhas
and salinas in flat areas, e.g. continental inlands (Boggs 2001). In
addition, the identification of turbidites in ancient tectonically
deformed and metamorphosed rocks requires additional evidence
for a deep-water environment, such as lack of erosion and
presence of interbedded hemipelagic mudstones (Kuenen 1964).
No such evidence has been recorded in the Dannemora inlier. We
suggest that these strata instead constitute air-fall and pyroclastic
flow deposits and their locally reworked equivalents that
episodically covered the stromatolites and evaporites.
The identification of chicken wire texture (on surfaces parallel
to the deposition surface) and “laminae with sharp-edged
corners” (on surfaces perpendicular to the deposition surface)
was interpreted to indicate bottom-growing gypsum (cf. Fig. 38,
Lager 2001). However, chicken wire texture is ideally
recognised on surfaces perpendicular to deposition surfaces
(West 1979). We suggest that this texture at Dannemora may
represent columnar stromatolites and that the laminae are those
typical of columnar stromatolites as seen in the 1.9 Ga Rocknest
Formation, Canada (Grotzinger & Knoll 1999), which is
contemporaneous with the sedimentary rocks of the DFm.
However, true evaporates may also occur in the Dannemora
succession and some of the pseudomorphs after salt and gypsum
described by Lager (2001) may be correct.
A geological synthesis of the supracrustal rocks
of the Dannemora inlier
Subunit 1 of the DFm consists of ignimbrite(s) deposited on an
unknown substrate. The ash-siltstone bed with accretionary lapilli,
13
which terminates subunit 1, is well stratified and normally graded,
which possibly indicates subaqueous deposition. An ash-siltstone
unit overlying an ignimbrite might be due to ash-fall from the co-
ignimbrite ash cloud, which is commonly as voluminous as the
associated ignimbrite (Sparks & Walker 1977). It can be assumed
that co-ignimbrite ash deposits covered the entire Dannemora
area. During the subsequent emplacement of the ignimbrite(s) of
subunit 2, the pyroclastic flow eroded the ash-siltstone bed that
originally most likely was much thicker. Alternatively, the
stratified accretionary lapilli-bearing ash-siltstone deposit could
be ash fallout from a plinian eruption that evolved via collapse of
the eruption column into an ignimbritic eruption (cf. Wilson et al.
1980) resulting in the ignimbrite of subunit 2.
Different beds terminate subunit 2 of the lower member in the
Bennbo and Dannemora areas, respectively; a flotation pumice
bed in the Bennbo area and a layered ash-siltstone with
dispersed accretionary lapilli in the Dannemora area. As the
latter deposit consists of plane parallel layers with normal
grading and load casts, and lacks evidence of reworking, a
subaqueous depositional environment below wave base is most
likely. The c. 8 m thick accretionary lapilli bearing ash-siltstone
bed suggests proximal deposition within or very close to a
caldera. In contrast, the volcaniclastic rocks overlying the
flotation pumice bed in the Bennbo area were extensively
reworked and eroded, indicating deposition above wave base.
This difference suggests a larger accommodation space for the
deposits of the Dannemora area than those of the Bennbo area.
The deposition of the upper member started with the
emplacement of pyroclastic deposit(s) that possibly eroded the
underlying ash-fall deposit. The volcaniclastic deposits in this
part of the stratigraphy are not welded and might consist of
several small pyroclastic units. In the Dannemora area, this
stratigraphic level consists of c. 50 m thick, massive pyroclastic
deposit, whereas in the Bennbo area, it consists of up to 70 m
thick sequence of reworked volcaniclastic breccia-conglomerate,
sand- and siltstone. The difference between the two areas implies
that the influx of volcaniclastic debris was greater in Bennbo than
in Dannemora, but may possibly also indicate a more proximal
location to sediment source(s) such as a volcanic edifice and/or a
caldera rim. Decrease in volcanic activity led to a decrease in
volcaniclastic sedimentation, which combined with continued
subsidence led to increasing accommodation space and
favourable conditions for the formation of microbial stromato-
litic limestone. The limestone is interpreted to be contempora-
neous in both areas, although the preserved thicknesses are
different: , 20 m at Bennbo and c. 80 m at Dannemora. Active
volcanism, or at least active volcaniclastic sedimentation, during
deposition of the limestone is evident from the intercalated
volcaniclastic deposits of varying thicknesses.
The Big 2 was deposited on the limestone bed in that area, but
no equivalent deposit has been recognised in the Dannemora
area. Erosion channels within the top of Big 2 show that it was
eroded and thereby thinned to about 20 m. The formation of
limestone in the Dannemora area continued, only interrupted by
occasional thin volcaniclastic deposits.
With respect to sedimentary iron ore deposits that are hosted
by limestones in the Bergslagen region, the thickness of the
limestones may have had an impact on the thickness and volume
of iron ore. The thicker limestone bed in the Dannemora area
hosts a number of large ore bodies, whereas the thin limestone
bed in the Bennbo area is almost barren at the surface and
probably at depth as indicated by a less pronounced positive
 14 Dahlin et al.: Palaeoproterozoic metavolcanic and metasedimentary succession . . . deposits
magnetic anomaly compared to the Dannemora area (Danne-
mora Mineral unpublished data). Alternatively, the depth to any
mineralisation in the Bennbo area is much greater than in the
Dannemora area.
Prior to deformation, the entire stratigraphy was intruded by
dykes/sills of basaltic composition that probably, together with Ca
from the dolomitisation of the limestone, resulted in development
of alteration zones with epidote ^ magnetite spots. To distinguish
between intrusive and extrusive mafic rocks can be difficult in
deformed and metamorphosed areas like these, and considering
that , 10% of dyke/sill intrusions reach the surface in a caldera
environment (Geshi et al. 2010), it is unknown whether the dykes
ever reached the surface to form extrusive basalts.
Conclusions
The DFm is at least 700 –800 m thick and comprises a lower
member that is divided into two subunits, and an upper member.
Downloaded by [Uppsala universitetsbibliotek] at 05:24 10 April 2012
The existence of thick pyroclastic flow and fall deposits as well
as syn-eruptive reworked crystal-rich breccias to sandstones,
and limestone with intercalated volcaniclastic deposits suggests
a proximal (near vent) volcanic environment for the Dannemora
inlier, despite the lack of known synvolcanic intrusions.
In the Bennbo area, flotation pumice terminates subunit 2 of the
lower member, whereas a layered, accretionary lapilli-bearing
ash-siltstone marks the top of it in the Dannemora area. The
5 –10 mm size of the accretionary lapilli suggests a subaerial
eruption with an ash cloud thickness of more than 4 km. Layers
with normal grading, fluid-escape structures and planar, parallel
layers demonstrate subaqueous deposition below storm wave
base.
The thicker volcaniclastic sequence in the Bennbo area than
the Dannemora area might reflect a more proximal location to
the source of volcaniclastic debris or greater subsidence in this
area, and accommodation space was larger in the Dannemora
area than in the Bennbo area.
The variation in thickness of the limestone might indicate a
lower mineralisation potential in the Bennbo area than the
Dannemora area. The existence of stromatolitic limestone
suggests that the water depth during the formation of this deposit
was between the storm wave base and maximum 200 m.
The presence of scattered epidote ^ magnetite spots occurs in
the proximity to basaltic dykes which have the same texture as
the volcanic host rock and are interpreted as an effect of localised
alteration. We suggest that Ca released during dolomitisation of
adjacent limestone combined with local fluid convection driven
by heat from the dyke intrusions is a likely mechanism.
Acknowledgements. – We thank Dr Lennart Falk, Dannemora Mineral AB, for suggesting
this study and Dannemora Mineral AB and the Geological Survey of Sweden for financing
the first years of the project. Our colleagues at Dannemora Mineral AB are thanked for
access to drill cores and support in various practical matters. The manuscript has benefited
greatly from the reviews by Dr Frank Beunk and Dr Markku Väisänen. The following
persons are thanked for improving earlier versions of the manuscript: Prof. Hemin Koyi,
Dr Örjan Amcoff, Dr Karin Högdahl and Dr Magnus Ripa.
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