© 1999 Society of Economic Geologists

Special Publication 7, p. 109-153

Chapter 4

Magmatic and Metallogenic Evolution of the Central Andes

ULRICH PETERSEN t

H. C. Dudley Professor ofEconomic Geology, Emeritus, Depart�t ofEarth and Planetary Sciences,
Harvard University, 20 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138-2902

Abstract.

The <10,000-yr-old volcanoes of the Central Volcanic zone ( 15°-27° S) form a 50-km-wide belt that
widens locally to 100 to 150 km and has three outliers 100 to 200 km east of it. The locations of over
1 ,800 radiometrically dated igneous rocks and hydrothermal ore/alteration minerals between 6° S
and 33o S are plotted for 25 time intervals (varying 'between 2 and 65 m.y. ) , from the Precambrian to
the Holocene. For short time intervals, these locations define 25- to 75-km-wide belts that widen oc­
casionally to 75 to 1 25 km and have local outliers of volcanic tuffs or ignimbrites. Nonmagmatic
stretches, such as the current Northern (2°-1 5° S) and Southern (27°-34° S) Nonvolcanic zones,
probably occurred at various times and locations in the past, but were distinctly subordinate in strike
length and duration to the magmatic zones.
There are two roughly parallel belts that are 200 to 400 km apart (locally separated by only 1 25
km or up to 500 km) . Over the chosen time intervals, both magmatic belts were often active. How­
ever, judging from presently active magmatic belts, they were probably seldom coeval over geologi­
cally very short time spans. The western \belt corresponds to the conventionally envisaged magma
generation by a subducting oceanic plate at 1 00- to 1 25-km depth. The eastern belt is akin to a back
arc in an oceanic setting, except that it occurs in a continental plate. The apparent parallelism of
both belts suggests that they were generated by linked mechanisms.
Pegmatites, granites, rhyolites, and rhyodacites occur in both belts, but as a group are more com­
mon in the eastern belt. Calc-alkaline igneous rock compositions also occur in both belts, but as a
group predominate in the western belt. Although basaltic rocks occur in both belts, as a group the
mafic igneous rocks appear to be largely restricted to the western belt. The two phonolites and the
nepheline syenite dated are in the eastern belt.
In many areas, the location of the magmatic belt did not change significantly over a long period
of time. The location of the magmatic belt gives the appearance of essentially continuous magma­
tism accompanied by occasional hydrothermal activity that resulted in the formation of ore deposits.
Significant changes in the activity and locations of magmatic belts can occur in about 5 million
years. As magmatic belts shift eastward or westward, individual magmatic centers may be dragged
along. Integrated over a long time, this process may give rise to transverse magmatic alignments or
transbatholiths with associated hydrothermal ore deposits of different ages that appear to be con­
trolled tectonically.
The relatively straight magmatic belts have local deflections. These deflections can be interpreted
as smooth changes in the dip of the subducting plate or as faulting of either the oceanic or the con­
tinental plate.
Oceanic plate subduction below the central Andes has occurred since the Cambrian. Folding
and overthrusting in the continental plate did not significantly disturb the geometry of the
magmatic-hydrothermal belts.

Introduction ing the Phanerozoic. It is not a critical, in-depth study; that

The purpose of this paper is to present a general overview of
the magmatic evolution in the central Andes (6° to 33o S) dur-
t Email, petersen@eps.harvard.edu or ulrichp@aol.com
would be a mcyor undertaking requiring several years of work
and an extensive paper which is well beyond the scope of this
volume. Instead, this paper presents a broad picture, resulting
from plotting the locations of more than 1 ,800 radiometric age
determinations of igneous rocks and hydrothermal alteration

1 09

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 110
minerals, considering the distribution of important volcanic
units in their stratigraphic context, and conducting a brief re­
view of present-day volcanism.
While preparing this review, it became apparent that: in
the past there were magmatic and nonmagmatic zones simi­
lar to the current volcanic and nonvolcanic zones; the eastern
Andean back-arc magmatism and hydrothermal activity rec­
ognized before (Clark et al., 1976, 1984, 1990; Pitcher, 1984)
were more extensive, both in space and time, than generally
thought (but perhaps not as extensive as in the western main
or frontal arc) ; most common magma compositions and ore
deposit types occur in both belts (although there is a distinct
difference between the belts in the proportions of peralumi­
nous, alkalic-siliceous, intermediate, and mafic igneous rock
compositions) ; and these magmatic belts provide strong sup­
port for the conclusion reached by Scotese ( 1987) that an
oceanic plate has been subducted under the western edge of
the South American plate since the Cambrian. The implica­
tions of these and other findings justified presenting them
here in order to stimulate the research and discussion neces­
sary to test and refine them.
This review was started using a database, assembled by
Cesar Vidal, of 62 1 radiometric age dates for Peruvian ig­
neous rocks and hydrothermal alteration/ ore minerals, the
radiometric ages in ten publications of the Servicio Nacional
de Geologia y Mineria of Chile ( Moscoso et al., 1 982a; b;
Sepulveda and Naranjo, 1982; Naranjo and Puig, 1984; Ver­
gara and Thomas, 1984; Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988; Boric
et al., 1 990; Nasi et al., 1990; Ulriksen, 1 990; Rivano and
Sepulveda, 1 991 ) , and summaries for Bolivia by Lehmann
( 1979) and Urquidi-Barrau ( 1 989) . These data were com­
plemented with information from numerous other sources.
For clarity, the text mentions mostly general references and
papers documenting the back-arc magmatic belt. A separate
bibliography lists the sources of other radiometric age data,
particularly for the main magmatic arc in Peru and Chile.
Readers can contact the author for additional sources used.
About 47 percent of the data are from Chile, 40 percent from
Peru, 9 percent from Bolivia, and 4 percent from Argentina.
This uneven distribution reflects several factors: the total
number of radiometric age determinations per country, the
number of determinations readily available to the author,
and the number of determinations for which the publica­
tions provide geographic coordinates. The paucity of radio­
metric age determinations available for the Tarapaca
province in northernmost Chile led to some uncertainty in
correlating magmatic belts from Chile to Bolivia and south­
ern Peru. Also, many of the radiometric age determinations
published for northeastern Argentina lack the geographic
coordinates necessary for plotting their locations with the re­
quired accuracy. There are probably a large number of pub­
lished and unpublished radiometric age determinations that
were missed and should have been included in this study. It is
unlikely that their omission will change significantly the gen­
eral inferences and conclusions reached from the large num­
ber of dates used.
The dates plotted in this paper are those originally re­
ported in the literature. Time constraints made it impossible
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ULRICH PETERSEN
to recalculate the old K-Ar ages using new constants of radi­
ogenic decay and to eliminate questionable ages. For a fu­
ture in-depth study of this subject, the old K-Ar ages need to
be recalculated and the questionable ages have to be elimi­
nated. However, the recalculations are likely to affect all old
ages in a similar way and the questionable ages are probably
limited in number. Hence, these shortcomings are unlikely
to substantially modify the general conclusions presented in
this paper.
The magmatic activity discussed in this paper generated
the vast majority of the hydrothermal ore deposits that com­
prise the mineral wealth of the central Andes (i.e., porphyry
Cu-Au-Mo, skarn Cu-Zn-Au, volcanogenic massive sulfide
Cu-Zn, high- and low-sulfidation Cu-Ag-Au-Pb-Zn veins,
mantos and pipes, Sn-W-Ag-Sb veins and disseminations) , ei­
ther directly (by magmatic emanations) or indirectly (by be­
ing the heat engines driving meteoric, magmatic, and meta­
morphic fluid flow) . Therefore, in this study the radiometric
age determinations of hydrothermal alteration and ore min­
erals are included as indicators of magmatic activity. In a
sense, the ore deposits are like a musical motif in an Andean
magmatic symphony. Furthermore, an understanding of the
evolution of the magmatic activity could be useful for guid­
ing mineral exploration in this region. Notable exceptions
to all of this are, of course, hydrothermal ore deposits that
are generally believed to be unrelated to magmatic activity,
such as Pb-Zn deposits of the Mississippi valley-type and Cu­
Ag-V-U deposits in red bed-sandstone sequences.
It has long been known that Holocene volcanoes do not
form a continuous belt along the Andes. Rather, there is a
Northern Volcanic zone (5° N to 2o S) , a Central Volcanic
zone {15° to 27o S) , and a Southern Volcanic zone (34° to 55°
S) . These are separated by two nonvolcanic zones, herein re­
ferred to as the Northern Nonvolcanic zone (2° to 15° S) and
Southern Nonvolcanic zone (27o to 34o S)-see Map 1 . It is
likely that, within the three volcanic zones, many magmas
rose, but did not extrude, thus forming batholiths, stocks,
dikes, sills, and hydrothermal ore deposits, and that these
processes are currently active. It is also probable, but by no
means certain, that there is no intrusive magmatic activity and
hydrothermal ore deposit formation (excluding, of course,
Mississippi Valley-type and red bed-sandstone-type deposits)
in the present nonvolcanic zones. Because most of the evi­
dence in this paper pertains to intrusive rocks and hy­
drothermal ore deposits, magmatic zones will be contrasted
with nonmagmatic zones. One purpose of this paper is to
shed light on the location, strike length, and duration of these
magmatic and nonmagmatic zones in the central Andes dur­
ing the Phanerozoic.
.
The Evidence
Magmatic Belts
Map 1 shows the Central Volcanic zone. The "v" symbols
represent the locations of 84 Holocene (<10,000-yr-old) and
historic volcanoes in Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina as
listed by the Smithsonian Institution ( 1997) . The vast major­
ity of the volcanoes (i.e., 8 1 ) define a 1 ,500-km-long volcanic
 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUFION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES Ill

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 112 ULRICH PETERSEN

belt or arc that is generally less than 50 km wide and 250 to TABLE 1. Time Intervals Discussed in Text and Represented on Maps
400 km east of the present Peru-Chile trench. Whereas in
Time intervals
Peru, the northern part of the volcanic belt is quite straight, Map Time Interval, Duration Approximate geological
in Chile its southern part is sinuous. In two pfaces along the number Ma m.y. time-scale equivalent
Chile-Bolivia border this belt widens to 1 00 to 150 km. These
widenings may be caused by fracture-fault zones transverse to 1 <0.01 0.01 Holocene
the Andes or may be tight contortions of the belt due to 2 <2 <2 Pleistocene
2 2-5 3 Pliocene
buckling of the underthrusting oceanic plate at the Bolivian 3 5-10 5 Late Miocene
orocline. No volcano is listed for the about 1 00-km stretch 4 1 0-15 5 Late, mid Miocene
from 1go47' to 20°44' S. 5 15-20 5 Early, mid Miocene
Three volcanoes are clearly eastern outliers: the Quim­ 6 20-25 5 Early Miocene
7 25-35 10 Oligocene
sachata lava dome in Peru, the Nuevo Mundo lava domes 8 35-45 10 Late Eocene
in Bolivia, and the Cerro Tuzgle stratovolcano in Ar­ 9 45-55 10 Early Eocene
gentina. They are respectively about 1 70, 225, and 1 25 km 10 55-65 10 Paleocene
east of the main volcanic arc. A priori, their unusual loca­ 11 65-75 10 Late, Late Cretaceous
12 75-85 10 Early, Late Cretaceous
tion may be explained several ways, however, considering
13 85-95 10 Late, mid Cretaceous
t1 le locations of the older magmatic belts discussed below, 14 95-1 15 20 Early, mid Cretaceous
t: tese three volcanoes may well correspond to a back- or 15 1 1 5-145 30 Early Cretaceous
r ;tro-arc volcanism. For simplicity, henceforth only the 16 145-210 65 Jurassic
t �rm back arc will be used. 17 210-245 35 Triassic
18 245-285 40 Permian
The locations of over 1 ,800 radiometric age determina­
19 285-320 35 Pennsylvanian
. ions of igneous rocks and of hydrothermal ore/ alteration 20 320-360 40 Mississippian
.ninerals were plotted on maps at a scale of 1 :5,000,000 for 21 360-410 50 Devonian
26 time intervals (Table 1 ) . Maps 2 to 26 are reductions of 22 41 0-440 30 Silurian
23 440-505 65 Ordovician
those maps. Inasmuch as the objective was to study the evo­
24 505-570 65 Cambrian
lution of magmatic activity in a plate tectonic framework 25 320-570 250 Early and mid-Paleozoic
free of stratigraphic or tectonic biases, the time intervals 26 >570 Precambrian
were chosen in multiples of 5 m.y. These intervals increase
from the present to the past because the amount of data and
detail available diminishes with increasing age. However, it
seemed advisable to distinguish between dates less than 2 Chile to about go S, i.e., to goo km north of the northern end
Ma and 2 to 5 Ma dates to track the recent past of the North­ of the Central Volcanic zone. At about go S there are eight
ern and Southern Nonmagmatic zones. Because significant age determinations for the Cordillera Blanca batholith be­
changes can take place within 5 m.y. , intervals of 5 m.y. were tween 2.7 and 4.g Ma, five of which are between 4.1 and 4.g
chosen up to 25 Ma. The amount of data and the apparent Ma. Taken at face value, the 2. 7 Ma age would imply a growth
changes seemed tojustify expanding the intervals to 10 m.y. , of 33 cm/yr for the Northern Nonmagmatic zone. There is,
back to g 5 Ma. For greater ages, the intervals were chosen in however, some controversy concerning the less-than 5 Ma
multiples of 5 m.y. to roughly match the conventional sub­ ages of the Cordillera Blanca batholith (Cobbing et al., 1 g81;
divisions of the geological time scale. For younger ages, the Petford and Atherton, 1gg2; Benavides, 1 ggg) . Ifone accepts
conventional geological time scale terms were modified to the five ages over 4. 1 Ma as reliable, the growth rate of the
characterize at least approximately the chosen 5- or 10-m.y. Northern Nonmagmatic zone would be on the order of 22
intervals. em/yr. If all of these ages are resets from g to 12 Ma ages, the
The location names on the 26 maps generally refer to growth calculations have to be based on data from localities
well-known ore deposits or districts. However, this does not farther south. These suggest growth of 800 km in 4.g m.y.
mean that their mineralization age corresponds to the time (about 1 6 cm/yr) or 630 km in 4.5 m.y. (about 1 4 cm/yr) .
interval represented. It simply means that the age of either a Both belts coincide between 1 3° and 14° S and around 1 7o S,
precursor pluton, an ore-related intrusive, an intramineral­ but separate between 14 o and 1 7o S. It is not clear whether
ization intrusive, an ore, a hydrothermal alteration mineral, this divergence is real or apparent, due to insufficient data
or a postore intrusive corresponds to the pertinent time in­ and to the cover of Holocene volcanic rocks in this area.
terval at that location. In Chile, the Southern Nonvolcanic zone currently ex­
Map 2 shows with two different symbols the sample loca­ tends from 27o to 34o S. No igneous activity is recorded in
tions of radiometric age determinations that are less than 2 this stretch on Map 2, except for the 3.g to 5.6 Ma dates at the
Ma and 2 to 5 Ma. In Peru, the less-than 2 Ma dates of the Andina, Rio Blanco, Los Bronces, Disputada, and El Te­
main magmatic arc extend from close to the border with niente porphyry copper deposits, which are at 33°-34° S. It
Chile to about 1 3° S, i.e., to 300 km north of the currently ac­ thus appears that the Southern Nonmagmatic zone has been
tive Central Volcanic zone, representing a growth of the in existence for the past 5 m.y. over a strike length of700 km.
Northern Nonmagmatic zone of about 1 5 em/yr. The 2-5 Represented on Map 2 are several outliers 1 50 to 400
Ma dates extend from close to the border between Peru and km east of the main magmatic belt: three peralkaline vol-

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 13

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84" 80" 78
" 74" 72" 66" 64"

MAP 2

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 1 14
canic necks at go S (Stewart, 1 971 ) , felsic peraluminous
lavas at Macusani (Barnes et al., 1 970) , shoshonitic lavas
and cinder cones between Andahuaylas and Sicuani (Au­
de baud, 1973; Marocco, 197g; Bonhomme et al., 19g5a, b;
Bonhomme et al., 1 9gg; Carlier et al., 1994) , volcanic rocks
near La Paz ( Lavenu et al. , 1 9g5) , high K rhyolites at
Karikari (Schneider and Halls, 1 9g5) , rhyodacite at
Chorolque, dacite at Tatasi, dacite flows at El Quevo (Er­
icksen et al. , 19g7) , and granite-dacite-rhyodacite at
Famatina (Losada-Calderon and McPhail, 1996) . Some of
these compositions evoke a back-arc or a tensional tecton­
ics environment; others resemble those of magmas consid­
ered to be typical of a main magmatic belt. This belt may
well extend north from go S to the Ecuadorian border for
a distance of about 600 km (Sebrier and Soler, 1 99 1 ; Be­
navides, 1 999) .
Map 2 also shows the general location of the Barroso vol­
canic rocks of southern Peru, which are related to the main
magmatic belt. There are three dated tuffs and ignimbrites
west of the main magmatic belt. This is not surprising, given
the ease with which these materials can travel far from their
source vents. Hence, they do not detract from the broad pic­
ture of well-defined magmatic belts.
Superposition of Maps 1 and 2 shows the general coinci­
dence of the main, less-than 2 Ma and 2 to 5 Ma belts with the
Central Volcanic zone. This demonstrates that the eastern
oudiers of the Central Volcanic zone and the eastern oudiers
of the main belt of igneous rocks and ore deposits, dated at
less than 2 Ma and 2 to 5 Ma, complement each other to form
a back-arc belt roughly parallel to the main belt.
Map 3 shows that, in the 5 to 10 Ma interval, magmatic
activity in Peru reached from southern Peru (where it is
well represented by the presence of the Barroso volcanic
rocks) to as far north as 7o S (Noble and McKee, 1 997,
1 999 ) . The earliest date at 7o S is 7.4 Ma at Tantahuatay
( Hualgayoc) . This date represents a contraction of the
Central Volcanic zone of 250 km in 2.5 m.y., or about 1 0
em/yr. Thus, i n total, the Northern Nonmagmatic zone
grew 1 , 1 50 km in 7.4 m.y., or 16 em/yr. The Southern Non­
magmatic zone, which at 2 to 5 Ma appeared to be between
27o and 33o S (900 km long) , now seems-to be between 24°
and 27o S ( 400 km long) . Stern and Skewes ( 1 997) dis­
cussed the possible effect that the subduction of the Juan
Fernandez Ridge could have had on the geometry of the
subducting plate, subduction erosion, arc migration, and
magma chemistry. The youngest ages in the El Indio re­
gion are 5.4 Ma (Martin et al. , 1 997) , and the youngest
ages in the Maricunga belt are 5.2 Ma (Kay et al. , 1 994) .
Hence, the Southern Nonmagmatic zone could have be­
gun to grow 5 to g m.y. ago. For the segment from 30° to
32° S, Kay and Abbruzzi ( 1996) found that all of the vol­
canism of the Main Cordillera and the Precordillera ended
at 6 to 7 Ma. The Pocho volcano in the Sierras Pampeanas
(about 4. 7 Ma, and 250 km farther east) is viewed as the end
stage of a shallowing oceanic plate. However, for a progres­
sively shallowing plate, one would expect intermediate vol­
canoes between the Sierras Pampeanas and the Main
Cordillera yet there appear to be none. Hence, it is more
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ULRICH PETERSEN
likely that the Pocho volcano belongs to the aforemen­
tioned back-arc belt. All this does not preclude the possibil­
ity that the subducting oceanic plate flattened first between
24o and 27o S, and that this shallowing propagated south to
27o to 33° S while steepening again from 24o to 27o S.
On Map 3 there are two northeast-trending alignments of
data points with ages in the 5 to 10 Ma range (at about 1 1 .5°
S and about 15° S) . The locations of these intrusions may be
controlled by northeast-trending fracture zones in the conti­
nental plate, but it is also possible that, in these segments, the
magmatic belt shifted laterally in this time period. If so, a sin­
gle magmatic center (or a cluster of magmatic centers)
would leave a northeast-trending trail of intrusive rocks.
Map 3 documents the back-arc magmatic belt from the
Cuzco region in southeastern Peru (Bonhomme et al., 19g5b,
19gg; Kontak et al., 19g7; Pichavant et al., 19gga, b, c; Clark et
al., 1990) through Bolivia (Evernden, 1961 ; Clark and Farrar,
1973; Grant et al., 1977; Lavenu et al., 19g5; Schneider and
Halls, 19g5; Ericksen et al., 19g7; Sillitoe, 19gg; Ludington et
al., 1992; U. S. Geological Survey and Servicio Geologico de
Bolivia, 1992; Cunningham et al., 1996) , to Salle in northern
Argentina (Ericksen et al., 19g7) . This segment is about 1 ,000
km long and contains important Sn-W-Ag ore deposits (such
as Llallagua and Potosi) . Along it are the lava-tuff fields ofMo­
rococala, Livichuco, Los Frailes, and Pulacayo-Rio Mulatos.
Rock compositions include peraluminous rhyolites to rhyo­
dacites, quartz-latites, dacites, and andesites. There is a strong
suggestion that this belt roughly parallels the main magmatic
belt at a distance of about 150 to 250 km. A southern exten­
sion of this eastern belt is indicated by a 250-km-long segment
from Farallon Negro to Los Bayos (Caelles et al., 1971; Erick­
sen et al., 19g7; Sillitoe, 19gg, 19g9) . A northern extension of
this belt is indicated by the three peralkaline volcanic necks at
go S, one of which is dated at 5.4 Ma (Stewart, 1971 ) . There
are a number of similar intrusive bodies northwest of this lo­
cality (Benavides, 1999) .
Superposition of Maps 2 and 3 shows that the main mag­
matic belt remained in the same position for the last 10 m.y.
from go to 15 o S. At 1 7o S, the 5- to 1 0-Ma belt was about 50 km
west of the less-than-5-Ma belts. South of 20o S, the limited
magmatic activity of the main belt remained more or less sta­
tionary. The back-arc belt also remained essentially in place,
except that San Cristobal is 100 km west of Chorolque-Tatasi
and Los Bayos is 100 km east of Famatina.
Map 4 shows that, during the 1 0 to 15 Ma interval, mag­
matic activity was essentially continuous along the main belt
from 6° to 33° S (i.e., for a length of 3,600 km) , especially if
one takes into account the distribution of the Sillapaca vol­
canic rocks. The Peruvian portion of this belt is well docu­
mented by Noble and McKee ( 1997, 1999) . There is no evi­
dence of a nonmagmatic zone.
The back arc is well documented on Map 4 from Quena­
mari (Bonhomme et al. , 1 9g5a, b; 1 9gg; Pichavant et al. ,
19gga, b, c; Clark et al., 1990) through Bolivia (Grant et al.,
1977; Schneider and Halls, 19g5; Ericksen et al., 19g7; Silli­
toe, 1 9gg; Ludington et al. , 1 992; U.S. Geological Survey
and Servicio Gelogico de Bolivia, 1992; Cunningham et al.,
1996) to Pan de Azucar (Ericksen et al., 1 9g7) , a length of
 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 115

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 1 16
about 1 , 1 00 km. However, it may have reached Alto de Ia
Blenda (Caelles et al. , 1 971 ) , about 500 km farther south,
and Oxapampa (Soler and Bonhomme, 19gg) , about goo
km farther north. There appears to be a general parallelism
between the main and back-arc belts.
Superposition of Maps 3 and 4 shows a general coinci­
dence of the main and back-arc belts. This includes the
nearness to the coast of the main belt at about 1 7o S, the
curvature of the back-arc belt in Bolivia, and the .eastward
excursion of the main belt between 22.5° and 24° S.
Map 5 shows that, during the 15 to 20 Ma interval, the
main magmatic belt extended from 6° to 33° S, if one takes
into account the presence of the Sillapaca and Tacaza vol­
canic rocks. There is, therefore , no indication of a non­
magmatic zone. An eastward excursion of the main belt be­
tween 22.5° and 24° S cannot be documented for lack of
data on intrusive rocks or ore deposits in this region. Here,
the main belt is drawn straighter than on previous maps.
The guiding data points are for tuffs; the actual magmatic
belt could therefore be farther to the east.
The back-arc belt in Bolivia is well documented on Map 5
for a distance of about 450 km (Clark and Farrar, 1973; Grant
et al., 1977; McBride et al., 19g3; Schneider and Halls, 19g5;
Ludington et al. , 1992) , but probably extends north to Pi­
cotani, Macusani, and the Cayconi formation (Bonhomme et
al., 19g5a, b, 19gg; Pichavant et al., 19gga, b, c; Laubacher et
al., 19gg) , as well as to Oxapampa (Benavides, 1999) , for a to­
tal of another 1 ,100 km. It appears to be roughly parallel to
the main magmatic belt. Superposition of Maps 4 and 5 shows
that the magmatic belts are in almost the same position.
Map 6 contrasts with Maps 4 and 5 in that, from go to 16.5°
S, the main magmatic belt between 20 and 25 Ma was dis­
tincdy west ofits location 10 to 20 m.y. ago. However, between
1go and 20o S, the main magmatic belt seems to have reached
farther east into Bolivia, as far as Negrillo (U.S. Geological
Survey and Servicio Gel6gico de Bolivia, 1992) and Tambillo
(Ahlfeld, 1967) . This inference is supported by ages of 22 to
24 Ma reported by Clark et al. (1990) for the Santa Lucia dis­
trict (see location on Map 7) , which would place the main
magmatic belt well east of the volcanic tuffs dated for this time
interval in Moquegua. This would be in accord with the posi­
tion of the main magmatic belt at 15 to 20 Ma, when it passed
through Orcopampa and Caylloma, and with its position 25
to 35 m.y. ago (see Map 7) . It is possible that this eastward shift
caused a nonmagmatic zone from about 19.5° to 25.5° S (a
distance of about 700 km) . It is not clear whether the change
in strike between 7o and go S is a smooth deflection or
whether it is due to faulting in the subducting oceanic plate.
The eastern back-arc belt is well documented on Map 6,
from San Rafael in southeastern Peru to Karikari in southern
Bolivia, a distance of about goo km (Rivas and Carrasco,
196g; Clark and Farrar, 1973; Grant et al., 1977; McBride et
al., 19g3; Bonhomme et al. , 19g5a, b; Schneider and Halls,
19g5; Ericksen et al., 19g7; Kontak et al, 19g7; Bonhomme et
al, 19gg; Farrar et al. , 19gg; Clark et al. , 1990; Sebrier and
Soler, 1991 ; Ludington et al., 1992) . It probably extends an­
other 700 km northwest to Oxapampa (Benavides, 1999) . In
Bolivia, there appears to be a remarkable parallelism be-
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ULRICH PETERSEN
tween the main and back-arc magmatic belts. Superposition
of Maps 5 and 6 shows that, between 25.5° and 33° S, the
main magmatic belt remained in the same position during
both time intervals.
Taken as a group, Maps 1 to 6 show that, for the last 25
m .y. , the main magmatic belt was located mainly in the
vicinity of the present continental divide (in Peru, the
Western Cordillera and the Puna surface; farther south,
the border between Chile and Bolivia or Argentina) . The
back-arc belt extended mostly along the present Bolivian
altiplano, with indications for its extension to the eastern
slopes of the Andes and the Amazonia in Peru, and to the
Sierras Pampeanas in Argentina. These last 25 m.y. are dis­
cussed in detail for an Andean transect at 22o to 33° S by
Kay et al. ( 1999) .
Map 7 shows that, during the 25 to 35 Ma interval, the
main magmatic belt was probably active over its entire
length, from about 7o to 33° S. There is no indication of a
nonmagmatic zone from about 19.5° to 25.5° S, as suspected
for the interval from 20 to 25 Ma. There is, therefore, less
support for the Oligocene period of magmatic quiescence or
near-quiescence, as previously inferred by Noble et al. ( 1974)
and McKee and Noble (19g2, 19g9) .
The deflection of the main magmatic belt between 7o and
go S, seen on Map 6, is also visible on Map 7. At 10.5° to 1 1 o S,
there is an east-northeast-trending alignment of data points
which suggests localization of intrusive rocks by a fracture
zone transverse to the Andes. In addition, Map 7 indicates an­
other deflection of the main magmatic beltjust south of Lima
(at about 1 2.3° S) , which can be interpreted as a warp or a
fault in the subducting plate. The unusual, easterly location
of the main magmatic belt inferred earlier for 20 to 25 Ma is
now reinforced by 25 to 30 Ma dates for the Santa Lucia dis­
trict (Clark et al., 1990) and by 30 to 35 Ma dates for the Chal­
cobamba-Tintaya belt, renowned for its Cu-Au-Fe skarn and
porphyry deposits (Yoshikawa et al., 1976; Noble et al., 19g4;
Sillitoe, 19gg, I9g9) . This position of the main magmatic belt
is considerably east of the volcanic tuffs dated near the coast,
and only about 100 km west of the back-arc magmatic belt.
From· 21 o to 33o S the main magmatic belt seems to be very
straight and contains some of the world's largest and richest
porphyry copper deposits. .
On Map 7, the back-arc magmatic belt extends from
Karikari (Schneider and Halls, 19g5) to Illimani and Quimsa
Cruz (Ahlfeld and Branisa, 1960; McBride et al., 19g3) and
into southeastern Peru (Bonhomme et al., 19g5a; Kontak et
aL, 19g7; Sebrier and Soler, 1991 ) . It may extend northward
to Oxapampa (Benavides, 1999) .
If one considers the large extent and thickness of the
Tacaza volcanic rocks, Map g reveals that, during the 35 to 45
Ma interval, magmatic activity in the main belt extended
from 7o to 31 o S. The deflection of this belt between 7o and
go S, seen on Maps 6 and 7, persists. In Chile, the main mag­
matic belt is as straight as it was in the 25 to 35 Ma interval.
The back-arc belt at 35 to 45 Ma continues to be docu­
mented on Map g between Zongo and San Gaban-Ollachea
(Bonhomme et al., 19g5a; McBride et al. , 19g7; Farrar et al.,
19gg; Clark et al., 1990) .
 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 17

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0 200 400 600 BOO km 34"

82. so• . 76" 74. 72" 70 . 68"

MAP 4

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 118 ULRICH PETERSEN

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74" 70" 88" 84"

MAP S

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 19

eo·

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EARLY MIOCENE I
NMZ NON-MAGMATIC ZONE
I 30"

PRESENT PERU-CHILE TRENCH

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__. .....- - -

POSSIBLE FAULT ZONE

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eo• 78"

MAP 6
72" 68"

I
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 1 20 ULRICH PETERSEN

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84° 82° ao• 76° 7 4° 72° 64°

MAP 7

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 121

64°

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TACAZA VO

ATASPACA

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35-45 Ma
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lATE EOCENE
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NMZ NON-MAGMATIC ZONE I
PRESENT PERU-CHILE TRENCH I
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MAP S

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 1 22
Map 9 resembles Map 8 for the 45 to 55 Ma interval.
North-northwest of Lima there is ample support for the main
magmatic belt. The deflection at 7o to go S seems to persist.
However, south-southeast of Lima there may be an 800-km­
long nonmagmatic zone from Lima to Cuajone (Clark et al.,
1990) . In Chile , the main magmatic belt is as straight and
long in the 45 to 55 Ma period as it was in the 35 to 45 Ma in­
terval. The back-arc belt also stretches from Zongo to San
Gaban-Ollachea in both time periods (McBride et al., 1987) .
Map 10, for 55 to 65 Ma, raises the possibility of a non­
magmatic zone between 6° and go S. It resembles Map 9 for
45 to 55 Ma in showing a possible nonmagmatic zone be­
tween 1 3.5 o and 1 6.5 o S, south of which are located the main
porphyry copper deposits of Peru (Clark et al., 1990) . From
here to the south, the main magmatic belt can be seen to be
continuous and quite straight to about 32° S, as it was in the
period from 55 to 35 Ma. The back-arc belt is revealed for
only a short stretch north of La Paz (Clark and Farrar, 1973)
and into southeastern Peru (Bonhomme et al., 1985a) .
Taken as a group, Maps 7 to 10 indicate that, between 25
and 65 Ma, the main magmatic belt was somewhat west of its
location during the last 25 m.y. Both in Peru and in Chile, it
tended to lie along the present western slopes of the Andes.
Map 1 1 resembles both Maps 9 and 10 for the period 65
to 75 Ma. Like Map 9, it suggests a main magmatic belt be­
tween 6.5° and 9.5° S, casting doubt on the nonmagmatic
zone inferred on Map 10. However, as on Maps 9 and 1 0, it
indicates a nonmagmatic zone between 1 3.5° and 1 6.5° S.
The main magmatic belt in Chile and the back-arc magmatic
belt in Bolivia and southeastern Peru (Clark et al., 1990) ap­
pear to be in about the same locations during the entire pe­
riod from 45 to 75 Ma. Thus, it is not surprising that magma­
tism has been found to persist over several tens of millions of
years in many stretches along these belts, as documented by
Cornejo and Mpodozis (1997) for the time interval from 72
to 35 Ma at 25° to 26° S.
The distribution and stratigraphic position of the Lao­
cones, Huarmey-Caiiete, and Matalaque volcanic rocks on
Map 12 suggest that, from 75 to 85 Ma, the main magmatic
belt extended from 6° to 29° S in about the same position as
seen on the previous three maps. There is also the possibility
that a nonmagmatic zone existed between 14 o and 16.5 o S, as
well as in northernmost Chile. The only evidence for back-arc
magmatism at this time is at Crucero (Clark et al., 1990) and
in some dikes in Bolivia (McBride et al., 1983) .
The distribution of the Lancones and Quilmana volcanic
rocks on Map 13 indicates that, from 85 to 95 Ma, the main
magmatic belt extended from 6° to 14 o S. There could have
been a nonmagmatic zone from 1 4o to 1 6.5 o S, as suspected
for the time interval 45 to 85 Ma. In southernmost Peru, the
presence of the Matalaque volcanic rocks indicates that the
main magmatic belt was active near the coast. In Chile, there
may have been a nonmagmatic zone from 21 .5° to 27o S. In
southeastern Peru and eastern Bolivia, the back-arc Zongo­
San Gahan belt appears again on Map 1 3 (Bonhomme et al.,
1985a; McBride et al., 1987; Clark et al., 1990) .
No radiometric age determinations appear for northwest­
ern Argentina on Maps 5 to 1 3 (i.e., from the early-middle
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ULRICH PETERSEN
Miocene to the late-middle Cretaceous) . However, the
1 :2,500,000-scale metallogenic map of Argentina ofAngelelli
et al. ( 1969) shows a well-defined belt of ore deposits corre­
sponding to their Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic metallogenic
cycle. This extends from the Bolivia-Argentina border (about
22o S) to about 26.5° S, and corresponds to the back-arc mag­
matic belt. From here to about 29.5° S (i.e., for about 300
km) there are ore deposits of this metallogenic cycle, but it is
not clear to which magmatic belt they belong. Between 29.5°
S and 33° S, one can again discern two belts of ore deposits of
their Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic cycle: a belt adjoining the
border with Chile and a belt about 300 km farther east, in the
provinces of Cordoba and San Luis. Most likely, these corre­
spond, respectively, to the main and back-arc magmatic belts
discussed before.
Map 1 4, for the period 95 to 1 1 5 Ma, convincingly docu­
ments a narrow, somewhat undulating main magmatic belt
from 1 1 o to 32° S, but the Casma volcanic rocks indicate that
this belt may have extended north of 1 1 o S. It is possible that
this magmatic belt was essentially at the present coast or per­
haps even offshore between 18° and 20o S. Between 21 o and
23° S, the belt is 100 to 150 km east ofits northern and south­
ern extensions, suggesting either an eastward bend or a
faulted displacement. The Zongo-San Gahan portion of the
back arc is again documented for a strike length of about 400
km (Bonhomme et al., 1985a; McBride et al, 1987; Clark et
al., 1990) , but may well continue to the west-northwest for 500
km to Huancayo (Rocha Campos and Amaral, 1970-1971 ) ,
and to the south-southeast for 800 km to El Aguilar (Halpern
and Latorre, 1973) .
Taken as a group, Maps 1 1 to 14 show that, between 65
and 1 15 Ma, the main magmatic belt tended to lie somewhat
farther west than during the last 65 m.y. In Peru, it was only a
short distance east of Lima and in Chile, it essentially fol­
lowed the long axis of the country. However, between 95 and
1 1 5 Ma, the main magmatic belt hugged the Pacific coast
near 1 2°, 15.5°, 1 7.5° to 20°, 23.5°, and 29° to 31 o S.
On Map 15, the 1 1 5 to 1 45 Ma radiometric age determi­
nations from Lima to Marcona, and the presence of the Tina­
jones, Hualgayoc, Santa, and Puente de Piedra volcanic rocks
(Benavides, 1999) , indicate that the main magmatic arc was
probably active at least from 6° to 15.5° S. There might have
been a nonmagmatic zone between 15.5° and 20° S. However,
the presence of the somewhat later Matalaque volcanic rocks
(Map 1 4) , as well as the somewhat earlier Rio Grande and
Chocolate volcanic rocks (Map 16) , casts some doubt on this
suggestion. There is some ambiguity in the interpretation of
the main arc between 20° and 22o S because of three conflict­
ing data points: dates at Puntillas are 1 18 and 132 Ma, and the
two inland points have dates of 1 22 and 1 44 Ma. This is the
area where, between 95 and 1 15 Ma (Map 1 4) and between
1 45 and 245 Ma (Maps 16 and 1 7) , the main magmatic belt
was close to the Chile-Bolivia border. The 30 m.y. time inter­
val chosen for Map 15 is too long and the data are too few to
allow a reliable interpretation. However, it makes sense to
speculate that temporary and local excursions of the main
magmatic belt could have occurred between 1 15 and 145 Ma.
These could explain the Puntillas dates. From 22° to 32° S,
 MAGMATIC AND METAlLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 23

eo· 72" 1o• oo· 64"

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EARLY EOCENE
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NMZ NON-MAGMATIC ZONE I
_,. --- - -
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' 32"
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���--�====�---

84" 82" 78" 74" 66. 64"

MAP 9

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 1 24 ULRICH PETERSEN

ao· 78" aa· 64"

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NMZ NON-MAGMATIC ZONE I
PRESENT PERU-CHILE TRENCH I
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84" 82" so· 78" 76

" 74" 72" 70" 64"

MAP 1 0

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 25

ao· 76" 74" 70" ea• 64"

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COASTAL BATBOUDI
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-- ___. - - PRESENT PERU-CHILE TRENCH '

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MAP 1 1

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 1 26 ULRICH PETERSEN

eo•

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MAP 1 2

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 27

so• 78. 76• 74• 72• ?o• 68• 66. 6 4.

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 1 28 ULRICH PETERSEN

s·

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1 4° QIIJ(ANA VOLCS

18"

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..- .....- - - PRESENT PERU-CEULE TRENCH 1
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84" 82" so· 78" 72" 70" ee· 68"

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUFION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 29

'70" 68" 64"

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EARLY CRETACEOUS
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0 200 400 600 BOO km 34"

82• so· 78" 74. 72" 70" sa· 64"

MAP 1 5

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 1 30 ULRICH PETERSEN

so- 64·

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 MAGMATIC AND METALL OGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 131

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 1 32
the main magmatic belt is amply documented, hugging the
coast of Chile. The discordant data point at 26.75° S is de­
scribed as ajurassic reset (McNutt et al., 1979) .
The back-arc Zongo-San Gahan belt is also present on
Map 15 (Bonhomme et al., 1985a; Clark et al. , 1990) , and its
southern extension is indicated at 23° to 24 o S (Halpern and
Latorre, 1973) and 32.5° to 33o S (Halpern et al., 1970) .
Map 1 6 amply documents the position of the main mag­
matic arc in Chile where it was mostly along the coast for the
period 1 45 to 210 Ma. At about 22o S and 30° S, this belt is
abruptly displaced by what appear to be right-lateral faults,
which will be addressed later in the Discussion section of this
paper. Map 16 also shows the main magmatic belt from Mar­
cona to the Peru-Chile border (Clark et al. , 1 990) . This is
supported by the presence of the Rio Grande and Chocolate
volcanic rocks in this region. North of 15o S, the existence of
a nonmagmatic zone has to be weighed against the possibil­
ity that the main magmatic arc was offshore, in what is now
the continental shelf, and the presence of the Mochumi, Oy­
otUn, and Tinajones volcanic rocks.
For the 145 to 210 Ma time interval (Map 1 6) , there is also
ample documentation for the back-arc magmatic belt in B�
Iivia (Ahlfeld and Branisa, 1 960; Clark and Farrar, 1 973;
McBride et al. , 1 983, 1 987) and southeastern Peru (Bon­
homme et al., 1985a; Clark et al., 1990) . There is also some
indication of its northern extension to about 1 2o S (Rocha
and Amaral, 1970-1971 ) .
Map 1 7 documents the main magmatic belt in Chile
south of about 21 o S for the period from 210 to 245 Ma. How­
ever, except for the Gaviota Maria area, it is inland, not along
the coast. There is no support for the existence at this time
of the two faults inferred on Map 16 at 22o and 30° S. Instead,
there is a strong inflection or fault zone at about 25 o S, which
can also be recognized in Maps 18 and 19 (i.e., for a period
of about 1 00 m.y. ) . North of about 21 o S, there is essentially
no evidence of main-belt magmatic activity during this pe­
riod (the single data point at 1 6.5° S has an age of 210 Ma,
and so it really belongs on Map 1 6) . Hence, it is likely that,
during this time period, the coast of Peru was either a non­
magmatic zone or the main magmatic arc was offshore.
Map 1 7 documents the back-arc belt in northeastern B�
Iivia and southeastern Peru during the period from 210 to
245 Ma (Ahlfeld and Branisa, 1960; Clark and Farrar, 1973;
Lancelot et al., 1978; McBride et al., 1983; Farrar et al., 1988;
Clark et al. , 1990) . One can envisage its northwestern exten­
sion to Carrizal (Soler et al., 1 990) and Parcoy (Lochmann
and Schreiber, 1986) , for a total distance of 1 ,100 km.
Map 1 8, for the period 245 to 285 Ma, is almost a replica
of Map 1 7 (210 to 245 Ma) with regard to the main magmatic
belt. Both show the inland belt in Chile with the deflection
or fault zone at 25° S. They also suggest a nonmagmatic zone
along the coast of Peru, or that the main magmatic arc was
along the present-day continental shelf.
In addition, Map 1 8 documents the presence of the back­
arc magmatic belt in Peru (Rocha and Amaral, 1970-1971 ;
Lancelot et al., 1978; Soler et al., 1990; Noble et al., 1995) . In
Bolivia, the back-arc belt passes through Illampu (McBride et
al., 1987) .
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ULRICH PETERSEN
Map 19, for the period 285 to 320 Ma, is almost a replica
of Maps 1 7 and 18 (210 to 285 Ma) as far as the main mag­
matic belt is concerned. All three maps show this belt from
21 o to 30° S with a deflection or fault zone at about 25 o S and
suggest a nonmagmatic zone along the coast of Peru or an
offshore main magmatic arc.
The evidence on Map 19 for back-arc magmatism includes a
287 Ma mineralization age (Macfarlane et al., 1999) and a 305
Ma age for the Pataz batholith (Schreiber et al., 1990; Macfar­
lane et al., 1999) , as well as ages of301 and 307 Ma at 31 o to 32o
S in Argentina (Halpern et al., 1970) .
Map 20 has very few data points for the period from 320
to 360 Ma. The only evidence for the main magmatic belt
comes from three localities in Chile (at about 21 o to 21 .5° S)
with ages of 320, 322, and 324 Ma, and one locality in Peru
(at 1 6° S) with an age of 339 Ma, which is probably the last
gasp of the San Nicolas batholith documented in maps for
greater ages. The back-arc belt is well documented at Parcoy,
with 321 and 329 Ma dates for the Pataz batholith (Schreiber
et al. , 1990; Macfarlane et al., 1999) , two localities in Peru (at
about 1 1 o and 1 3.2° S) with ages of 330 and 346 Ma, and
three localities in Argentina (at about 31 o to 32.5° S) with
ages of 330 to 352 Ma (Halpern et al., 1970) .
Maps 21 to 24 are best discussed together because there
are relatively few data for the interval from 360 to 570 Ma. All
four maps show the main magmatic arc in two segments. The
first segment is the San Nicolas batholith on the coast of
Peru, from 1 4o to 1 7o S. The second segment is inland in
Chile, from 21 o to 24.5° S. The lack of further documenta­
tion may be due to the fact that, in the rest of the region,
rocks of this age interval are generally covered by younger
sediments or have been destroyed by later intrusions. How­
ever, from Paracas ( 1 4°15' S, 76°20' W) to Illescas (6° S, 81 o
W) , the main magmatic arc may well be along a portion of
the Cordillera de la Costa which is now submerged along the
continental shelf.
Two segments of the back-arc belt can be recognized in
Argentina by superimposing Maps 21 to 24: one segment
from 24° to 27.5° S (Caelles et al. , 1 971 ; Halpern and La­
torre, 1973) and another from 30.8° to 32.5° S (Halpern et
al., 1970) . The segments are referred to as the Sierras Pam­
peanas magmatic arc and the Achala retro arc (Mpodozis
and Ramos, 1989) . In Peru, this belt is supported by a single
age of 421 Ma at about 13.5° S.
The 320- to 570-Ma interval (Cambrian through Missis­
sippian) is shown on Map 25. On this map, the time periods
represented on Maps 20 to 24 are identified with different
symbols. One can now appreciate better the persistence of
the main and back-arc magmatism, but the belts are not as
sharply defined as on previous maps because of the long time
interval involved.
Map 26 shows the age determinations for Precambrian ig­
neous and metamorphic rocks (Cobbing et al. , 1 977; Cor­
dani and Bley de Brito Neves, 1 982; Cordani et al. , 1 985,
Wasteneys et al. , 1 995) . They range in age from 580 Ma to
2760 Ma. There are too few data points for such a long time
span to attempt to reconstruct magmatic belts during short
time intervals. The date-order tabulation on the left side of
 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 133

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 134 ULRICH PETERSEN

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 35

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 1 36 ULRICH PETERSEN

ao•

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 37

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 1 38 UlRICH PETERSEN

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 1 39

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 1 40 UlRJCH PETERSEN

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 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUFION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 141

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 1 42 UlRICH PETERSEN

the map shows at least four periods with a fairly continuous
range of dates ( 580-777, 1 1 40-1 260, 1 345-1 420, and
1 7 1 2-19 1 8 Ma) . However, what can be said is that at least
from about 9.5° to 27.5° S, Precambrian rocks form an inte­
gral part of the continental plate, underlie the younger sedi­
ments, and were cut by later intrusions. Does this imply that
subduction beneath the South American plate may have oc­
curred during the Precambrian, perhaps as far back as 1 .9 to
2.8 b.y. ago?
Magma Compositions and Ore Deposit Types
Tables 2A and 2B provide a rough statistical evaluation of
the igneous rock types mentioned for the radiometric age de­
terminations. Table 2A lists the actual number of observa­
tions. In table 2B, these numbers are recalculated into per­
centages. For Peru, Chile, and Bolivia, the data are for the
samples plotted on Maps 1 to 26; for northwestern Argentina,
the data include information on samples that were dated and
probably correspond to the back-arc belt, but that could not
be plotted on the maps for lack of geographical coordinates.
The two phonolites and the one nepheline syenite dated
are in the eastern back-arc belt, but constitute only about 0.3
percent of all compositions. The vast majority (94.5% ) of
the igneous rocks have common felsic and intermediate
compositions. Only 5.1 percent of the rocks have mafic com­
positions. However, there are differences in the proportions
of various compositions in the two magmatic belts. Al­
though alkalic-siliceous compositions (pegmatites, granites,
rhyolites, and rhyodacites) occur in both belts, as a group
they are more common in the eastern back-arc belt. Inter­
mediate or calc-alkaline igneous rock compositions (gran­
odiorites, tonalites or quartz-diorites, diorites, andesites or
trachybasalts) also occur in both belts, but as a group they
are more common in · the western main belt. Basaltic rocks
occur in both belts, but as a group the mafic igneous rocks
appear to be largely restricted to the western belt. Table 3
summarizes the overall percentages of Table 2B to empha­
size the differences and similarities between the main and
back-arc magma compositions.
The information in Table 2B also indicates that, when
there are sufficient observations, the percentages of rock
types are reasonably consistent from one countryto another
for a given belt. There are, however, some apparent incon­
sistencies, such as the greater abundance of rhyolites and
the smaller abundance of trachyandesites or latites in the
main belt relative to the back-arc belt. Both of these incon­
sistencies are heavily influenced by the Bolivian data. A com­
prehensive, in-depth study would have to be carried out in
order to evaluate such apparent inconsistencies and to de­
termine compositional variations on the basis of areal extent
or volume.
A meaningful comparison of ore-deposit types between
the two magmatic belts is beyond the scope of his paper.
However, it appears that Sn-W deposits prevail in the back-arc
belt. Porphyry copper and volcanogenic massive sulfide de­
posits seem to predominate in the main belt, whereas high­
and low-sulfidation Cu-Ag-Au-Pb-Zn deposits are common to
both belts.

TABLE 2A. Number of Radiometric Age Determinations Available for Various Igneous Rock Compositions

Belt-arc MAIN BACK

Country-total* p C T p B A T

Nepheline syenite 1 1
Phonolite 2 2
Alkalic granite 1 1
Pegmatite 2 2 4 20 20
Granite 26 54 80 11 26 58 95
Rhyolite 19 29 48 4 4
Rhyodacite 11 1 12 5 5

Monzogranite 50 24 74 6 6
Granodiorite 90 1 19 209 6 5 5 16
Quartz monzonite-quartz monzodiorite 10 34 44 2 2
Tonalite-quartz diorite 60 41 101 2 2
Dacite-quartz dacite 20 46 66 9 9
Syenite-aplosyenite-syenite granite 1 6 7
Monzonite-monzodiorite 7 24 31
Trachyandesite-latite-quartz latite-latite andesite 10 1 11 7 7
Diorite 18 120 1 38 7 5 12
Andesite-trachybasalt 10 102 1 12 8 9
Monzogabbro 2 2

Quartz gabbro 1 1
Shoshonite-basaltic andesite 5 3 8
Gabbro 2 25 27
Basalt-absarokite-banakite 3 7 10
Diabase-lamprophyre 4 1 5
Amphibolite-pyroxenite 9 9
Total number of observations 348 65 1 999 33 60 99 192

*A = Argentina, B = Bolivia, C = Chile, P = Peru, T = total

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 MAGMATIC AND METALL OGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES 143

TABLE 2B. Percentages of Radiometric Age Determinations Available for Various Igneous Rock Compositions
Belt-arc MAIN BACK
Country-total* p c T p B A T
Nepheline syenite 3.0 0.5
Phonolite 6. 1 1 .0
Alkalic granite 0.6 0.3 0.4 1.0 0.5
Pegmatite 7.5 8.3 8.0 20.2 10.4
Granite 5.5 4.5 4.8 6.7 2.1
Rhyolite 3.2 0.1 1 .2 8.3 2.6
Rhyodacite 11 1 12 5 5
Subtotals 1 6.7 13.2 1 4.4 42.4 58.3 79.8 66.7

Monzogranite 1 4.4 3.7 7.4 1 8.2 3.1

Granodiorite 25.9 18.3 20.9 1 8.2 8.3 5.1 8.3
Quartz monzonite-quartz monzodiorite 2.9 5.2 4.4 3.3 1.1
Tonalite-quartz diorite 1 7.2 6.3 10.1 2 2
Dacite-quartz dacite 5.8 7. 1 6.6 15.0 4.7
Syenite-aplosyenite-syenite granite 0.3 0.9 0.7
Monzonite-monzodiorite 2.0 3.7 3.1
Trachyandesite-latite 2.9 0.1 1.1 1 1 .7 3.7
Diorite 5.2 1 8.4 13.8 2 1 .2 5.0 6.3
Andesite-trachybasalt 2.9 15.7 1 1 .2 1 .7 8.1 4.7
Monzogabbro 0.3 0.2
Subtotals 79.3 70.7 79.6 57.6 40.0 20.2 32.8

Quartz gabbro 0. 1 0.1

Shoshonite-basaltic andesite 1 .4 0.5 0.8
Gabbro 0.6 3.8 2.7
Basalt-absarokite-banakite 0.9 1.1 1 .0 1.7 0.5
Diabase-lamprophyre 1.1 0.2 0.5
Amphibolite-pyroxenite 1 .4 0.9
Subtotals 4.0 7. 1 6.0 1.7 0.5

*A = Argentina, B = Bolivia, C = Chile, P = Peru, T = total

TABLE 3. Percentages of Radiometric Age Determinations Available for der ofSouth America. However, Gallagher ( 1 989) placed the
Broad Categories of Igneous Rock Compositions inception of subduction in the Devonian. Alternatively, sub­
Belt-arc MAIN BACK duction along the central Andes may have taken place dur­
Country-total* p c T p B A T ing the Precambrian.
Alkalic-siliceous The evidence summarized earlier in this paper indicates
and peraluminous 1 6.7 13.2 1 4.4 42.4 58.3 79.8 66.7 that the present northern and Southern Nonvolcanic-non­
magmatic zones of the main magmatic arc started to form at
Intermediate 79.3 79.7 79.6 57.6 40.0 20.2 32.8
5 to 8 Ma. A nonmagmatic zone may also have existed in
Mafic 4.0 7.1 6.0 1.7 0.5 southeastern Bolivia and northern Chile 20 to 25 m.y. ago.
Grand et al. ( 1 997) called attention to a hiatus in conver­
*A = Argentina, B - Bolivia, C = Chile, P = Peru, T - total
gence beneath South America from 50 to 100 Ma. Maps 9 to
1 3 show that it is very likely that, from 45 to 95 Ma, there were
Discussion substantial nonmagmatic zones between 1 2oand 20° S (the

Duration ofSubduction, Magmatism, and Nonmagmatic Zones
The evidence presented in this paper clearly indicates
that an oceanic plate has been subducted continuously be­
low the continental South American plate since the Cam­
brian ( 500 Ma) , and not just since the Triassic, as is some­
times assumed. This finding confirms the conclusions
reached earlier by Scotese ( 1987) , who made continental re­
constructions for the Late Cambrian, Late Ordovictan, Late
Silurian, and Late Devonian from a Panthallassic point of
view on the basis of paleomagnetic, biogeographic, and pa­
leoclimatic evidence. In all of his reconstructions, oceanic
plate subduction is shown to occur beneath the western bor-
I
exception being the 1 6°-1 7° S belt of porphyry copper de­
posits in southern Peru, where magmatism persisted
throughout this time) . It is possible that, during this period,
two segments of the subducting plate (one from 1 2°-1 6° S
and one from 17o-20° S) broke off from the rest of the plate,
reduced their dips, and snuffed out their magmatic activity.
The resulting geometry may have modified the seismic sig­
nals and may thus explain the hiatus reported by Grand et al.
( 1 997) . Other, perhaps shorter, nonmagmatic zones may
have existed from 2 1 0 to 320 Ma along the coast of Peru.
However, one cannot exclude the possibility that, during this
time, the magmatic arc was farther west, in the present con­
tinental shelf. The latter was most likely the case in the inter­
val from 320 to 570 Ma.

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 1 44
Noble et al. ( 1974) , McKee and Noble ( 1 989) , and Noble
and McKee ( 1 999) argued that the number of radiometric
age determinations varies substantially for different time in­
tervals, indicating that there are distinct magmatic (and re­
lated metallogenic) pulses. These pulses are inferred to cor­
respond to specific tectonic events. Given that, in the past,
additional radiometric age determinations have either short­
ened or filled in many of the gaps, some of these variations
may be attributable to incomplete sampling. Igneous rocks
of certain time periods may not appear as outcrops because
erosion did not expose them, because they are covered by
younger sediments or volcanic rocks, or because their mag­
mas did not extrude. However, these pulses may also be real,
reflecting changes in subduction rates or changes in the dip
of the subducting plate, which either temporarily snuff out
magmatism along certain stretches or unexpectedly change
the position of a magmatic belt.
Parallel Magmatic Belts
The studies of Evernden et al. ( 1 977) , Kontak et al.
( 1 984) , and Clark et al. ( 1 984) revealed the existence of a
magmatic back arc (inner magmatic arc) active from the
Middle Devonian to the Pliocene in southeastern Peru and
Bolivia. Later, Clark et al. ( 1990) continued to distinguish an
inner arc (see their fig. 1 7) , but their geographic recon­
struction (see their fig. 1 8) conveyed more the impression of
lateral shifts and broadening of the main magmatic belt,
than separate but broadly coetaneous magmatic belts. The
data compiled and plotted on maps for this paper clearly
show that there is very strong evidence for the existence two
distinct and roughly parallel magmatic belts (a main belt and
the back-arc belt) that were generally present since the Mid­
dle Cambrian. For the time intervals chosen, there are es­
sentially no intrusives or ore deposits between the belts, as
would be expected if a single magmatic belt rapidly shifted
(or jumped) laterally, either eastward or westward, or if a sin­
gle magmatic belt broadened significantly over short time
spans (<5 m.y.) .
At any given time, a magmatic belt may be active along
some segments and inactive along others; it may also be ac­
tive or inactive along most of its entire length. The 24 perti­
nent time intervals used in this study were examined to as­
certain, in a very preliminary way, how often parallel
segments of both belts were simultaneously active or inactive,
and how often one belt was active and the other was inactive.
These are, no doubt, somewhat subjective appraisals and one
has to take into account that at least 80 percent, if not 85 pe­
cent, of the data are from the main belt. The paucity of data
for the back-arc belt is due to the fact that, in Peru, it is poorly
known because it is largely covered by more recent sedi­
ments and vegetation. However, it may be that evidence for
Mesozoic and Tertiary intrusive rocks in the thick sedimen­
tary sequence between the Andes and the Brazilian shield
may be detected in the extensive seismic records produced
during the exploration for petroleum in this region. In addi­
tion, for Argentina, there were only a few locations of radio­
metric age determinations that could be readily plotted on
the maps prepared for this study. Hence, many of the seg-
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UlRICH PETERSEN
ments classified below as main belt active, back-arc inactive,
may really correspond to the category of both belts active.
Furthermore, in many regions the older rocks are extensively
covered by younger sediments and volcanic blankets, so that
one cannot ascertain the presence or absence of older mag­
matic belts (for example, along the Peruvian coast from 6° to
14° S for pre-Jurassic times) . There were 133 segments at dif­
ferent times that allowed at least a reasonable interpretation:
Segments Percent
Both belts active 24 18
Both belts inactive 37 27
Main belt active, back-arc inactive 54 41
Main belt inactive, back-arc active 18 14
This rough statistic indicates that it is rare for back-arc mag­
matism to be active when the main arc is quiescent. It also sug­
gests that main-arc magmatism tends to be more common
than back-arc magmatism. If back-arc magmatism is actually
more frequent than indicated by the data used in this study,
the percentages for both belts active, both belts inactive, and
main belt active, back-arc inactive would differ less.
Holocene and Historic Paired Magmatic Belts
The presence of two often coetaneous magmatic belts in
the central Andes raises the question how common this fea­
ture is (or has been) in the northern and southern Andes,
as well as in other orogenic belts. According to Scotese
( 1 987) , subduction has also occurred on the western mar­
gins of North America and Mexico since the Cambrian. In
addition, Grand et al. (1997) draw attention to subduction
zones during the last 100 m.y. from the Mediterranean Sea
to India and along the so-called ring of fire around the Pa­
cific Ocean. The following discussion focuses on the direct
evidence provided by parallel belts of historic and Holocene
(<1 0,000 yrs) volcanism.
For the northern half of japan, Sato ( 1 974, fig. 6) de­
picted two volcanic belts. The eastern belt comprises volca­
noes of tholeiitic basalt and its derivatives, whereas the west­
ern belt has volcanoes of high-alumina basalt and its
derivatives and alkali basalt and its derivatives.
Plotting the coordinates provided by the Smithsonian In­
stitution ( 1 997) , one observes two parallel volcanic belts in
Kamchatka: a northwestern belt with 46 Holocene volcanoes
from Hangar (54.75° N, 1 57.38° E) to Iettunup (58.40° N,
1 61 .08° E) , which includes the lchinsky or Ichinskaya Sopka
volcano, and a southeastern belt with 64 historic and
Holocene volcanoes from Mashkovtsev (51 . 10° N, 1 56.72° E)
to Sheveluch (56.65° N, 1 61 .36° E) .
For Alaska and the Bering Sea, Moll-Stalcup ( 1 994) and
Winer ( 1997) showed a number of volcanic fields (lmuruk
Lake, Devil Mountain, St. Michael, St. Lawrence Island, In­
gakslugwat, Nunivak Island, Flat Top Mountain, Togiak
Basalt, and Pribilof Islands) that are 300 to 700 km north of
the Aleutian arc. Lee-Wong (in Wood and Kienle, 1993, p.
96-98) and Winer ( 1 997) described extremely varied rock
compositions for the Pribilof Islands (St. Paul and St.
George) , including nepheline-normative alkali olivine basalt,
 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES
basanite, basaltic tuff, rhyolitic pumice, mafic and granite in­
clusions, serpentinized peridotite, and quartz diorite. This
suggests that these volcanic fields may be part of a back-arc
magmatic belt parallel to the one defined by the Aleutian Is­
lands and the Alaskan Peninsula.
A plot of the locations given by the Smithsonian Institution
( 1997) of the historic and Holocene volcanoes of eastern and
southeastern Alaska, as well as of Canada, reveals a main vol­
canic belt from Buzzard Creek (64.07° N, 148.42° W) to Bona­
Churchill (61.38° N, 141.75° W) , which after a gap of about
500 km continues from Edgecumbe (57.05° N, 135.75° W) to
Mt. Garibaldi (49.85° N, 1 23.00° W) . In the area of the gap,
and partially overlapping the southeastern segment of the
main belt, there is a northeastern belt of seven volcanoes
from Fort Selkirk (62.93° N, 1 37.38° W) to the Spectrum
range (57.43° N, 1 30.68° W) , which could correspond to a
back-arc volcanic belt. In this region there are two historic vol­
canoes, one in the main arc and one in the back arc.
The historic and Holocene volcanism in the western
United States can probably be understood as the result of
main- and back-arc magmatism related to the subduction of
the Farallon plate, hot-spot trails, and magmatism due to the
overriding of the East Pacific Rise in southern California. A
detailed discussion of this complex topic is beyond the scope
of this paper. However, a generalized overview may be in or­
der. Wood and Kienle ( 1993, western United States, fig. 1 )
show volcanic areas younger than 5 Ma. Identifying on this
figure the historical and Holocene volcanoes listed by the
Smithsonian Institution ( 1997) allows at least a generalized
interpretation. The main magmatic belt related to the sub­
ducting Farallon plate contains all of the historic volcanoes
and is probably represented by the following volcanic cen­
ters: Baker, Glacier Peak, Rainier, Adams, St. Helens, Indian
Heaven, Hood, Jefferson, Sand Mountain, Washington, Belk­
nap, North Sister, South Sister, Bachelor, Newberry, Devils
Garden, Crater Lake, Shasta, Medicine Lake, Lassen, Eagle
Lake, Steamboat Springs, Mono Lake, Mono Craters, Inyo
Craters, Long Valley, and Ubehebe. The corresponding
back-arc magmatic belt may be represented by Diamond
Craters, Saddle Butte, Jordan Craters, Jackies Butte, Lunar
Crater, Kolob, Uinkaret, and Sunset Crater. The eastern ter­
mination of the southern Oregon-southern Idaho-western
Wyoming hot-spot trail would be represented by Craters of
the Moon, Wapi, and Yellowstone. Raton Canyon and Valles
Caldera (Jemez) could be at the eastern termination of an­
other hot-spot trail. The interpretation of volcanism in the
southern parts of California, Arizona, and New Mexico is
complicated due to possible overlap of main-belt, back-arc
belt, hot-spot trail, and subjacent Eastern Pacific Rise volcan­
ism. In Mexico, the Durango volcanic field (24.2° N, 104.5°
W) may be a back-arc magmatic center related to the promi­
nent Eje Neovolcanico from about 2 1 .5° N, 104.5° W to
about 1 5o N, 92° W.
In central America, the main volcanic belt is well defined
by 50 volcanic centers from Tacana ( 1 5. 1 o N, 92. 1 o W) in
southwesternmost Mexico and Tajumulco ( 1 5.0° N, 91.9° W)
in Guatemala to La Madera ( 1 1 .45° N, 85.52° W) in
Nicaragua. Blue ( 1 2.68° N, 83.92° W) may be a back-arc vol-
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1 45
cano of this belt in Nicaragua. The Utila Island ( 16. 1 o N, 86.9°
W) and Lake Yojoa ( 1 5° N, 88° W) volcanoes in Honduras
could also be back-arc volcanoes. However, they might be re­
lated to a group of six north-northeast-trending volcanoes
close to the El Salvador-Nicaragua border that lie somewhat
outside the main belt. These volcanoes could be fault related.
In Ecuador, the historic Reventador and Sumaco strato­
volcanoes are roughly 100 km east of the main volcanic belt.
The belt also has historic volcanoes in this area.
The preceding partial review of Holocene and historic
volcanic beltS indicates that back-arc volcanic belts that are
generally coeval with main volcanic belts are relatively com­
mon. However, this preliminary review revealed only one
clear case, in Ecuador, where two historic back-arc volcanoes
occur beside an active main volcanic belt. In most other
cases, back-arc volcanoes were described as Holocene,
whereas the main arcs included both Holocene and historic
volcanoes. It would, therefore, appear that volcanism in par­
allel belts is generally not synchronous in historic time spans
(say, <2,000 years) , but may tend to alternate or coincide in
10,000-yr time intervals.
In addition, it appears that back-arc belts generally contain
fewer volcanoes than main-arc volcanic belts. It remains to be
determined whether back-arc magmatism is less intense than
main belt magmatism, or whether magmas in back arcs fail to
reach the surface as often as in main belts, crystallizing in­
stead within the crustal plate which they intrude.
Formation ofMain- and Back-Arc Magmatic Belts
There is some controversy about where and how magmas
form in subduction zones (Moores and Twiss, 1 995) . One
popular model postulates that water contained in subducted
sediments induces melting of these sediments and of the
oceanic plate. Magmas then ascend into the overriding conti­
nental plate, where they become contaminated, differentiate
to constitute a variety of rock types, form batholiths, stocks,
dikeS, and sills, or extrude volcanically. For this discussion, it is
assumed that these processes, or variations of them, create the
main magmatic belts described in this paper.
The formation of the back-arc magmatic belts docu­
mented in this paper is still unresolved. Their general paral­
lelism to the main magmatic belts suggested by Maps 3 to 7
indicates that both belts are probably related directly or in­
directly to the geometry of the underthrusting plate.
Figure 1 presents four possible models. According to the
first model, a second melting interval occurs at greater
depth, either because the temperature is high enough for
dry melting or because melting is induced by water released
from different hydrous minerals in the subducting plate.
The second model adapts the commonly envisaged forma­
tion mechanism of oceanic back-arc volcanism to an over­
riding continental plate. The third model envisages that
back-arc magmas ascend from a subducted plate that rises
again. The second melting interval would be similar to that
of the first model; but results from longer exposure of the
subducted plate to mantle temperatures. In this model, sag­
ging of the keel of the subducted plate could lead to cessa­
tion of magmatic activity in the back-arc belt. In the fourth
 1 46
- -
.,-
r
I Magmatic Belt Shifts, Deflections, and Faulting
l
FIG. 1 . Schematic representation of four possible ways by which generally
coeval main- and back-arc magmatic belts could be formed when a conti­
nental plate overrides an oceanic plate. Vertical spirals and balloons rep­
resent rising magmas, and arrows denote assumed mantle flow lines.
model, the subducting plate first rises and then plunges
again between the main and back arcs. The back-arc mag­
matism would thus be caused by a resubduction of the
oceanic plate.
The classic paper of James ( 1971 ) on a plate tectonic
model for the evolution of the central Andes led to the in­
sight that active volcanic segments are related to subducting
plates that have dips greater than 30°, whereas the inactive or
nonvolcanic segments are related to subducting plates with
smaller dips. Section S 1 of figure 5A in James (1971 ) shows
a concentration of seismic hypocenters 100 to 200 km east of
the Western Cordillera. This could be a zone of tensional tec­
tonics favoring the ascent of back-arc magmas envisaged in
the second model of Figure 1 .
Where an oceanic plate subducts below another oceanic
plate, the upper mantle magmas would not be contaminated
by crustal material. Chemical and isotopic differences be­
tween main and back-arc magmas would presumably reflect
the depth at which they were generated on the descending
plate. Kersting et al. (1996) found that there are distinct iso­
tope variations along strike in a japanese volcanic arc that
crosses thin but chemically different continental crusts. The
implication is that even thin continental crust can signifi­
cantly modify mantle magmas. In the models depicted in
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ULRICH PETERSEN
Figure 1 , the magmas rising from the upper mantle have am­
ple opportunity to interact with thick continental crust. This
is true for both main-arc and back-arc magmas. This could
explain why the compositions of central Andean main-arc
and back-arc igneous rocks overlap as much as is indicated by
Tables 2A, 2B, and 3.
The three back-arc volcanic centers on Map 1 are described
as being Holocene (not historical) in age. On Map 2 there are
only five radiometric age determinations indicating a back-arc
magmatic belt in this area: one (at 24.5° S) is referred to as
Pleistocene; the others have ages greater than 2 Ma. It is, there­
fore, very unlikely that rising back-arc magmas can be detected
by studying present-day seismicity in this region.
The K-Ar dating studies by Farrar et al. ( 1 970) in north­
ern Chile revealed that the intrusive foci migrated from the
present coast (in the Lower Jurassic, 145 Ma) to 1 20 km in­
land (in the late Eocene, 35 Ma) . This confirmed earlier sug­
gestions to this effect based mostly on stratigraphic and lead­
alpha data. Such an eastward displacement was attributed to
a loss of marginal continental crust by crustal erosion and
subduction (Rutland, 1 971 ) . Subsequent work in Chile,
Peru, and Bolivia by many authors (e.g., Beckinsale et al. ,
1985; Mukasa and Tilton, 1985; Pitcher, 1985; Clark e t al. ,
1990; Noble and McKee, 1999) confirmed this general idea,
extending the lateral shift to the Miocene and Quaternary.
There were, however, some temporary reversals of the
aforementioned trend, like the 20 to 35 Ma, eastward excur­
sion of the main magmatic belt in southeastern Peru (Maps
6 and 7) . At Santa Lucia, this may have led to the superposi­
tion of 5 to 1 0 Ma back-arc intrusive rhyolite upon 20 to 35
Ma main-arc monzogabbro, microdiorite, intrusive andesite,
and rhyolite tuff (Clark et al. , 1990, p. 1 ,543) . In addition,
Maps 17 to 25 show that, from the Cambrian to the Triassic
( 570 to 210 Ma) , the Chilean main magmatic belt was gener­
ally east of where it was in the jurassic ( 1 45 to 210 Ma; com­
pare Map 1 6 with Maps 1 7 to 19) .
Maps 1 to 26 show at least a dozen instances where the
strike of a magmatic belt changes over a short distance. In
most of these cases, the density of data is insufficient to tell if
this change is smooth or if it is abrupt. A smooth change may
be due to a bend or buckling of the subducting plate. An
abrupt change may indicate faulting of either the oceanic or
the continental plate. There are, however, two cases where
the data require faulting. Both are in the 145 to 210 Ma in­
terval (Map 1 6) : one is at 22o S and the other at 30° S. The
displacement at 22o S may well have persisted into the 95 to
1 1 5 Ma interval (Map 14) . Mter 65 Ma (Map 10) there is no
trace of it. There is also no trace of it before 210 Ma (Maps
17 to 19) . The displacement at 30° S did not exist after 145
Ma (Maps 13 to 15) ; it cannot be documented for older time
intervals because, between 210 and 330 Ma (Maps 17 to 19) ,
the main belt ends at about 30° S and no clear main belt is
documented this far south for even greater ages. The dis­
placement at 30° S could have been caused by a fault in the
continental plate at about 145 Ma, which was not reactivated
later. This possibility cannot be evaluated because of the lack
 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES
of data south of 30° S for time periods prior to 210 Ma. Al­
ternatively, these displacements did not occur in the conti­
nental slab, but rather were due to faulting (perhaps trans­
form faulting?) in the subducting oceanic plate between 145
and 210 Ma.
Maps 1 to 24 show seven instances where data points ap­
pear to have a northeast-trending alignment, which seems to
locally widen a magmatic belt. These seven cases do not nec­
essarily provide strong support for the idea that the location
of many intrusives and ore deposits is generally controlled by
regional transverse fracture zones (as envisaged by Petersen
and Vidal, 1996) . However, it is possible that lateral shifts of
the magmatic belts would cause magmas to be emplaced suc­
cessively along such fracture zones.
An alternative explanation for transverse alignments of
intrusions and ore deposits may be provided by the trans­
verse magnetic anomalies (TMAs) reported by Behn and
Camus ( 1 997) for northern Chile. These TMAs strike
roughly west-east and are remarkably continuous, from the
coast to the present volcanic arc. Furthermore, the TMAs
are spaced from north to south at roughly 40- to 60-km in­
tervals, and all known major porphyry copper deposits in
this region are close to them. The TMAs are interpreted to
reflect transbatholiths with elevated magnetite contents.
Along the Aleutian arc, volcanoes are spaced 40 to 70 km
apart (Marsh and Carmichael, 1 974) and similar spacings
are common elsewhere. Therefore, it seems plausible that
the Chilean transbatholiths could have been generated over
time as discrete but long-lived magmatic centers on the sub­
ducting plate moved between the coast and the present con­
tinental divide in response to changes in the dip of the sub­
ducting plate or erosion of the western edge of the
continental plate. If so, the locations of the resulting trans­
batholiths and their associated ore deposits would not nec­
essarily have to be controlled by regional transverse fracture
zones in the continental plate.
How does one reconcile the transbatholiths described in
the preceding paragraph with the traditional batholiths of
the main magmatic arc (such as the San Nicolas, Peruvian
and Chilean Coast, Abancay, or Cordillera Blanca batho­
liths) ? The latter are generally envisaged to consist of multi­
ple intrusions and volcanic necks emplaced over a consider­
able, yet limited, time interval and to extend continuously
over great distances along the Andes. Perhaps the latter im­
pression results, at least in part, because folding, faulting, up­
lift, and erosion tended to produce elongated outcrops fol­
lowing the trend of the Andes. Given the general persistence
of the main magmatic belt since at least the Cambrian, it is
probable that a spatial reconstruction of the various
batholiths, including their currently unexposed subsurface
extensions, would show that they are complexly intercon­
nected. The resulting superbatholith or megabatholith
would have discontinuities corresponding to nonmagmatic
zones and times. Batholiths of the back-arc magmatic belt
(such as the Pataz and Cordillera Real batholiths) would,
presumably, be less interconnected.
So far, the data for the central Andes reveal no evidence for
hot-spot trails like the ones in the western United States from
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147
southern Oregon to northwestern Wyoming and from the Ari­
zona-New Mexico border to northeastern New Mexico.
Nearly all modern tectonic cross sections through the cen­
tral Andes show a large number of thrust faults, and it is com­
monly believed that extensive Tertiary thrusting and faulting
led to crustal shortening, thickening, and uplift. However,
Maps 1 to 24 show no evidence of significant disruption of
the magmatic belts by such faults. Does this mean that the lat­
eral displacement along these thrust faults was too small to
matter at the scale of this study or that the thrust faults are
steeper than previously thought?
Metallogenic Provinces and Epochs
Metallogenic provinces and epochs have been extensively
described and discussed for the central Andes ( Petersen,
1 970, 1 972, 1977, 1 979, 1 989; Putzer, 1 976; Sillitoe, 1 988,
1989) . Typically, the maps show the distribution of ore de­
posits of specific elements or deposit types, sometimes segre­
gated by broad age intervals.
If one considers relatively short time intervals, as used by
Noble and McKee (1999) , and as presented in this paper, it
becomes evident that, during any given time interval, a large
variety of ore deposit types is generated. These deposits
formed in the vicinity of magmatic intrusion and volcanic
centers, either directly from magmatic emanations or indi­
rectly because the magmatic heat drove convection cells of
meteoric or metamorphic fluids. The ore deposits formed at
different crustal levels and reflect varying local degrees of
magmatic contamination and differentiation, temperature
and pressure regimes, and meteoric water influx.
Throughout their long history, both the main-arc and
back-arc magmatic belts probably produced simultaneously
this varied assortment of ore deposits in their magmatically
active stretches. In a sense, there has been a single, continu­
ous metallogenic epoch since the Cambrian. During this
epoch, two metallogenic provinces formed: one along the
main magmatic arc, the other along the magmatic back arc.
Because various ore deposit types form at different depths
and may depend on near-surface factors, present erosion sur­
faces may expose mostly a particular type of ore deposit
along a given stretch of a magmatic arc, such as the 5 to 15
m.y. old Peruvian epithermal precious metal and enargite
deposits, the 15 to 25 m.y. old Bolivian Sn-W deposits, the 25
to 45 m.y. old Chilean porphyry copper deposits, the 55 to 65
m.y. old Peruvian porphyry copper deposits, or the 1 1 5 to
210 m.y. old Chilean Cu mantos. This, then, gives the ap­
pearance of distinct metallogenic epochs and provinces. It
also explains why, as additional radiometric age dates be­
come available, there is a progressive increase in the number
of time periods in which certain ore deposit types are envis­
aged to form.
Conclusions
At present, volcanism in the Andes occurs in three seg­
ments: the Northern Volcanic zone in Colombia and
Ecuador (5° N-2° S) , the Central Volcanic zone in southern
Peru and northern Chile ( 1 5°-27° S) , and the Southern Vql­
canic zone in central and southern Chile (34°-55° S) . These
 148
segments are separated by two nonvolcanic-nonmagmatic
zones: the Northern N onmagmatic zone in northern and
central Peru (20°-1 5 ° S) and the Southern Nonmagmatic
zone in central Chile (27°-34° S) . The volcanoes of the Cen­
tral Volcanic zone that are less than 10,000 yrs old form a belt
that is quite narrow (about 50 km wide) compared to its
length (about 1 ,600 km) . This belt occasionally expands to a
width of about 100 to 1 50 km and has three eastern outliers
125 to 225 km from it.
The locations of more than 1 ,800 radiometrically dated
samples of igneous rocks and of hydrothermal alteration/ ore
minerals were plotted on maps for 25 time intervals, from
the Precambrian to the Holocene. These locations confirm
that oceanic plate subduction has occurred below the central
Andes since the Cambrian (for haif a billion years) , not just
since the Triassic. This was probably also the case for the
northern and southern Andes.
During relatively short time intervals, the longitudinal
magmatic belts are only 25 to 75 km wide and have few out­
liers of volcanic tuffs and ignimbrites. However, during some
short time intervals, magmatic belts can widen locally to 75
to 125 km, perhaps recording a change in the dip or buck­
ling of the subducting plate. Over longer time intervals, mag­
matic centers may form transverse intrusion and ore deposit
alignments. This occurs as the locations of individual mag­
matic centers are either controlled by transverse fracture
zones or are dragged laterally as a magmatic belt shifts east­
ward or westward, independent of structural controls in the
continental plate.
There is strong evidence for the general presence of two
roughly coeval and parallel magmatic belts. The western, or
main belt, is commonly ascribed to magmas that ascend from
the subducting oceanic plate and are contaminated by, and
differentiate in, the overriding continental plate. The east­
ern magmatic belt is akin to a back-arc belt in oceanic set­
tings, but developed within a continental plate.
The formation of paired magmatic belts can be explained
several ways:
1 . They may form by magma formation at different
depths of the subducting plate due to two different dehydra­
tion processes, or by magma generation first induced by de­
hydration and later by dry melting.
2. Magma generation may be induced by dehydration of
the subducting plate plus magma ascent further east,
through a continental plate weakened by tensional stresses
and plate erosion above the asthenospheric wedge (as is gen­
erally assumed for oceanic back arcs) .
3. They may form by magma generation at a critical
depth that occurs at two distances from the oceanic trench
because the subducting oceanic plate first sinks and then
rises eastward.
4. Magma generation may occur at equal or different
depths, first due to initial subduction, and then farther east
as a result of resubduction.
At least 80 to 85 percent of the radiometric age dates are
for samples from the main magmatic belt. This could mean
that it has been magmatically more active than the back-arc
magmatic belt. However, the back-arc belt is poorly docu-
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ULRICH PETERSEN
men ted because, in eastern Peru, it is covered by later sedi­
ments and vegetation, and because the readily available and
usable radiometric age database for northwestern Argentina
is quite limited.
A preliminary review of Holocene and historic volcanism
shows that roughly parallel volcanic belts are quite common
around the Pacific rim. Although they do not seem to have
been active simultaneously during historic times, their activ­
ity was either coetaneous or alternated within periods of
2,000 to 10,000 yrs.
Nonmagmatic zones (such as the current northern and
Southern Nonmagmatic zones) probably occurred atvarious
times and locations in the past, but are distinctly subordinate
in length and duration to the magmatic zones. The northern
end of the Central Volcanic zone is now at 15° S, but reached
13° S only 2 m.y. ago and g o S only 5 m.y. ago. Hence, the
Northern Nonmagmatic zone probably came into existence
in a relatively short time span. The Southern Nonmagmatic
zone also seems to be relatively young (i.e., 5 to 8 Ma) .
A continental plate containing Precambrian rocks (now
mostly covered by younger sedimentary and volcanic rocks)
probably extended to the west of the current coast and may
have been partially eroded by the subducting oceanic plate.
Compression of the continental plate may have caused the
folding and thrusting observed along the Andes, leading to
crustal shortening and thickening. Continental plate erosion
at the trench, combined with crustal shortening, may explain
the apparent general eastward migration of the main mag­
matic and volcanic belts after the Mesozoic.
The strike of the relatively straight magmatic belts may lo­
cally change significantly. These deflections can be inter­
preted either as smooth transitions due to local buckling or
as abrupt faulting of the subducting plate. Both mechanisms
would result in differences in the dip of adjoining segments
of the underthrusting plate.
A preliminary statistical analysis of the igneous rock com­
positions dated radiometrically indicates that the vast major­
ity (about 94.5%) of all central Andean igneous rocks have
felsic and intermediate compositions which occur in both
belts, but in different proportions. As a group, felsic or alka­
lic-silicic compositions (pegmatites, granites, rhyolites, and
rhyodacites) prevail in the back-arc belt, whereas intermedi­
ate, calc-alkaline compositions (granodiorites, tonalites or
quartz-diorites, diorites, andesites or trachybasalts) predom­
inate in the main belt. Nepheline syenites, phonolites, and al­
kalic granites comprise only about 0.3 percent of all central
Andean rock compositions and appear to be confined to the
back-arc belt. Mafic igneous rocks constitute the remaining
5.1 percent, of which 98.4 percent appear to be restricted to
the main belt; only basalts seem to occur in both belts.
Diverse ore-deposit types are present in both magmatic
belts. However, it seems that Sn-W ores prevail in the back­
arc belt.
At any given time, a magmatic belt may give rise to ore de­
posits of several different types formed at various depths.
The present-day erosion surfaces may expose predominantly
a given type of ore deposit, such as the 5 to 15 Ma Peruvian
epithermal precious metal and enargite deposits, the 15 to
 MAGMATIC AND METALLOGENIC EVOLUTION OF THE CENTRAL ANDES
25 Ma Bolivian Sn-W deposits, the 25 to 45 Ma Chilean por­
phyry copper deposits, the 55 to 65 Ma Peruvian porphyry
copper deposits, or the 1 1 5 to 2 1 0 Ma Chilean Cu mantos.
This tends to give the appearance of distinct metallogenic
epochs and provinces. However, it is probably more appro­
priate to think of the total as a single metallogenetic epoch
(lasting from at least the Cambrian to today) that generated
two extensive and persistent metallogenic provinces with a
great variety of ore deposits, ofwhich certain subsets crop out
at present in limited belts-our traditional metallogenic
provinces.
Acknowledgments
This paper has its roots in a presentation by the author
and Alberto Benavides to the 1 1 5th Annual Meeting of the
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgiti:al: and Petroleum
Engineers (March 2-6, 1986) on "Peruvian ore deposits: Ge­
ological setting, exploration trends and new discoveries. " We
displayed a series of maps for many time intervals. These
maps were never published; however, the wish remained to
do so and to improve them by considering the increasing
number of radiometric age determinations. The opportunity
to do this arose when Dr. Cesar Vidal graciously made avail­
able his extensive database of radiometric age determina­
tions of Peruvian igneous rocks and hydrothermal alter­
ation/ore minerals. I am also indebted to Prof. Donald
Noble, who allowed me to include the age data contained in
his article in this volume, to Dr. Victor Benavides for guid­
ance on the volcanic stratigraphy in Peru, and to Ing. C.
Richard Petersen, who provided the bulletins of the Servicio
Nacional de Geologia y Mineria of Chile, which contain a
large number of radiometric age determinations for numer­
ous map sheets, as well as other crucial information on
Chilean geology and ore deposits.
Drs. Heinrich D. Holland, Paul Hoffman, Richard
O'Connell, Roberta Rudnick, Goran Ekstrom, Victor Bena­
vides, and Davidjames provided many thoughtful comments
and advice in the early stages of the interpretation of the data
on my maps. Their encouragement to integrate and publish
this information is greatly appreciated. Thanks are also due
to Drs. Heinrich D. Holland, Donald C. Noble, Cesar Vidal,
and GOran Eckstrom for helpful suggestions to improve the
computerscript for publication.
Last, but not least, I thank my wife Eileen for patiently
helping me to plot the more than 1 ,800 points on the various
maps, and Francisco Jauregui and Mario Villar of Cia. de Mi­
nas Buenaventura S.A., for their expert digitizing and prepa­
ration of the maps for publication.
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