Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Low-sulfidation epithermal gold deposits in Java, Indonesia: Characteristics T

and linkage to the volcano-tectonic setting
⁎
Sukmandaru Prihatmokoa, Arifudin Idrusb,
a
PT Pamapersada Nusantara, Jakarta, Indonesia
b
Department of Geological Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Java island, a part of the eastern Sunda magmatic arc, is becoming an emerging part of the region for gold and
LS epithermal gold copper endowment. A total of 15.4% of 1044 tons of Java gold endowment is originated from Low Sulfidation
Volcano-tectonic setting (LS) epithermal deposit type. As a matter of fact, the mineralization type that has given a significant credit to the
Java gold endowment of Java is intriguing to be geologically evaluated. This paper is aimed to document some data-
Indonesia
information and summarizing the characteristics of selected 10 LS epithermal gold deposits in Java including
Cibaliung, Kerta, Cisoka, Cikidang, Pongkor, Gunung Peti, Cihar, Cijaringao, Petungkriyono and Dalang Turu, as
well as discussing their relationship with the volcano-tectonic setting.
The formation of 10 LS epithermal deposits took place in the time span between Early Miocene and
Pleistocene, which is coincident with the Mio-Pliocene magmatic arc activities, and even probably continue on to
Pleistocene. All deposits show typical LS epithermal characteristics, i.e. quartz veins with crustiform-colloform
textures, relatively high Au (Ag/Au ratio < 15.8), less sulfides and base metals, low salinity fluids (com-
monly < 1 wt% NaCl eq.), some deposits containing Mn-oxides and pseudomorph bladed carbonates. Metal
signature is mostly Au and Ag, but some prospects contain elevated As and Sb.
The Cibaliung veins seem to have genetic linkage with the dioritic intrusion and diatreme (phreatomagmatic)
breccias, as well as with rhyolitic domes. In Kerta the veins exhibit close relationship with the rhyolitic/rhyo-
dacitic plugs. The Pongkor and Cisoka veins are genetically related to rhyodacite dome/plugs within caldera
setting, which is controlled by extensional structures. Cikidang and Gunung Peti may be related with the an-
desitic sub-volcanic plugs. Cihar and Cijaringao might be related to andesite dykes. Petungkriyono is linked with
andesite and dacite plugs as well as diatreme breccia, formed in an extensional basin with few calderas de-
veloped. The Dalang Turu has been considered having a close linkage with andesite (plug) at extensional
structures.
In relation to the volcano-tectonic setting, six deposits (Cibaliung, Kerta, Pongkor, Cisoka, Cikidang and
Gunung Peti) are obviously emplaced in Bogor Trough, a back arc rift/basin related to the Mio-Pliocene arc. The
presence of rhyolitic to dacitic magmatism that could be related with caldera systems (e.g. in Kerta, Pongkor,
Cisoka), and the common association with subvolcanic plugs (e.g. Kerta) are evidences of their linkage to the
back arc rift/basin setting. The basaltic rocks in close proximity with the rhyolite-rhyodacite, as identified in
Cibaliung and Kerta suggest the bimodal volcanism, which is commonly occurred in the back arc rifting en-
vironment. Exploration for LS epithermal prospects, therefore, should be targeted along the back arc rifting/
basins (e.g. Bogor Trough) preferably over the areas with bimodal magmatism. The Bogor Trough is reported
extending to East Java as Kendeng Trough/Basin, which is also reasonably targeted for exploration.

1. Introduction
Java island, Indonesia, which is part of the Eastern Sunda Arc
(Carlile and Mitchell, 1994; Setijadji and Maryono, 2012) is becoming
an emerging part of the region for gold and copper endowment
(Maryono et al., 2012, 2018). New deposits and prospects have been
discovered and/or redelineated such as Tujuh Bukit in East Java (Norris
et al., 2011; Harrison et al., 2018), Selogiri in Central Java (Suasta and
Sinugroho, 2011), Kerta (Lubis et al., 2012) and Cibeber (Dana et al.,
2018) in Banten, western Java. It has been noted that the Java island

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: arifidrus@ugm.ac.id (A. Idrus).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103490
Received 1 April 2019; Received in revised form 7 March 2020; Accepted 21 March 2020
Available online 23 March 2020
0169-1368/ © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
has contributed 48.9% of the gold endowment of the Eastern Sunda Arc,
i.e. 1044 tons of 2137 tons of gold (IAGI-MGEI, 2015). Of 1044 ton of
gold endowment of Java, 15.4% is originated from Low Sulfidation (LS)
Epithermal type of mineralization (IAGI-MGEI, 2015). The fact that LS
epithermal type mineralization has given significant credit to the total
amount of gold endowment of Java is intriguing to be evaluated geo-
logically. Moreover, during the past years, some new LS epithermal
type prospects have been discovered and reported.
On the other sides, the tectonic and geology of Java have con-
tinuously been reviewed and assessed, although mainly not for mineral
exploration purpose, but for oil and gas exploration or even purely for
geological/earth science. In consequence the understanding on the
basement configuration, subduction mechanism, tectonic setting as well
as sedimentary basins of Java have continuously been improved. In
relation to it, the volcanotectonic understanding of Java has also been
studied and updated. It is noted, there has been much changes and
development on the tectonic (and volcanotectonic) concepts for SE Asia
including Java during the last 30 years. For example, from a simple
spatial variation of magmatic geochemistry across Java Arc (e.g.
Whitford et al., 1979; Wheller et al., 1987) to more complicated setting
by the collision of a continental part of Gondwana land in the southern
side of East Java (e.g. Hall, 2002; Sribudiyani et al., 2003; Smyth et al.,
2008; Clements et al., 2009; Setijadji and Maryono; 2012; Hall and
Sevastjanova, 2012; Abdurrachman et al., 2015; Maryono et al., 2018).
This paper is written to document some data-information and
summarizing the characteristics of selected LS epithermal mineraliza-
tion deposits/prospects in Java, as well as discussing their possible
relationship with the volcano-tectonic setting. Ten selected LS epi-
thermal deposits/prospects represent five LS epithermal mineralization
districts/zones in Java. Selection of the deposits may also represent
mining industry stages from initial exploration, advanced exploration
to mining/post-mining stages. The implication for gold exploration is
also described and suggested. Some of the data and information are
captured from the published papers, but some others are new (never
been published before). Most of the data and information had been
collected during a long period of field exploration works since around
2000 in which the authors had been involved. The data collected by the
authors in some of the projects include geological mapping, drill core
logging, rock geochemical samples, petrological studies, etc that have
been used as the basis of this paper. All data, internal company reports
and papers were reviewed, analysed and interpreted to achieve the
objectives of study i.e. understanding some key characteristics of the
deposits and their linkage to the volcano-tectonic setting.
2. Low-Sulfidation epithermal deposits/prospects in Java
LS epithermal gold-silver deposits/prospects in Java island have
been identified since the past decades. However, in the recent years
understanding on the characteristics of the mineralization system is
much improving. Moreover, new discoveries of this type of miner-
alization have also been made in some places.
Ten LS epithermal gold deposits/prospects have been selected to be
described and discussed in this Section. The selection is technically
based on the levels of knowledge and data adequacy in which the au-
thors had been working in most of the deposits/prospects. Among the
ten deposits/prospects, 3 of them have been mined (Pongkor, Cibaliung
and Cikidang), and one is in an advanced exploration stage (Kerta),
therefore some published data/information are also available. The
other 6 prospects (Cisoka, Gunung Peti, Cihar, Cijaringao,
Petungkriyono and Dalang Turu) are in the exploration stage, and only
limited publications are present. The spatial distribution of those 10 LS
epithermal systems seem to be more confined in the western part of
Java (Fig. 1), and it may represent the level of exploration works and
researches that have been more devoted in the western part of Java.
Therefore, these ten LS epithermal mineralized systems are considered
representative in the current situation.
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Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
2.1. Cibaliung
The Cibaliung deposit is situated in the Miocene Honje Igneous
Complex in the southwestern part of Java island approximately 70 km
west of Bayah Dome (a gold district at western Java). The exploration
work at the Cibaliung deposit have delineated the extent of quartz veins
approximately 1.4 km with an average width of about 10 m (Fig. 2). Six
meters width of the Cibaliung quartz vein outcrop was initially dis-
covered at Cikoneng Creek (Fig. 3A), showing crustiform banded tex-
ture (Fig. 3B). The metal resource has been reported amounting to 1.3
million tonnes at 10.42 g/t gold and 60.7 g/t silver at a 3 g/t Au cut-off
(Carlile et al., 2005). This equates to approximately 435,000 oz of gold
and 2.54 million ounces of silver.
The host rocks of this deposit are volcanic rocks, consisting of
Miocene basaltic andesite of the Honje Formation, intruded by diorite
to andesite dikes, and are unconformably overlain by the Cibaliung
Tuff. The diorite intrusive is intercepted in the exploration drill holes
by, and in close association with diatreme breccias. They are considered
to be associated with the mineralized veining – see Fig. 2 (Angeles
et al., 2002). The Cibaliung Tuff is observed as massive ignimbrite,
dacitic in composition. Radiometric dating (K-Ar) of the ignimbrite of
Cibaliung Tuff indicate an age of 4.9 Ma (Harijoko et al., 2004).
Something interesting is that basaltic lavas have been identified over-
lying the mineralization host rocks. Whereas about 20 km NNW of
Cibaliung, in the area of Camara, rhyolitic volcanic domes/plugs are
identified (Prihatmoko, 2000a) – see map in Fig. 17. These facts in-
dicate that a bimodal volcanism occurred in this area.
The K-Ar dating on the andesite lava and the Cibaliung Tuff sug-
gested ages of 11.4 and 4.9 Ma respectively, while the 40Ar/39Ar dating
on adularia collected from the veins suggested an age of mineralization
of 11.18–10.65 Ma (Harijoko et al., 2004). In contrast, the miner-
alization ages in the Bayah Dome complex are much younger than that
of the Cibaliung deposit. They range from 2.4 to 1.5 Ma (Macoux and
Milesi, 1994; Milesi et al., 1999; Rosana & Matsueda, 2002), and the
ages of the host rocks range from 14 to 2 Ma (Macoux and Milesi,
1994).
The mineralized quartz veins are mainly confined in two shoots, i.e.
Cikoneng and Cibitung (see Fig. 2), although other smaller shoots had
also been identified, e.g. Cibeber and Rorah Kadal. The ore mineral
assemblage of the deposit consists of electrum, naumannite, Ag-Se-Te
sulfide minerals, chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite and galena (Angeles
et al., 2002). Those ore minerals occur in quartz veins showing collo-
form–crustiform textures. They are enveloped by mixed layer clay il-
lite/smectite zone, which grades into smectite zone outward. The
temperature of mineralization revealed by fluid inclusion study on
quartz in the veins ranges from 170 and 220 °C at shallow and deep
level, respectively (Angeles et al., 2002). The temperature range is in
agreement with the temperature deduced from the hydrothermal al-
teration mineral assemblage including mixed layered illite/smectite
and laumontite. The mineralizing fluid is dilute, with a salinity of < 1
wt% NaCl eq. and has stable isotopes of oxygen and hydrogen com-
position indicating a meteoric water origin (Harijoko et al., 2007).
A paragenetic sequence of hydrothermal stages of Cibaliung veins
has been defined (Angeles et al., 2002). The stages as shown by Fig. 4
are as follows, according to the description of Angeles et al. (2002): 1)
Pre-mineral fluidized breccia, which is occasionally present near the
quartz veins. 2) Polyphasal vein development, which is marked by the
presence of the fluidized breccias cut by a later epithermal vein system
that grades from early stockwork/sheeted veins, through massive,
crustiform and crustiform-colloform (early dominated by quartz-adu-
laria to later dominated by quartz-clay) veins, to late stage clay matrix
breccias. Stockwork to sheeted quartz-calcite-adularia vein (< 0.5 g/t
Au) occurs along the margins of the main epithermal vein system.
Massive vein (< 2 g/t Au) consists of coarse grained intergrowths of
quartz, adularia and varying abundance of calcite, with negligible sul-
phides. Crustiform banded vein (< 3 g/t Au) consists of rhythmic bands
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490

Fig. 1. Low-sulfidation epithermal deposit/mineralization locations, discussed in the paper. 1 to 10 are the name of the deposit/mineralization, and A to E are the
name of mineralization district/zone. The geology/ rock formation in the background is simplified and modified from the geological maps of Geological Agency,
Indonesia.

Fig. 2. Left: Regional cross section of Cibaliung, showing the relative position of mineralized veins to the host and cover rocks; Right: Gold mineralization of
Cibaliung confined in Cikoneng and Cibitung Shoots (Angeles et al., 2002; Carlile et al., 2005).

of coarse quartz and/or adularia that alternate with bands of finer
grained quartz-adularia. Crustiform–colloform banded vein
(~1– > 30 g/t Au) – grades from early crustiform-colloform bands of
quartz and adularia, to later ones in which there is progressive increase
in the abundance of bands that contain clay. Clay matrix breccia
(~5–30 g/t Au) occurs as hydraulically emplaced breccias in which
quartz-adularia vein clasts are set in a fine-grained clay (mainly
smectite or chloritic clay)-calcite-quartz-sulphide matrix. The latest,
post-mineral fault gouge (< 1–10 g/t Au), which cuts many of the
earlier vein stages as either sizeable gougy highly fractured zones or
clay (smectite)/pyrite-filled fractures extending into the adjacent mi-
neralized veins.
2.2. Kerta
Kerta is located in the western flank of the Bayah Dome. The pro-
spect area is occupied by a thick sequence of flat lying pyroclastics,
volcaniclastics, and sediments, including clastic sediment, coarse
grained volcaniclastic, tuffaceous sediment, rhyolite lava-breccias and
intruded by dacite-rhyodacite (quartz feldspar porphyry/QFP) and an-
desite. Based on the similarity on rock composition, it is considered that
all of these sequences are comparable to the Pliocene Cipacar
Formation or part of the Malingping Tuff (Lubis et al., 2012).
It is considered that Kerta area falls within a large back-arc caldera
complex of Early Miocene (?) to Late Pliocene age. Intra-caldera and

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S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490

Fig. 3. Cibaliung quartz vein at discovery outcrop of Cikoneng Creek (A), showing crustiform banded quartz vein texture (B).

late caldera fill facies represent cyclical explosive transitional dacitic to
andesitic through rhyolitic eruptive events, typified by air-fall, flow and
base surge pyroclastic deposition, with inter-eruption periods of
quiescence characterized by basinal to sub-basinal lacustrine sediment
and active riverine conglomerate and volcanogenic sediment deposition
(Lubis et al., 2012). Late-stage localized domal uplift associated with
several phases of dacitic-rhyodacitic and andesitic dome and stock
emplacement are also evident (Lubis et al., 2012).
The pyroclastic flow deposits (ignimbrite) can be observed in some
outcrops/cliffs, as well is intercepted in the drill holes. Maximum
thickness of the ignimbrite encountered in the drill hole is about 80 m.
As of in Cibaliung, charcoal and petrified woods are commonly present
in the ignimbrite unit. Fig. 5 shows the model of volcanic-pyroclastic
deposition in Kerta.
With regards to the hydrothermal system, Kerta displays many hall-
marks of a highly dynamic paleo-geothermal system responsible for
low-sulfidation epithermal type Au-Ag mineralization at its highest
“hot-spring” level of exposure (White and Hedenquist, 1990; White
et al., 1995). Multiple lines of evidence exist for fully preserved near
neutral water-dominated hydrothermal upflow zones, complete with
siliceous sinter horizons, which mark the paleo-water table and over-
lying tuff cap sequences that have preserved these zones (Lubis et al.,
2012). The mineralized zones have been outlined as quartz-clay veins
and stockworks in some prospects, i.e. Cisadang, Cisadang West, Leu-
wikopo, Gunung Batu, Pasir Karang, Pasir Awi, Pasir Leungis, etc. Most
of the mineralizations are associated with dacite-rhyodacitic domes/

Fig. 4. Paragenetic sequences of hydrothermal stages of Cibaliung veins (modified after Angeles et al., 2002). Abbreviations are Q = quartz, Ad = adularia,
Cb = carbonate, Sul = sulfide, Chl = chlorite, and Cy = clay.

4
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
Fig. 5. Model of the volcanic-pyroclastic deposition and subvolcanic dome emplacement, related to the gold vein mineralization of Kerta.
plugs (Lubis et al., 2012).
A systematic structural measurement of quartz vein orientations
indicates the presence of a series of NW-SE trending vein zones with sub
vertical attitudes and low angle dipping. In the main mineralized zone,
the veins are confined in a NW-SE structural corridor traceable more
than 3 km extent, called as Cisadang Structural Corridor (CSC). Highly
gold-silver mineralized vein and vein network intercepts obtained in
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Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
Cisadang drill holes, occur in distinctive focused, strongly silica-adu-
laria, lesser illite ± chlorite-pyrite altered. Thick silica sinter apron
horizons at Cisadang and other prospects represent fossil piezometric
surfaces or fossil water tables. The presence of several sinter layer/
horizons indicate that paleo water table changed during the time while
hydrothermal activity continued, and this could be related to the level
of erosion (Lubis et al., 2012).
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
Fig. 6. Various types of Kerta quartz veins (A-D) characterized by chalcedonic quartz-adularia (cream color) and microcrystalline quartz with colloform-crustiform
bandings associated with dark-grey silica-sulfide bands and oat mill breccia.
The quartz vein textures also display a classical vertical zonation of
LS epithermal from upper-level, weakly gold-silver mineralized opa-
lescent and dominant chalcedonic quartz into intermediate-level,
moderately to strongly silver-gold mineralized chalcedonic quartz-
adularia and microcrystalline to crystalline quartz with colloform-
crustiform bandings associated with dark-grey silica-sulfide bands and
oat mill breccias (cf. Buchanan, 1981; Morrison et al., 1990; Dong et al.,
1995) – see Fig. 6. The upper sections (above the sinter layers), all
display classical high-level steam-heated acidic alteration, typified by
pockmark leaching of reactive feldspars, glass and pumiceous fragments
(Lubis et al., 2012). Radiometric dating (40Ar/39Ar) of 2 adularia
samples of the quartz veins yielded 4.165 Ma and 4.199 Ma age (Late
Miocene) respectively (Kuroda, 2016).
2.3. Pongkor
The Pongkor deposit is a typical LS epithermal vein deposit, located
in the northeastern flank of the Bayah Dome. This deposit was dis-
covered in 1988, and started producing in 1994 with total reserve of
6.02 Mt ores at an average grade of 17.14 g/t Au and 154.28 g/t Ag
(Basuki et al., 1994).
The mineralization zones are confined in four main northwesterly
trending veins i.e. Ciurug, Kubang Cicau, Ciguha and Pasir Jawa
(Basuki et al., 1994). They are hosted by Miocene andesitic tuffs and
breccias, and subvolcanic andesite intrusion. Milesi et al. (1999) de-
scribed that the Miocene andesitic host rocks are covered up by a thick
sequence of ignimbrite, dacitic in composition. A caldera – volcano
tectonic depression - represented by circular feature (8 × 6 km) is
considered to be associated with the huge distribution of pyroclastic
flows/ignimbrite (Milesi et al., 1999). It was reported that the thickness
of ignimbrite reach 300 m in the southern cliff of the caldera, but only
50 m in the northern cliff (Milesi et al., 1999). Fig. 7 exhibits the
Pongkor veins location relative to the caldera system.
The mineralized veins of Pongkor is considered to be controlled by/
contained within a NNE-SSW structural corridor that cut the caldera,
and extending through the Bayah dome to the southwest. This struc-
tural corridor is interpreted to control the formation of several vein
systems in the historic Cikotok mining district (Milesi et al., 1999). The
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adularia K-Ar dating indicated the age of low-sulfidation vein miner-
alization ranging from 2.1 to 1.5 Ma, postdate the Pliocene igneous host
rocks, dated 5.7 to 2.0 Ma (Macoux and Milesi, 1994). In Ciurug, it is
reported the occurrence of bornite at level 515 m. Electrum decreases
as increasing of base-metals at depth of Ciurug vein (Syafrizal et al.,
2007). Mineralogical and fluid inclusion evidences suggest that the
mineralizing fluids are dilute (around 1 wt% NaC1), near-neutral pH
brines with a moderate gas content and temperatures of around 230 °C.
Syafrizal et al. (2007) stated that the mineralization of precious metal
ore zone is constrained by fluid temperatures between 180 and 220 °C,
and with low salinity (< 0.2 wt% NaCl eq.) and boiling condition. The
minimum depth of vein formation below the paleo-water table is ap-
proximately 90–130 m for the hydrostatic column.
2.4. Cisoka
The Cisoka prospect is located in the northern flank of the Bayah
Dome, about 17 km west of Pongkor. The mineralized zones were re-
ported in at least 3 NNW-trending steeply dipping low-sulfidation epi-
thermal veins, namely Cisoka, Cisampai, and Cigaru. These 3 veins are
~250 m apart and have 1 to 5 m wide, and 0.5 to 1.5 km strike length
(Prihatmoko, 2006). The host rocks were clearly observed in outcrops,
adit/shaft wall and muck pile of artisanal local miners consisting of
andesitic lava, fine tuffaceous sediments, tuff, and dacites (Prihatmoko,
2006). Dacitic tuff is mapped in the north of Cisoka area, exposed in a
road cut/cliff for about 10 m height (Prihatmoko and Kusumanto,
2004).
The mineralized veins are composed of quartz + adularia, banded
(colloform–crustiform) + manganese + clay + brecciated + with few
bladed carbonates (pseudomorphs), in both Cisampai and Cisoka veins
(Prihatmoko, 2006). Ore mineralogy analysis conducted by Idrus et al.
(2014) showed the presence of sulfide minerals i.e. pyrite, chalcopyrite
and sphalerite. Fluid inclusions analysis of quartz vein showed that the
inclusions are present in the form of primary inclusion which has fluid
phase of monophase (liquid or gas) and biphase (liquid and gas). Mi-
crothermometry analysis of fluid inclusions indicate low salinity of
fluids, i.e. 0.18 – 0.89 wt% NaCl eq. with homogenization temperature
(Th) range from 145 to 370 °C (Idrus et al., 2014). Clay (smectite-
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
Fig. 7. Mineralized veins at Pongkor (Ciurug, Kubang Cicau, Ciguha and Pasir Jawa) and their relative position to the caldera system (modified from Milesi et al.,
1999).
illite) + pyrite alteration was observed as narrow zones enveloping the
veins. Further away from the vein, chlorite-smectite alteration zones
developed. Rock geochemistry of mineralized vein samples showed
elevated gold, ranging from 0.62 to 28.68 g/t for Au and 69 to 346 g/t
for Ag (Prihatmoko, 2006; Findlay, 2006). There is no information
about the resource and reserve numbers yet so far. All of the vein
characteristics as shown by specimens (Fig. 8), e.g. crustiform – collo-
form banded with clay (adularia) partings, cockade, banded fissure
vein, silicified wallrocks, minor amount of sulfide in the vein, indicate a
LS epithermal system similar to Pongkor and Cibaliung deposits.
2.5. Cikidang
The Cikidang gold deposit, located about 20 km SW of Pongkor, was
discovered in 1991, and developed as a satellite mine of the Cikotok
gold district, operated by PT ANTAM (state owned company). Volcanic
rocks consisting of lapilli tuff and breccia of Oligo-Miocene age host the
Cikidang deposit, and in close association with andesite intrusive
(Rosana and Matsueda, 2002).
The gold mineralization is contained in 4 major veins, called as
Cikidang, Barat, Tengah and Timur veins (Rosana and Matsueda, 2002)
– Fig. 9. The width of the veins varies from 0.5 to 2.7 m and extend for
up to 1000 m in length trending roughly N-S and dip 60° to 86° towards
the west (Prihatmoko, 2000c). Ore reserve was reported at 189,110
tonnes grading 14.3 g/t Au and 79.9 g/t Ag in 2002 (Rosana and
Matsueda, 2002).
The deposit contains ore grades varying from trace to 74.9 g/t Au
and 1.2 to 225 g/t Ag. They are associated with quartz-adularia-sericite
(-calcite) veins that are rich in manganese oxide and limonite with very
poor amount of sulfides. The ore minerals are represented by electrum,
argentite, aguilarite and pyrite (Rosana and Matsueda, 2002). A K/Ar
age determination on adularia yielded 2.4 Ma for the Cikidang vein
(Rosana and Matsueda, 2002). The gangue minerals are dominated by
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Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
quartz with variable amounts of calcite, sericite, adularia, clay mi-
nerals, manganese oxide and limonite. The vein textures are variable as
banded, colloform, comb, brecciated and massive (Prihatmoko, 2000c;
Rosana and Matsueda, 2002).
Wall rocks adjacent to the vein are characterized by argillic (illite-
kaolinite) and propylitic alteration. The fluid inclusion study of the
Cikidang vein shows homogenization temperatures ranging from 170 to
260˚C. Salinities are low, generally below 3 wt% NaCl eq. Oxygen
isotope results suggest meteoric water in origin for ore fluids re-
sponsible for the Cikidang deposit (Rosana and Matsueda, 2002).
2.6. Gunung Peti
Gunung Peti prospect is situated in the southeastern side of the
Bayah Dome, in Pelabuhan Ratu area, West Java. The prospect com-
prises a number of mineralized veins, most of them with artisanal
workings, spread over 1.4 km of striking to NNE-SSW. The major mi-
neralized veins include Cibangkonol, Gunung Ransal Selatan, Gunung
Peti, Cinangka and Cikuluwung. In early 90s a junior company had
explored and drilled this prospect, but there is no report on the re-
source/reserve status.
The veins have various thickness ranging from 0.5 m to 4.0 m with
50 m to 100 m strike extent each (Hinman et al., 2007). Most of the
description in this section refer to Hinman et al. (2007) unless other-
wise stated. The veins commonly comprise quartz + adularia vein-
veined zone containing 1 to 2% fine pyrite dissemination. The vein
exhibits predominantly crustiform-colloform banded texture with
pinkish to cream coloured adularia disposed in selvages along chalce-
donic and fine crystalline quartz bands. Local bladed carbonate pseu-
domorph texture was also observed.
The host rock consists of silica + illite/sericite altered andesitic
volcanics that grades outward into propylitic alteration. Other rock
units reported are agglomerate, lapilli tuff and mudstone. In the
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
Fig. 8. Handspecimen of the Cisoka LS-epithermal veins showing characteristics of banded fissure vein (A), fissure vein with silicified and argillic-altered wallrock
(B), crustiform-colloform textured vein (C), and cockade-textured vein with brecciated wallrock (D).
regional geological map, this prospect lies on the Quaternary volcanics,
therefore Gunung Peti could be hosted by a window of pre-Quaternary
rock formation.
Rock geochemistry of outcrop samples taken by Hinman et al.
(2007) showed a range of Au from 0.17 to 68 g/t, Ag from 4 to 194 g/t
and low base metals. The mineralized veins in Gunung Peti prospect
display quartz vein textures and hydrothermal alteration zones clearly
indicative of LS epithermal Au-Ag systems at various levels of deposi-
tion. The simple interpretation of the levels of epithermal deposition
indicates very significant potential for shoots and bonanza grades at
deeper levels within the system along a greater than 1400 m strike
length (Hinman et al., 2007).
2.7. Cihar
The Cihar prospect is located about 50 km south of Bandung, phy-
siographically not in the Bayah Dome, but on the Southern Mountain of
West Java (referring to Van Bemmelen, 1949). The tectonic during
Pliocene-Pleistocene is believed to be responsible for the prospects of
gold mineralization along the Southern Mountain in the southern part
of West Java Island, including Cihar Prospect (Rosana et al., 2013).
Host rocks of the mineralized veins are andesite lava and breccias
(Prihatmoko, 2001).
Mineralization in Cihar is confined in a major E-W vein structure,
extending for about 1800 m (Fig. 10). The description on Cihar below is
8
Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
mainly extracted from a report of Prihatmoko (2001), unless otherwise
stated differently. Several vein zones were reported at Cihar, including
Ciozy, Cimari, Main Cihar, Cikompor, Ciwiwi, Cielis, and Upper Ciba-
liung veins. The individual thickness of the veins ranged from 10 cm to
3 m, and in places appear as stockwork. In general, the quartz veins are
massive to crustiform banded, fine- to coarse- grained crystalline
quartz, filled in by clay (illite-kaolinite) and adularia either along bands
or within the vugs. Pseudomorph carbonates are very common, oc-
curred in various forms, e.g. blades and casts-molds, indicating boiling
process during vein formation. Mn-oxides were commonly observed
along the quartz bands. The clay partings were recognized as smectite
and halloysite probably after adularia. Argentite (intergrown with
quartz) was identified in thin section, which has close spatial associa-
tion with electrum, as well as proustite/pyrargyrite, and sphalerite
(Coote, 2001).
Rock geochemistry of the veins exhibit assays of < 0.1 to 24.6 g/t
Au; 1 to 111 g/t Ag, with low base metals but anomalous As (up to
1410 g/t) as well as Sb (up to 49 g/t). The physical characteristics and
mineral assemblages, e.g. crustiform banded textures, bladed carbo-
nate, and their association with adularia, elevated As and Sb indicate
that the Cihar Vein is a LS epithermal quartz-adularia epithermal
system (Prihatmoko, 2001). The general trend of the veins which is E-
W, is a unique thing, since this trend is parallel to the main trend of
subduction zone in southern Java since Mio-Pliocene. Therefore, it is
interpreted that the vein could be controlled by the second order release
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
Fig. 9. Cikidang geology, alteration and vein system (modified from Rosana and Matsueda, 2002).
structures of regional Java tectonic, causing the opening up structure
and deposition of hydrothermal veins. Drilling programs have been
carried out by the previous explorer, but no resource and reserve re-
ports are available yet.
2.8. Cijaringao
Cijaringao prospect is situated about 10 km east of Cihar, in the
same physiographic setting of Southern Mountain of West Java. The
host rocks are andesitic lava and breccias, that is in the regional gov-
ernment map plotted as Quaternary volcanics (Alzwar et al., 1992;
Prihatmoko, 2000b).
The description of this prospects is mainly referred to Prihatmoko
(2000b), or otherwise stated differently. Mineralized quartz veins were
reported in NNW-SSE trend, confined in a structural corridor that can
be delineated for about 1,600 strike length. The vein zones are gen-
erally narrow, ranging from 30 cm to 1 m wide. The quartz is milky,
banded, with drusy textures in places. Pseudomorph bladed calcite are
very common, associated with Mn-oxides creating black spongy struc-
tures.
Assay results are quite significant especially for the samples with
Mn-oxides and pseudomorph bladed calcite, ranging from < 0.1 to
9
Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
10.6 g/t Au, but Ag is quite low (1 to 7 g/t). Interestingly, As and Sb are
elevated much up to 534 g/t and 246 g/t respectively. Drilling had been
conducted by the previous explorer in the 90s, but there is no in-
formation on the resource and reserve yet.
The characteristics of the veins with banded textures, pseudomorph
bladed carbonates, associated with Mn-oxides, and also elevated As and
Sb suggested that the Cijaringao vein is of classical LS epithermal type
of mineralization.
2.9. Petungkriyono
Petungkriyono prospect is located about 45 km south of Pekalongan
town, Central Java. In the regional geology map (Condon et al., 1996),
the area is occupied mainly by the Member of Jembangan Volcanics,
which is Pleistocene in age. It is also reported that a set of WNW-ESE
regional structures cross cut the area. Interestingly, these regional
structures directed to the Dieng Caldera Complex (geothermal field)
about 15 km to ESE. The gold prospect is hosted by andesitic volcanics
(lavas and breccias) with some dikes and stocks of andesitic to dioritic
composition, which is exposed in a rugged-mountainous terrain near
the famous Dieng’s geothermal complex. The prospect area is sur-
rounded by Quaternary volcanics probably originated from the Dieng’s
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490

Fig. 10. Alteration and quartz vein distribution and rock geochemistry at Cihar prospect (Strait Res., in Prihatmoko, 2001).

volcanic complex. It is most likely that the mineralised host rocks are of
older volcanic windows, probably a part of the Mio-Pliocene volcanic
arc.
From the Landsat image, several circular structures probably cal-
deras could be identified in the area. These calderas could be confirmed
on the ground represented by steep cliffs (up to 500 m heights) ex-
tending E-W in the southern part of the area, as well as N-S cliff in the
eastern parts (Prihatmoko et al., 2005 – see Fig. 11). At the local scale,
the host rocks are identified as andesitic volcanic (lava, breccias and
tuff), dacitic tuff (ignimbrite), and andesite porphyry as well as dacite
as volcanic plug. Hydrothermal alteration developed well in particular
around the vein zones, and also in the diatreme breccias, as clay (illi-
te–smectite-kaolinite), and chloritic/propylitic (Prihatmoko et al.,
2005).
Gold mineralization occurred in quartz veins and veinlets in several
zones mainly trending NW-SE. The vein zones have been identified in
Kuning, Putih, Ireng and Mudal plus several areas which are anomalous
in rock geochemistry and geology. The description below is mainly
referring to Prihatmoko et al. (2005) and Trisetyo et al. (2007). The
individual quartz veins/veinlets are milimeters to centimeters in
thickness, characterized by fine- to medium-grained quartz with crus-
tiform-colloform banding textures. The quartz veins contain gold ran-
ging from < 0.1 ppm to maximum 37.32 ppm, associated with high As
and Sb. The mineralized vein zones have various widths, but the widest
zone was identified in Kuning for about 8 m as silica breccia zone, with
a strike extent of around 30 m.
The results of fluid inclusion analysis from the vein zone showed a
temperature of homogenization ranges from 230° to 300 °C with sali-
nity of < 0.56 wt% NaCl eq. Another sample of fluid inclusion study
taken from the drill core at the elevation below 850 m above sea level,
have a homogenization temperature of > 250 °C (Hartono et al., 2003).
Away from the vein zones at Mudal prospect, silica sinters were

Fig. 11. Circular features on Landsat TM of Petungkriyono area – yellow block: ex-exploration area of Austindo Res; black line: structure (Prihatmoko et al., 2005).
Photo A: Cliff on background representing SE caldera wall; Photo B: circular depression with steep cliff on background, representing SW caldera wall – the volcano in
the horizon is Mt. Slamet.

10
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
observed. They are banded chalcedony with traceable pyrite to porous-
spongy silica with no gold contents. Diatreme breccias are exposed in
separate places (Mudal and Putih). The breccias are polymictic con-
taining unaltered to altered andesitic clasts, set in rock-flour matrix,
with disseminated pyrite in the breccia matrix. In Putih, which is lo-
cated more or less in the SE caldera wall, silica-clay (kaolinite) altera-
tion zone is identified containing barite.
The quartz veins with crustiform-colloform banded textures, con-
taining high arsenic and antimony but low in base metals, which are
exposed in the vicinity of silica sinters suggest that they are of LS epi-
thermal system. This prospect becomes unique as it is probably the first
LS epithermal system discovered in this magmatic arc in Central Java,
and it has proved that this magmatic arc is not barren. Scout drilling
have been conducted by previous explorer, but there is no resource and
reserve number could be generated yet (Hartono et al., 2003).
2.10. Dalang Turu
Dalang Turu is one of the known gold mineralization prospect in
Trenggalek area, East Java. Dalang Turu prospect is hosted by Oligo-
Miocene volcaniclastic and volcanic rocks. The rock units include an-
desitic lavas and breccias, tuff, tuffaceous sandstone and claystone,
limestone, and silica sinter (brecciated). An andesitic volcanic plug is
mapped nearby the prospect, possibly intruding the above wall rocks
(Prihatmoko and Kusumanto, 2005). The andesite is sub-alkaline tho-
leiitic basaltic-andesite to calc-alkaline andesite in composition (Arc
Exploration, 2013).
The mineralization in Dalang Turu occurred in the form of quartz
veinlets, veins, stockwork and silica sinter (Fig. 12B-D). The description
below is referring to Prihatmoko and Kusumanto (2005 – Fig. 12A) and
Arc Exploration (2013), unless otherwise stated differently. The quartz
veins and stockwork cropped out on the hill slopes and in creeks sur-
rounding the silica sinter that exposed as a hill. Individually, the quartz
veins are 1 to 50 cm in thickness, fine to moderate grained and chal-
cedonic in places with nice crustiform-colloform bandings. Pyrite, grey
sulfides, and clay bearing are observable along the vein bands. The
veins and veinlets are trending in various directions (NE-SW, NNE-SSW,
E-W, and NW-SE).
Fig. 12. (A) Andesitic volcanic plug of G. Watu, near Dalang Turu, (B) Out crop of silica sinter covering up Dalang Turu hill, (C) Crustiform-colloform banding of
quartz vein, (D) Multiple orientations of banded quartz veins.
11
Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
The silica sinter is distributed on top of Dalang Turu hill covering an
area of 300 × 700 m. This rock is commonly brecciated, clast-sup-
ported with pebble to boulder, angular to sub rounded fragments that
are composed dominantly of banded- porous- silica and some brec-
ciated chalcedony fragments. Argillic alteration is commonly developed
where kaolinite-illite occurred either in the matrix or outside the silica
sinter zone.
Rock geochemical assays exhibit gold grade average of 0.5 g/t with
an elevated grade up to 12.7 g/t. Silver grades range from 3 to 83 g/t
with elevated As (up to 729 g/t) and Sb (Arc Exploration, 2013). Rock
geochemistry of silica sinter showed low grade for Au but anomalous
for As and Sb. An 40Ar–39Ar dating of a quartz-adularia vein yielded an
age of 16.29 Ma, and a crystal tuff of a limestone-pyroclastic rock se-
quence at the southwest of the Dalang Turu prospect was determined as
15.6 Ma (Takahashi et al., 2014). Fluid inclusion study on the quartz
stockwork came up with homogenisation temperatures of 187° to 255°
with salinity of 0.2 to 0.46%wt. NaCl eq. (Prihatmoko, 2000d). Scout
drilling have been conducted by Arc Exploration at the end of 2000s,
but there is no resource – reserve number available yet (Arc
Exploration, 2013).
The characteristics of the above 10 LS epithermal deposits, in-
cluding mineralization style, metal signature, Ag-Au ratio, salinity of
hydrothermal fluid, and possible tectonic setting are summarized in
Table 1.
3. Tectonic setting and magmatic belts
3.1. Tectonic setting
Indonesia region has been known having tectonic complexity due to
the interaction of 3 major plate tectonics, i.e. Indian-Australia in the
southern part, Pacific in the east and Eurasia in the northwest part
(Hamilton, 1979; Audley-Charles, 1988). The modern tectonic studies,
based on the plate tectonic theory, that was initiated around the 60s
had modified and improved the “old-school” concepts, e.g. geosyncline
concept by old Dutch workers/geologists (e.g. van Bemmelen, 1949). In
consequence, the understanding of tectonic and volcanism of Java has
also been improving much.
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490

Java island which is stretched along east–west trend, parallel to the

Angeles et al. (2002); Harijoko et al. (2004);

Prihatmoko (2000c); Rosana and Matsueda

Kusumanto (2005); Arc Exploration (2013)

Harijoko et al. (2007); Carlile et al. (2005)

Prihatmoko (2001); Coote (2001); Rosana

trace of recent subduction trench in the south, in the beginning of

Hartono et al. (2003), Prihatmoko et al.

Prihatmoko (2006); Idrus et al. (2014)
modern tectonic understanding (around the 70s) had been considered

Prihatmoko (2000d); Prihatmoko &

Hinman et al. (2007); Lubis (2007)
Lubis et al. (2012); Kuroda (2016)

Milesi et al. (1999); Rionanda and

having a simple “subduction related volcanic arc” origin. The island is

(2005); Trisetyo et al. (2007)

considered as part of an island arc which has formed above the north-
dipping subduction zone, and forming the boundary of the Indian-
Australia and Eurasian (Sundaland) plates (e.g. Katili, 1975; Hamilton,

Prihatmoko (2000b)
Widjajanto (2012) 1979). The cross section (crossing Central Java) in Fig. 13 represents a
simple volcanic arc and basin configuration consisting of - from south to

et al. (2014)
north - Java trench (subduction zone), accretionary prism, fore arc
References

basin, volcanic arc, back arc thrust (namely Kendeng-Baribis), back arc
(2002)

basin, and shelf basin which lie above the Sundaland Craton
(Simandjuntak and Barber, 1996; Koesoemadinata, 2018).

Extensional basin, caldera

Extensional structures (?)
Extensional structures (?)

Extensional structures (?)

Extensional structures (?)

However, in fact, the structural configuration comprising alter-
Extensional structures at
Extensional structures,

Extensional structures,

nating highs and transverse depressions is related to a more complex

Release structures (?)
Extensional caldera,
bimodal volcanism

bimodal volcanism

pattern. Darman and Sidi (2000) noted two dynamic processes inter-
the caldera edge
Tectonic Setting

acted, i.e. collision of blocks in Pre-Tertiary times by closing off oceanic

gaps, recorded or marked by roughly east–west ophiolitic belts (Ciletuh
caldera

in West Java, Lok Ulo in Central Java), and lateral displacement be-
tween blocks in Tertiary times, made by transcurrent faulting, compo-
nents of large-scale strike-slip movement in response to the plate-con-
Rhyodacite domes/plugs

vergence process itself. Those mechanisms are part of extensional and

Andesite, dacite (plug?)

Andesite, dacite plugs,

Rhyodacite & rhyolite

convergent geotectonic events to which are related platform, fore-and

Andesite dyke/plug
Diorite intrusion &
Genetically related

diatreme breccias

back-arc basin sedimentation, and occurrence of volcanism. Offshore

Andesite (plug)
Andesite dykes

Andesite dykes
rhyolite plugs

North Java (see Fig. 14), some extensional, half-graben and graben-like,
igneous rock

Andesite (?)

transverse depressions, which are among the richest oil- provinces in

the country (Sunda-Asri Basin, Arjuna Depression, Northwest Java
plugs

Basin), locally extend to the land area where they merge into back-arc
basins (Darman and Sidi, 2000).
Fluid Inclusion Salinity

3.2. Magmatic belts and tectonic evolution

(wt% NaCl eq.)

0.18–0.89

Based on their ages and characteristics, at least four magmatic arcs

0.2–0.46
1.5–5.7

0.2–1.8

have been recognized: Cretaceous – Eocene, Oligocene – Lower

<1

<3

0.6
NA

NA

NA

Miocene, Middle Miocene – Pliocene, and Quaternary arcs (Carlile and

Mitchell, 1994; Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1991; Prihatmoko, 1998; Setijadji
Au, Ag, As, Sb

Au, Ag, As, Sb

Au, Ag, As, Sb

and Maryono; 2012; Maryono et al., 2018). Each magmatic arc has their
Au, Ag, Mn-

Au, Ag, Mn-

Au, Ag, Mn-

Signature

own characteristics.
Au, Ag

Au, Ag

Au, Ag
Au, Ag

The oldest magmatic arc (Cretaceous - Eocene) cropped out limit-

Metal

oxide

oxide

oxide

edly in the West Java area, and can be correlated to the Cretaceous
Summary of characteristics of selected 10 LS epithermal deposits/prospects in Java.

volcanics in the Gumai Mts. of Sumatra, and the Meratus Mts. of

Deposit/mineraliza-

Kalimantan (Katili, 1975). This belt is known as the Sumatera-Meratus

Vein, stockwork

Vein, stockwork

Arc (Carlile and Mitchell, 1994). Evidence of the volcanic rocks of this
belt is mainly off shore and have been encountered in oil-exploration
tion Style

wells in Java Sea and north coast of West Java (Asikin, 1974;
Vein

Vein

Vein

Vein
Vein

Vein

Vein

Vein

Martodjojo, 1984; Sribudiyani et al., 2003). Extension of the Cretaceous

- Eocene subduction zone is delineated based on the presence of four
similar melanges, i.e. Ciletuh (Thayyib et al., 1977), Luk Ulo (Asikin,
1974), Jiwo Hills (Sartono et al., 1986), and Karimunjawa (Sidarto
(?)

(?)

(?)

(?)
(?)

et al., 1993) which are interpreted as old accretionary complexes. This

Pleistocene

Pleistocene

Pleistocene

Pleistocene
Pleistocene
11.2–10.7

4.16–4.11
Age (Ma)

Pliocene-

Pliocene-

Pliocene-

melange belt can be correlated to the melange complexes in Laut island

16.29
2.05

and Meratus Mts., Southeast Kalimantan (Supriatna, 1989), and mel-

2.4

ange basements in Java Sea, north of East Java which were intercepted
by oil-exploration wells (Hamilton, 1979).
Ag/Au

At the end of Eocene, a continental fragment, possibly detached

Ratio

15.8

10.4
8.5

5.6

1.8
2.4

5.8

1.5

1.7

6.9

from Gondwana continent (called as Argo block by Hall and

Sevastjanova, 2012) collided with this Cretaceous-Eocene magmatic
Au Cont.

belt. This collision could be the reason for the cessation of volcanism,
14.9

and also causing the subduction zone moved to the east–west trend
2.7
NA

NA
NA

NA

NA

NA

NA
98
(t)

following the edge of Argo block (Sribudiyani et al., 2003) - see

Deposit/Occurrence

Fig. 15A and 15B. This collision should also be responsible for the de-
velopment of structural configuration along this magmatic belt. One of
Petungkriyono

Dalang Turu
Gunung Peti

the evidences is that the Jatibarang Formation which represents a

Cijaringao
Cibaliung

Cikidang
Pongkor

volcanic series deposited in a north–south oriented graben-like de-

Table 1

Cisoka

Cihar
Kerta

pression associated with an extensional regime within the uplifted

magmatic arc (Sribudiyani et al., 2003).

12
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
Fig. 13. Simplified volcanic arc – basin configuration across Java (modified from Simanjuntak and Barber, 2006; Koesoemadinata, 2018).
Fig. 14. Tectonic configuration of Java showing the Tertiary basin outline. Vertical black hatch: Bogor-Kendeng Trough which is Miocene-Pliocene back arc basin
(modified from Darman and Sidi, 2000, updated 2017).
The Oligocene-Lower Miocene magmatic arc mainly cropped out in
the southern parts of Java and famously known as the Old Andesite
Formation (Van Bemmelen, 1949), or named differently by recent re-
searchers, e.g. Jampang Formation in West Java and Besole or Man-
dalika Formation in East Java. This arc was interpreted as a product of
Eocene - Miocene subduction that can be traced by the presence of
melanges through the outer arc ridges offshore from south Java to Nias,
Pagai, and Sipore islands offshore from Sumatra (Hamilton, 1979;
Simandjuntak and Barber, 1996). This magmatic belt is considered to
be the result of the E-W subduction system that formed after the col-
lision of Argo Block (see Fig. 15C).
Evidence on Middle Miocene-Pliocene magmatic arc has been re-
ported by Soeria-Atmadja et al. (1991) from Pacitan (East Java), Kar-
angkobar and Bobotsari (Central Java), and Sanggabuana (West Java).
Some stocks at Karangkobar district were dated 7.9 and 8.9 Ma (Soeria-
Atmadja et al., 1994). This volcanic belt was developed in an E-W trend
through the middle of Java coincident with the Quaternary arc.
13
Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
However, recent studies revealed that this belt also occurred over-
lapping with Oligo-Miocene magmatic belt along the Southern Moun-
tain of West, Central and East Java (Harrison et al., 2018; Maryono
et al., 2018). The E-W subduction system is responsible for the devel-
opment of this belt (see Fig. 15D). A typical back-arc basalt cropped out
in the Karimunjawa islands which are reported to be 5.6 and 6.5 Ma
(Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1985).
The Quaternary volcanic arc consists of subaerial volcanics edifices,
distributed in the middle parts of Java island. This volcanic belt exhibits
relatively normal character for a volcanic arc setting, although few
anomalies occurred (Prihatmoko, 1998; Setijadji and Maryono, 2012).
Across the arc from south to north, petrogenetically the rock alkalinity
is increasing from tholeiitic in the southern part, changing to calc al-
kaline in the middle part, and becoming alkaline in the northern edge of
the arc (Whitford et al., 1979; Wheller et al., 1987).
Something unique is that the potassic volcanism in the north of
Central Java has been delineated in Muria, Lasem, and Ungaran
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
Fig. 15. Tectonic evolution of western Indonesia (Sribudiyani et al., 2003), showing the shifting of magmatic arc trend of Java from SW-NE to E-W (Figure B to C).
(Nicholls and Whitford, 1983, Leterrier et al., 1990, Edwards et al.,
1991; Prastistho, 1992; Setijadji and Maryono, 2012). In East Java, the
presence of alkaline rock suites at Mt. Ringgit and Mt. Beser are also
reported (Soeria-Atmadja et al., 1991).
In term of the time of emplacement, it was reported that the
Quaternary volcanisms tend to be younger to the south, or migrated
trenchward (Setijadji and Maryono, 2012). One of the evidences is the
geochronological data across the arc along north–south volcanic chain
of Ungaran-Telomoyo-Merbabu-Merapi in Central Java that show the
gradual movement of the volcanism trench-ward (Kohno et al., 2005).
The intrusive rocks in Java have been reported in quite wide range
of ages coincident with the volcanic arc emplacement. Setijadji and
Maryono (2012) and Maryono et al. (2018) have compiled the spatial
and temporal distribution of intrusive rocks that have been dated from
50.9 to 2.7 Ma (Eocene to Pliocene). Some of the intrusives have been
reported having close association with the metallic mineralization
14
Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
(porphyry to epithermal types).
In the western part of Java, and probably extending up to central
Java, the magmatic belts lie on a continental crust, part of the
Sundaland (Simandjuntak and Barber, 1996; Carlile and Mitchell, 1994;
Hall and Sevastjanova, 2012; Hall, 2014). The eastern part of Java that
is previously assumed to be underline by Mesozoic accretionary com-
plexes (Simandjuntak and Barber, 1996), based on the new data and
findings is currently considered to be based by a continental crust, part
of Australian continent, called as Argo block (Hall and Sevastjanova,
2012). This basement configuration, combined with the distribution of
magmatic arcs, from Cretaceous to Quaternary has been used as the
basis in improving the understanding of the volcano-tectonic setting.
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490

Fig. 16. Simplified geology (lithology) of SW part of Java (Bayah Dome – Honje Igneous Complex) based on the Geological Agency’s geology maps (Modified from
Rusmana et al., 1991; Santosa, 1991; Sudana and Santosa, 1992; Sujatmiko and Santosa, 1992). Trace of Bogor-Kendeng Trough/Basin is adopted from Sribudiyani
et al (2003).

4. Linkage of LS epithermal mineralization and volcano-tectonic epithermal deposits in alkaline centers (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
setting
4.1. Discussion
The relationship between volcano-tectonic setting and the deposi-
tion of mineral deposits, in particular that is related to the magmatic The characteristics of LS epithermal systems in Java are summarized
process, has been the subject of many studies and long researches, e.g. in Table 1. Based on the relative proximity of the deposits/prospects,
Sillitoe (1977); Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003). For the epithermal the discussion is divided into 4 parts: Bayah Dome-Honje Igneous
system, Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) have suggested some clues Complex, Southern Mountain West Java, Northern Central Java, and
based on their studies all over the world as summarized below. Southern Mountain East Java (see Figs. 1 and 17 for location reference).
High-sulfidation (HS) epithermal deposits are commonly generated
in calc-alkaline andesitic-dacitic arcs characterized by near-neutral
4.2. Bayah Dome- Honje Igneous complex
stress states or mild extension. The HS epithermal system is commonly
having highly acidic fluids, that could produce widespread advanced
In general, the gold mineralization occurred in the form of- or in
argillic lithocaps. Many HS epithermal deposits have been proven
association with quartz veins and stockwork. Most of them exhibit ty-
having close association with porphyry mineralized systems.
pical LS epithermal textures i.e. crustiform-colloform bandings quartz
Intermediate-sulfidation (IS) epithermal deposits generally occur in
with low sulfide content. Pseudomorph bladed carbonates representing
andesitic-dacitic arcs but commonly do not show such a close connec-
boiling zone are identified in some of the deposits/prospects, i.e.
tion with porphyry Cu deposits. Unlike, HS system, the IS epithermal
Cibaliung, Kerta, Cisoka, Pongkor, and Gunung Peti. Metal association
could be related to igneous rocks as silicic as rhyolite. The IS deposits
is mostly Au with Ag, but in some areas are rich in Mn (e.g. Pongkor),
are originated from fluids spanning broadly the same salinity range as
and elevated As and Sb (e.g. Kerta). Although not all deposits/prospects
those responsible for the high-sulfidation type, although for Au-Ag and
have fluid inclusion data, but in general the salinity of quartz (ancient
base metal-rich Ag-(Au) subtypes reveal progressively higher ore-fluid
hydrothermal fluid) is low to moderate, i.e. 0.18 wt% NaCl eq. (in
salinities (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
Cisoka) up to 5.7 wt% NaCl eq. (in Kerta), indicating less influence of
Most low-sulfidation (LS) epithermal deposits, including about 60
magmatic hydrothermal fluids (c.f. Bodnar, 1995). Kerta’s hydro-
percent of the world’s bonanza veins, are associated with bimodal
thermal fluid is relatively more saline compared to those of other de-
(basalt-rhyolite) volcanic suites in a broad spectrum of extensional
posits; it is because probably the mineralized veins have very close
tectonic settings, including intra-, near-, and back-arc, as well as post-
association with the rhyodacite intrusives (see Fig. 5).
collisional rifts. Some LS epithermal deposits also accompany exten-
In term of the mineralization age, 5 of 10 deposits/prospects have
sion- related alkaline magmatism, which, unlike the bimodal suites, is
radiometric dating data. Therefore, determination of age of the other 5
capable of generating porphyry Cu deposits. The LS epithermal systems
deposits/prospects are based on the comparison to the host rock age. It
genetically linked to bimodal volcanism are formed from extremely
is known that the mineralization age ranges from very young 2.05 Ma/
dilute fluids, whereas modestly saline contributions account for the LS
Pleistocene in Pongkor to 16.29 Ma/Early Miocene in Dalang Turu. This

15
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
Fig. 17. Tectonic framework of Java island at 20–5 Ma (modified from Sribudiyani et al., 2003), showing the localities of LS epithermal deposits/prospects.
age span (16 to 2 Ma) suggest that the LS epithermal mineralizations
are related to magmatic/volcanic activities of Mio-Pliocene belt, or
could be slightly extending younger to Pleistocene.
Considering the geology (rock types and their possible association
with the mineralization) around the deposits/prospects, the miner-
alization of some of them clearly show close genetic relationship with
the igneous activities either in the forms of shallow intrusions/dykes or
sub-volcanic intrusions/volcanic domes/plugs. Kerta mineralized veins
exhibit close genetic relationship with the rhyodacitic plugs/dome (see
Fig. 5) as well as in Pongkor and probably Cisoka which is related to
more dacitic plug. In Cibaliung, the quartz veins seem to have genetic
linkage with the diorite intrusion and diatreme (phreatomagmatic)
breccias, as well as further 20 km to the north where rhyolitic domes
could be observed. Another rock type existed in Kerta and Cibaliung is
basalt/basaltic andesite, appear as both dykes and lavas, that indicate
bimodal volcanism. The location of sub-volcanic plugs (rhyolite/rhyo-
dacite) is shown in Fig. 16. In Cikidang and Gunung Peti, there is no
information on the silicic volcanic plugs, but they may be related to the
andesitic sub-volcanic plugs.
The distribution of Pliocene pyroclastic/tuff (Fig. 16) which is da-
citic tuff (mainly ignimbrite), namely Malingping/Cibaliung Tuff and
partly Cipacar Formation that is widely spread over the area is very
interesting to be studied. A K-Ar radiometric dating is available on this
tuff (sampled in Cibaliung area), showing 4.9 Ma – Early Pliocene
(Harijoko et al., 2004). In Cibaliung (Honje Igneous Complex) area, this
tuff is clearly acting as cover of the mineralized vein systems (Angeles
et al., 2002; Harijoko et al., 2004). However, in Kerta (that is located in
the western flank of Bayah Dome) and possibly further east in Pongkor
and within the Bayah Dome, the tuff is identified as the host rocks of
mineralized veins (Lubis et al., 2012; Milesi et al., 1999). The thickness
of the tuff unit is getting thicker toward east, i.e. 30 m in Cibaliung,
80 m in Kerta and up to 300 m in Pongkor.
A very preliminary thought on the dacitic tuff phenomena, by
considering its association with the rhyodacitic/rhyolitic volcanic plugs
(e.g. in Cibaliung, Kerta, Cisoka and Pongkor areas), and the fact that
the dacitic tuff is mainly occurred as pyroclastic flows distributed/de-
posited over very wide area (at least within a 100 km diameter, from
Cibaliung in the west to Pongkor in the east), it is interpreted that this
dacitic tuff could be the product of a huge caldera system. The center of
the caldera is still in question mark, but Kerta area could be considered
16
Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
as one of the caldera rims, based the presence of more than 5 dacitic/
rhyodacitic volcanic plugs that should commonly be present at the edge
of or within the caldera. The fact of eastward thickening of the dacitic
tuff formation is also intriguing to interpret that bigger eruption center
could be present toward Pongkor area.
In the tectonic point of view, the Bayah Dome – Honje Igneous
Complex area sits on the Bogor Trough which is known as back arc
basin (Martodjojo, 1984; Darman and Sidi, 2000; Sribudiyani et al.,
2003) – see Figs. 14 and 17. In western Java, this basin, that had been
developed during Miocene to Pliocene is bounded in the southern edge
by the Southern Mountain (Martodjojo, 1984; Darman and Sidi, 2000;
Sribudiyani et al., 2003; Clements et al., 2009). Therefore, the Bogor
Trough is interpreted to be the back arc rift of the Mio-Pliocene mag-
matic/volcanic belt.
Interestingly, the Bogor Trough extends toward east approximately
in the medial part of Java, overlapping with the Quaternary volcanic
belt, and continue extending to the Kendeng Basin/Trough in East Java
(Figs. 14 and 17). In Central Java this trough is slightly bending to the
south and called as Banyumas Basin (Darman and Sidi, 2000;
Koesoemadinata, 2011; Satyana, 2015).
4.3. Southern mountain of west Java
Two LS epithermal prospects are located in the Southern Mountain
of West Java: Cihar and Cijaringao. Both have typical characters of LS
epithermal including banded (crustiform-colloform) quartz veins with
common pseudomorph bladed carbonates, even in Cihar some of them
are still in the form of bladed calcites. Mn-oxides and pyrolusite are
quite common. Unfortunately, there is not much data on fluid inclusion
as well as age dating. The age of mineralization is predicted from the
host rock formations compare to the regional geology.
In the regional sense, the Cihar and Cijaringao prospects, by con-
sidering their relative ages (Plio-Pleistocene), are located right in the
Mio-Pliocene magmatic belt. However, local opening (extensional)
structures could be present, although data related to it is still limited.
Cihar structural orientation, which is mainly E-W (see Fig. 10), is a
unique thing since this trend is parallel to the subduction zone or-
ientation of southern Java, or perpendicular to the main regional
compressional stress. Considering the opening structures that is up to
3 m wide, it is interpreted that this E-W veins could be related to the
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
second order release structures. It is a bit different with the Cijaringao’s
NNW-SSE vein orientation, which could be related to the tensional
structures relative to the main N-S compressional stress of Java. The
presence of boiling zone indication (bladed carbonates) also support the
idea that the system is relatively open so the boiling process could have
happened.
4.4. Northern Central Java
Petungkriyono is the only LS epithermal prospect recorded in this
area, and even could be the only one identified in Central Java so far. Its
position which is in the Pleistocene volcanic rock formation might
dictate this prospect to be the youngest gold prospect in Java.
Moreover, the Dieng’s active geothermal complex is located adjacent to
it at about 15 km ESE direction.
Something interesting is that several circular features identified in
the satellite image (Fig. 11), could be a caldera complex. This “caldera
complex” is crossed cut by major WNW-ESE structural zone
(Prihatmoko et al., 2005), that is considered to be good aspect in pro-
nouncing the mineralization. The presence of andesitic – dacitic plugs
associated with diatreme breccias as well as silica sinter are good evi-
dences that hydrothermal system had developed well.
With regards to the tectonic setting, the Petungkriyono prospect is
located in the Pemalang Sub-basin, which is Plio-Pleistocene basin re-
lated to the “high and low” structural pattern of northern Central Java
(see Fig. 17). It is postulated that the development of caldera complex,
that eventually promoting gold mineralization in Petungkriyono, could
be facilitated by the release/tensional situation in the “low” zone of the
Pemalang sub-basin. However, the relationship with the Mio-Pliocene
magmatism need to be assessed using more data and information.
4.5. Southern mountain of East Java
This area is represented by Dalang Turu’s LS epithermal system
only. Fluid inclusion study of Dalang Turu showed low salinity
(0.2–0.46 wt% NaCl eq.), that is combined with the presence of silica
sinter are the valid evidences that this quartz vein system could be
generated by dilute near neutral hydrothermal fluid fit as a LS epi-
thermal system.
The mineralization of Dalang Turu is located in the overlapping
magmatic belts of Oligo-Miocene and Mio-Pliocene ages. However, the
defined age of 16.29 Ma is indicative that the mineralization had closer
association with the Mio-Pliocene magmatic belt. There is no much data
and information about the tectonic of Mio-Pliocene belt in East Java,
therefore the relationship of mineralization with the volcano-tectonic
setting could not be interpreted well.
However, a speculative interpretation could be thought by con-
sidering the position of Dalang Turu relative to the Mio-Pliocene
magmatic belt, which is relatively in the northern flank of the belt.
Assuming that the belt has not been much eroded or been cut by
structures in the northern edge, then Dalang Turu could be assumed to
be generated by extensional structural complex related to intra- or near-
arc.
4.6. Exploration implication
LS epithermal gold deposits/prospects in Java have the age span
from 16 Ma (Early Miocene) to 2 Ma (Pleistocene). They could ge-
netically be related to the Mio-Pliocene magmatism of Java or even
younger. With regards to the volcano-tectonic setting, 6 of the deposits/
prospects (Cibaliung, Kerta, Pongkor, Cisoka, Cikidang and Gunung
Peti) are clearly emplaced in Bogor Trough/Basin in western Java area,
that is a back arc basin/rift related to the Mio-Pliocene arc. The pre-
sence of rhyolitic to dacitic magmatism that could be related with
caldera systems producing large volume of pyroclastics (e.g. in Kerta,
Pongkor, Cisoka), and the common association with subvolcanic
17
Ore Geology Reviews 121 (2020) 103490
intrusion/volcanic plugs (e.g. Kerta) are good evidences of their close
linkage to the prospects of gold mineralizations. The basaltic rock de-
position (either lava or dyke) in close proximity with the rhyolite-
rhyodacite, as identified in Cibaliung and Kerta firmly indicate the bi-
modal volcanism occurred in the area. The bimodal volcanism com-
monly occurred in the back arc rifting environment which is favorable
for the deposition of LS epithermal system (Sillitoe and Hedenquist,
2003). Therefore, exploration for LS epithermal deposits should be
targeted along the back arc rifting/basins (e.g. Bogor Trough) pre-
ferably over the areas with bimodal magmatism.
The Bogor Trough in western Java has been known extending to the
E or ENE about along the median of Java island, and the main mag-
matic arc is stretching W-E along the Southern Mountain of West Java.
This basin bends to SE and forming depression in south Central Java,
called as Banyumas Basin (see Figs. 14 and 17). Concurrently, the
Oligo-Miocene magmatic belt which exist in the southern West Java
disappear in south Central Java, and only exposed limitedly in Nusa-
kambangan island and Karangbolong cape. Therefore, based on the
tectonic setting, this area could be targeted for epithermal deposit too
in both the Oligo-Miocene and Mio-Pliocene magmatic belts. Some gold
mineralization systems have been reported in this area e.g. Ajibarang
and Karangbolong (Prihatmoko et al., 2002; Prihatmoko and Soesila,
2003).
Using similar approach (i.e. targeting Bogor Trough for mineral
exploration), the back arc rifting/basin in East Java need to be assessed.
Given the tectonic setting and evolution, in particular during Mio-
Pliocene, it seems that Kendeng Trough (see Fig. 15) could be the
eastern continuation of the Bogor Trough (Darman and Sidi, 2000;
Sribudiyani et al., 2003). The new data on the presence of Mio-Pliocene
magmatic belt in the Southern Mountain of East Java (Harrison et al.,
2018; Maryono et al., 2018), which has relatively similar age with
Kendeng Trough formation, has supported the idea to explore the
Kendeng Trough for LS epithermal gold target. Although, off course the
other parameters such as the presence of back arc rifting related mag-
matism (more importantly with bimodal volcanism), geochemical
anomalies, etc, need to be assessed carefully when selecting the target
areas.
The presence of Petungkriyono’s LS epithermal gold mineralization,
in term of the volcano-tectonic setting is still an enigma. It is because
Petungkriyono is situated in the far north of Bogor Trough, which is
considered to be the back arc basin/rift of the Mio-Pliocene magmatic
arc. Although, as explained in Section 2.9, different magmatism (during
Plio-Pleistocene) with related extensional structures (within the Pe-
malang Sub-Basin) has been interpreted to generate the caldera system
with associated mineralization, however, the question is which mag-
matism/volcanism involved in the process? With limited data available,
one of the possibilities is there should be another Plio-Pleistocene
magmatic belt extending along the medial of Central Java, and could be
extending further to West Java. Referring to Soeria-Atmadja et al.
(1994), volcanic rocks at Karangkobar and Bobotsari (Central Java),
and Sanggabuana (West Java) indicating that age, although Soeria-
Atmadja et al. (1994) assumed it is part of the Mio-Pliocene magmatic
arc. Beyond that volcano-tectonic enigma, this Plio-Pleistocene mag-
matic belt should also be a favorable target for epithermal deposits.
5. Concluding remarks
The deposition of 10 LS epithermal deposits in Java took place in
the time span between 16 Ma (Early Miocene) and 2 Ma (Pleistocene).
All deposits/prospects exhibit typical LS epithermal characteristics. The
timing of their deposition is coincident with the Mio-Pliocene magmatic
arc activities, and even probably continue on to Pleistocene.
Six of the 10 deposits (i.e. Cibaliung, Kerta, Cisoka, Pongkor,
Cikidang and Gunung Peti) with regards to the tectonic setting, sit
clearly on the Bogor Trough/Basin which is known as the back arc
basin/rift. This basin, which has developed during Miocene to
S. Prihatmoko and A. Idrus
Pleistocene should have a linkage with the Mio-Pliocene magmatic arc.
The strong gold mineralization is commonly associated with the hy-
drothermal process within the silicic (rhyolite-rhyodacite) caldera, e.g.
Kerta, Pongkor. Two deposits (i.e. Cihar and Cijaringao) are situated on
the Southern Mountain of West Java. They lie on the Mio-Pliocene
magmatic arc, which is in fact overlapping with the Oligo-Miocene
magmatic arc. This situation is similar with the position of Dalang Turu
in the Southern Mountain of East Jawa. More data is required to
evaluate the linkage between the mineralization in Cihar, Cijaringao,
and Dalang Turu with the Mio-Pliocene magmatic arc.
Petungkriyono is a unique mineralized system, taking into account
its deposition location that is far north from the known back arc basin/
rift (Banyumas Basin in Central Java). However, it is interpreted that
another Mio-Pliocene magmatic arc present in the medial of West Java
(Sanggabuana) and extending toward east to the medial of Central Java
(Bobotsari, Karangkobar etc). Petungkriyono could be the product of
this magmatic arc in its northern flank.
In term of exploration, the back arc basin (Bogor Trough in West
Java) that extending to the east (as Kendeng Trough) could be good
target for LS epithermal deposits. However, comprehensive assessment
involving other parameters could be carried out before deciding the
target areas.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The technical data used in this paper is compiled from a long period
of field geological works with several companies in which the authors
were part of the team. Appreciation is extended to Austindo Resources
and its subsidiaries that allow the usage of the project data for this
paper. Acknowledgement is also given to Pamapersada Nusantara who
has supported this paper writing. Thanks go to Daniel Mokalu, Ni’matul
Azizah Raharjanti and Hidayatullah who helped the authors in pre-
paring some of the diagrams/figures. We also thank to Fahmi Hakim
who helped in summarizing some journal papers and exploration re-
ports. It is expected that this paper will be useful for the exploration
geologist society, who are struggling in doing exploration works in the
current situation.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2020.103490.
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