Visual Inspection Workshop Reference Manual Second Edition Published by American Welding Society Education Department American Welding Society‘The American Welding Society Inc. assumes no responsibility for the information contained in this publication. Aa independent substantiating investigation should be made prior to reliance on or use of such information, International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-483-3, American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126 © 1997 by American Welding Society Prinitéd in thé United States of America All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system without permission in writing from the publisher.Table of Contents Module Introduction to the Workshop 1, Module #1— Visual Inspection of Welding 2. Nondestructive Examination (NDE) of Welds and Welding 3. Weld Discontinu 4, Welding Codes and Specifications Lo i 12 13 14 Ls 16 17 18 19 20 2 22 23 2.4 25 26 3.0 31 32 33 a4 35 36 37 38 40 4 42 43 44 4s Rationale Workshop Aims Quality oo Teams and Definitions... Centified Welding Inspectors Visual Inspection. Aims of Module #1 Weldment and Joint Design Materials of Construction... Procedures of Welding. Manner of Weld Application Inspection Program Inspection Program—Phase A. Inspection Program—Phase B .... Inspection Program—Phase C. Inspection Program—Phase D. Aims of Module #2 Introduction to Module #2 Liquid Penetrant Examination (PT)... Magnetic Particle Examination (MT) Radiographic Examination (RT) Ultrasonic Examination (UT) Summary of Weld NDE Methods Aims of Module #3... Introduction to Module #3 Cracks and Cracking, Incomplete Fusion. Incomplete Joint Penetration Solid Inclusions. : Gaseous Inclusions (Porosity) Shape Discontinuities Miscellaneous Discontinuities Aims of Module #4 Introduction to Module #4 Finding Code References (1) Part B, Examination Book of Specifications Part B, Appendix I and If Prequalified CIP Groove Welded Joints—Appendix IIT PageModule 5. Measurements of Welding 4.6 WeldyTest Criteria—Appendix V, VI, VIE, and VULesnnnnenn en 49) 4,7, Weld Metal—Appendix IX and Electrode Groups—Appendix X ....4-12 4.8 Welder Qualification Requirements—Appendix XI... 4.9 Welding Procedure Qualitication—Appendix XII and X11 4.10 Matching Filler Metals and Strengths —Appendix IV... 4.11 Minimum Preheat and Imerpass Temperatures Appendix XV 4,12 Finding Code References (2)... sonnet 5.0 Aims of Module #5.. 5.1 Introduction to Module #5 5.2. Inspection Instruments and Gauges. 5.3. Undercut Gauge... 5.4 Machinist's Rule 5.5 Micrometer, 5.6 Dial Calipers a 5.7 Measurement Conversi098..u 5.8 Magnifier .... 5.9. Linear Measuring Instrument Comparisons 5.10 Special Welding Gauges... 5.11 Welding Math... Exercise QuestionsList of Figures Module. 1. Module #1— Visual Inspection of Welding 2. Nondestructive Examination (NDE) of Welds and Welding Figure Page 1.1 Andication of Welded Joint Design... 1.2-Joint Tolerances: With and Without Backing. 1.3Joint for Welder Qualification Test 1.4—Using a Temperature Indicating Crayon .. 1LS—Examples of Unweldabe Joints Due to Access Problems. 1.6—Presetting of Joint Members 1L7_Significance of Weld Preparation Elements. 1.8—Regularizing Joint Members Gaps .. 1.9—Surface Contact Thermometer. 1.10—Using a Tong Test Ammeter.... L11Significance of Weld Bead Size, Shape. 1,12—Welding Sequence Techniques 113—Bffect of Bead Placement on Weld Quality... |.14—Effect of Order of Weld Bead Placement... 1.15—Discontinuities in Intermediate Passes. L.16—Backgouging Method, Accessibility. L.17—Groove Weld Reinforcement. 1.18 Excessive Fillet Convexity and Concavity... 1,19—Weld-Associated Surface Cracks 1.20—Overlap and Underct an cnean 1 21—Undereut Gauge and Calibration Bloc 1,22—Incomplete Joint Penetration... 2.1 Optical Borescope with Extensions, 2.2-Sub-Surface Crack Undetectable by VT nnn 2.3—Liquid Penetrant Examination Process. 2.4—Visible Dye Penetrant Kitsosonnnnnnnen 2.5—PT Indications - 2.6-—Florescent PT osonmnenne 2.7-—Magnetie Force Lines in a Permeable Body . 2.8—Current-Camying Conductor's Magnetic Field . 2.9MT Equipment (Circular Magnetism). 2.10—Longitudinal Magnetic Field 2.1—MT Examination Using Prods. 2.42-—Magnetic Yoke (Electromagnet)... 2.13-MT Indications in Shaft 2.14—Principles of Radiographic Examination, 2.15—Effect of Radiation Beam Orientation 2.16-—Viewing a Radiographic Film, 2.17--Film, Identification, and Macrosection of Longitudinal ToelHAZ CrackWeld Discontinuities 4, Welding Codes and Specifications 5. Measurements of Welding 2.18—Normal Radiation Beam Orientation... 217 2.19—Sound Reflection in Ultrasonic Testing 218 2.20—Diagram of a Pulse-Echo Flaw Detector. 219 2.21—UT Cathode Display Tube Display... 22-20 2.22—Angle Transducer in Use... 2-20 2.23—Search Patterns, UT Weld Examinations 2-21 3.1Weld and Weld-Related Discontinuities.. . c 3-2 3.2Weld Area at Time of Weld Formation 3.3Cracks in Weld Metal 3.4—Weld and Base Metal Crack 3.5—Cold Cracks 3.6—Incomplete Fusion in Various Locations. 3.7-—Incomplete Joint Penetration... 3.8—Slag Inclusions... 3.9—Porosity Types. 3.10—Reinforcement Effect 3.11 Examples of Underfill and Undercut.. 3.12Acceptabie (Conforming) and Unacceptable (Nonconforming) Weld Shapes (AWS DI.1) 3.13—Lamination and Delamination... 3.14—Examples of Lameltar Tearing 4.1 Calculation of Weld Metal Dilution... 412 4.2Fillet Weld Procedure Test Specimen. 418 5.1—Typical Instruments, Tools, and Gauges Used in Weld Inspection ... 53 5.2—Undercut Gauge. 53 5.3—-Machinist’s Rule (Scale) Graduations. 5-4 5.40 t0 | in. Micrometer and its Components... 5-6 5.5—Mierometer Zer0d.. 5.6—Micrometer Readings soe 5.7—Reading the 0 to | in. Micrometer 5-10 5,8—Dial Caliper (Metric) 5.9—Measuring with the Dial Caliper seonesse 510) 5.10—Reading the Dial Caliper ei 5.11 Using the Extension Rod..... Slt 5.12—Magnifie.. 5-13 5.13—The Palmgren Gauge wwssrnoneoon Sold 5.14~Fillet Weld Profites and Dimensions. somes 516 5.15—Fillet Weld Profiles... sone SUT 5.16—Fillet Gauge... eee svete ST 5.17-—Convex and Concave Fillet Weld Sizes 5-17 5.18—FibreMetal Fillet Weld Gauge ....snnceneenenssee cece SABVISUAL INSPECTION OF WELDING INTRODUCTION TO THE WORKSHOP Rationale Workshop Aims Inspection is traditionally considered a post-processing activity. A machine com- ponent may be tamed to finished form and size—then inspected for conformance to the applicable drawing or specification. A garment is inspected after sewing and all the buttons and other features are in place. In these and similar instances, visual inspection is carried out after the production activities have been completed. In the case of weldments, experience has shown that post-processing inspection, even when supplemented with nondestructive examination (NDE), gives no guar- antee of suitability for intended service. However, co1 siderable period of time have demonstrated the effectiveness of a pre-planned sequence of visual inspections. If carried out at specific stages of weldment production, such programs give a high degree of assurance of meeting quality expectations—frequently without recourse to NDE. tent results over a con: With welding, the factors influencing quality may manifest themselves at any stage of the production operation. In many instances, quality is compromised even before welding commences. In most such circumstances, suitably timed visual inspection would have revealed the shortcoming at a stage when comrective action would be simple to implement and inexpensive to carry out and weldment quality are determined by + Weldment and joint design + Materials of construction + Procedure of welding + Manner of weld application + Insp. jon program Visual welding inspection provides the basis for the effective contro! of these determinants, The aims of this workshop are to! + Provide a basic understanding of the circumstances under which weld and weldment quality, or both, may or will be compromised. + Offer a 24-point program of weld inspection that gives a high degree of assur- ance of meeting weld quality requirements for most fabricated products. + Show how to develop and implement specific quality plans to meet all normal requirements for weld and weldment quality.‘nev wis maspecton WworKSAOp Introduction Quality Terms and Definitions + Demonstrate and practice the techniques of visual inspection required to carry out effective weld quality control, ‘The term quality is widely used and applied. However, many times, the general concept of quality is misunderstood. Quatity is conformance to the applicable specification. The required level of quality for a product or service is typically determined by the designer, based on suitability for service over the intended life span. All prod- uct variables must be specified in a manner that is capable of being measured. Dimensions are readily verified. Attributes such as surface finish, if significant, ‘must be specified in terms allowing for precise determination or measurement. In carrying out an inspection, the inspector's task is to compare the actual with the required or specified product dimensions. Appearance alone is rarely the detenni- nant of product quality. Certain important terms are used in the inspection of welding that may or may not apply in other industries. These include: + Discontinuity—any intercuption in the uniformity of an object. + Defect—a discontinuity that does not meet the required product specification While all defects are discontinuities, only certain discontinuities are defects. The reinforcement and penetration beads of butt welds are discontinuities because they represent an interruption in the surface of the weldment. Only if outside the provi- sions of the code or specification governing the welding concemed however, would they represent defects. The term specification is used to describe the all-important information used by inspectors to determine quality of the item under consideration. As a general prin- ciple, the purchaser and the manufacturer agree to all the quality criteria applica- ble in any given situation. Purchasers may nominate a given code or standard or write their own specification of what is required. Whichever way the quality requirements are specified, the agreed criteria become the inspector's specifica- tion to be used for the job concemed. The term code describes a systematically arranged. comprehensive set of rules and standards for welding applications, mandatory where the public interest is involved. A review of the 24-point Welding Inspection Program presented in Table 1.2 clearly shows that welding inspectors require specific knowledge and experience. To advance the application and utilization of welding, the American WeldingCertified Welding Inspectors Visual Inspection AWS Visual inspection Workshop Introduction Society (AWS) has standardized requirements for welding inspectors. Certifica- tion of eligible persons is based on documented evidence of appropriate experi- cence along with the achievement of a certain minimum level of competence in a 3-part examination. An Inspector meeting AWS standards is designated a Certified Welding Inspec tor (CWD. CWIs are employed in a wide spectrum of industry and carry out a variety of tasks. While certain CWIs will have a wide range of situations with which to deal, others work in more specific areas of inspection. However, a knowledge of all facets of welding quality is required of CWIs to determine how the variables interact. Key points about the visual inspection of welding should be recognized. These include: + No inspection program will give an absolute guarantee as to weld and weld- tment suitability for intended service over the life of a product. However, by structuring an appropriate inspection plan, commercially realistic degrees of confidence in a welded product can he achieved + While visual inspection is highly effective in the control and assessment of ‘weld and weldment quality, there is one obvious limiting factor. Visual inspec- tions are confined to exposed surfaces—so subsurface discontinuities may not be detected. This is offset by structuring welding inspection programs to examine the minimum number of surfaces that will give the required degree of assurance. + Nondestructive testing of welds and welding is an adjunct to the visual inspec~ jon program, not a substitute for it. The four NDE methods used in connection with welding each have their own areas of best application—along with limita~ tions. Penetrant and magnetic testing are surface techniques, with the latter limited to ferro-magnetic materials. Radiography is directional, ultrasonic examinations require smooth surfaces for transducer contact,1, MODULE #1—VISUAL INSPECTION OF WELDING 1.0 Aims of Module #1 1.1 Weldment and Joint Design The aims of Module #1 are: + To consider the circumstances under which a weld and/or weld quality may or will be compromised. + To detail the elements of a 4-phase, 24-point program of weld inspection that will give any required level of assurance required of the fabrication to meet weld quality requirements + To review the individual elements of such a program to show the basis for each and its scope so appropriate weight may be given in specific cases. Without question, the most significant factor in the quality of a welded product is the arrangement of parts to be welded. The relationship of members and the man~ ner in which the loads are handled determines the local stresses. Likewise, the placement of joints has great significance, However, these last two matters are the designer's responsibility and are not the responsibility of the welding inspector. Joint design is another matter, one in which the welding inspector is vitally con- cemed, In one sense, joint design, along with the procedure of welding, could be identified as the most significant factors in weld and weldment quality. ‘The most significant factors include but are not limited to those shown in Table 1.1. Table 1.1—Welded Joint Design Determinants DESIGN OF WELDED JOINTS 1. Welding and inspection access. 2. Most cost-effective form 3. Minimize residual stresses. Ideally, joint design is proposed by the manufacturer and approved by the designer. Inappropriate joint designs are frequently imposed on manufacturers, In such instances, the welding inspector has a vital role to play in identifying poten- tial problem areas. The initiation of the required corrective action through the appropriate channels should automatically follow. Joint designs are specified in the applicable welding procedure specifications (WPS). The practice of making pictorial joint representations on drawings is costly, counterproductive and inaccurate. Compare the diagrams in Figure 1.1. Inspectors initially consider joint design in Phase A (Initial Review) of the Weld- ing Inspection Program (see Table 1.2) when the applicability of the WPS is‘Awis visual inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual inspection of Welding 1.2 Materials of Construction i of >be ow A NOTE OVERLAP poole ‘ia or6) a8. ae = ved ET Eve WELD CROSS SECTION ‘SYMBOL, NOTE: TOTAL GROOVE WELD SIZE CANNOT EXCEED 1 Figure 1.1—Indication of Welded Joint Design reviewed, At this stage, joint design and its form and configuration will have been decided” Conformance of joint shape, form, and dimensions to applicable criteria are to be checked In Phase B (Pre-welding Checks), the actual dimensions of joint form and fit-up are 10 be verified to again establish conformance. Once welding commences, only in exceptional circumstances can meaningful changes to joint type and dimen sions be made. Only certain elements of a joint configuration may beTaltered with- out engineer approval. While welding can be successfully used to make a wide range of welded joints in many materials, there are certain limitations. These include: 1. Not all metals are weldable. Of those that are, not all can be welded with the same degree of ease or using similar methods and procedures. 2. Welding has the potential to cause significant physical and metallurgical changes that may adversely affect the suitability for intended service of the welded product Material specifiers are generally aware of these limitations and call for the use of materials considered weldable, However, many fully weldable materials react dif- ferently to certain welding processes and procedures of welding. As with design, this leaves the welding inspector with two important determinations to make. In Phase A, the compatibility of the base metal with the filler metals to be used and the welding process to be employed are verified. These are the essential vari- ables of the welding procedure and must be established by test. Where previously qualified welding procedures have been specified, only verification checks are necessary. In other circumstances, more comprehensive action will be required. The extent and scope of such action will be dictated by the prevailing situation. 121.3 Procedures of Welding 1.4 Manner of Weld Application AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual inspection of Welding During Phase B, it is necessary to verify that all materials to be welded satisfy the established base metal requirements, Inadvertent changes of material can have far~ reaching consequences. Protection against this possibility by building in adequate checks is required by many Codes of Practice. In Section 8 of the ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, positive and verifiable identification of all parts to be welded is a requirement. Welding Procedure Specifications (WPSs) are a breakdown of the welding vari- ables to be used to make one or more joints under certain circumstances. In a general sense, there can be a limitless number of such combinations. In practice, by using care and attention, it is possible for a relatively small number of WPSs to cover all the diverse situations that arise even when making complex weldments. Over time, manufacturers of welded products build up a library of qualified weld- ing procedures from which unique WPSs can be generated. In the event that there are no suitable qualified (or, if appropriate, prequalified) procedures available, it is necessary to carry out further qualification testing. The significant point is that this possibility allows time for appropriate action, together with the qualification of welding personnel if necessary. The WPS fields set out the welding parameters, known as essential variables. Change outside a certain code-specified range requires the development and/or ‘qualification of a new welding procedure, Figure 1.2 shows a range of joint edge preparation variables, with machining and assembly tolerances. Welders are responsible for the application of welding. However, welders do not actin isolation? Welder certification attest$'to the skill and ability of a welder to weld spec- ified types of joints in certain materials under a range of restricted conditions. These conditions typically include the welding process, type(s) and form(s) of base metal, and joint position along with the technique and progression of welding. In Phase A, welding inspectors verify that the welders, welding operators or tackers are certified to weld with the procedures to be used during production. This gives waming of any additional requirements as far as welding personnel are concemed. It should be kept in mind that welder certification tests may or may not duplic joints to be made in production. The test coupon joint show in Figure 1.3 may well be used to qualify welders for welding plate. The purpose of the restricting ring is to limit access to the joint to prove welder capability to weld, even on awkward joints. During Phase B, the welding inspector checks the condition of the welding equip- iment and suitability of the base and filler metals. The inspector checks joint fit-up and preheat condition. During Phase C, welding inspectors are required to assure that welder skill is ‘maintained throughout. Where there is evidence of reduced skill, requalification o even retraining, may be necessary if substandard work persists.‘AWS Visual inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual Inspection of Welding +10" ry teviein, (15 mn) ee (1.6 mmm) (A) GROOVE WELD WITHOUT BACKING— ROOT NOT BACKGOUGED tavien- g ‘ (8mm) /? i +1449 (6mm) 7A a6 in. (1.6 mm) (8) GROOVE WELD WITH BACKING— ROOT NOT BACKGOUGED ey tNoT LMITED —l Len eres (©) GROOVE WELO WITHOUT BACKING— ROOT BACKGOUGEO Figure 1.2—Joint Tolerances: With and Without Backing While the specific details of any given welding program will differ in detail, the basic requirements remain the same. Three phases have already been identified As enumerated belov’, there is a fourth phase which follows the completion of welding, The four phases of a welding inspection program are set out in Table 1.2. a ‘The abbreviated form of identification given in Table 1.2 will be used 10 outline each ofthe required inspection activities 1.5 Inspection Programeu ts MINIMUM NOMINAL TEST PIPE O.D. = 6 in. ~ SJ NO LIMIT FOR BOX TUBES F ons: x wv vein x ® MIN ‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual Inspection of Welding ws | ts -TRICTION FING ve | 3 ane | 4a v2 | 127 6 | 150 ‘SAME 0.0. AS TEST PIPE OR SAME SIZE AS TEST BOX TUBING Figure 1.3—Joint for Welder Qualification Test Table 1.2—Welding Inspection Program Phase A—Initial Review Review purchase order, all codes and drawings Develop all necessary inspection plans Check welding procedures; welder status Establish inspection documentation system Publish non-conforming product ID system Create a corrective action program Phase C—In-process Inspections Check compliance with WPS provisions, Check quality, placement of key weld passes Check weld bead sequencing and placement Check interpass temperature and cleaning Check adequacy of backgouging Monitor any specified in-process NDE Phase B—Pre-welding Checks 41. Check suitability, condition of welding equipment 2. Check conformance of base and filer materials 3. Check the positioning of members and of joints 4, Check joint preparation, fit-up, cleanliness 5, Check adequacy of alignment maintenance 6. Check preheat (oF initial) temperature Phase D—Postwelding Activities 4. Check finished weld appearance, soundness 2. Check weld sizes and dimensions 3. Check dimensional accuracy of weldment 4, Carry out or monitov/evaluate specitied NI 5, Monitor any PWHT or ather postweld work 6. Finalize and collate inspection documentation The AWS publication devoted to visual inspection of welding is ANSHAWS BL, Guide for the Visual Inspection of Welds. It forms the basis for the informa- tion that follows and should be available for reference jeration of each item of the 24-step program gi consi t all stages of the detailed nin Table 1.2.‘AWS Visual inspection Workshop Module #1-—Visual inspection of Welding 1.6 Inspection Program— Phase A The purpose of any inspection is to establish conformance to specification. It is self-evident that the very first inspection task will be to find out what is required The first activity is: Al—Review Purchase Documents and Specifications Depending on a large number of significant factors, the scope and detail given will vary over a wide range, Structural work is different from process piping; pressure vessel work and tankage are not the same. Each will have their own specifics. However, there are certain common factors and these shiould be ascertained at the earliest possible stage. If errors, omissions or incomplete data are uncovered at this point, prompt corrective action should be initiated, ‘The minimum data to be obtained include: 1. Code(s) of construction Materials of construction 3. Applicable standards and specifications 4. Drawings showing weld locations and types! 5. Inspection frequency, techniques, criteria A2—Develop an Inspection Plan As the name implies, an inspection plan is a detailed list of all inspection activities to take place before, during and after welding. For Phase A activities, a single inspection plan will suffice as these are onetime, up-front requirements, Input data are obtained during purchase order review and from applicable specifica- tions, augmented by any other requirements covering the job as a whole. Inspection plans typically are in the form of a check fist. Column headings cover, as a minimum, such items a5 the Activity. Applicable Specification, Date, Inspection Report No., and Signature. Each specitic inspection activity is listed separately. Except for very small jobs with few activities to be covered, multi-level inspec- tion plans are necessary and usual. The first level typically covers a job as a whole. AS such, it acts as a control document to monitor and direct the more ‘Two types of drawings ane usually used. Detail drawings show job forrn, dimensions, ‘member size and position. Weld location, form (bu, fitter, or other) and extent are given, but not joint type or size. Working drawings show construction detail, including joint type and other applicable weld data, comnunicated by symbols or other means,AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual Inspection of Welding specific activities of the second level of inspection plans, This means the column headings of each level of the inspection plan may change to embody different roles. Most second-level inspection plans contain those items listed in Phases B,C and D of the inspection program set out in Table 1.2. Second-tevel inspection plans may, in tum, be used as control documents to cover specific sections of a job. Third-level inspection plans are used to control the activities taking place with respect to individual joints, which may be within a component within a section of a job. The number of levels will be governed, in part, by the degree of confidence required for the job in part and as a whole. Iis desirable that inspections take place as .. part of the production process. Hold, Points, where production is halted to await inspection clearance, should be Kept to ‘acode-mandated minimum. A3—Check Welding Procedures and Welder Status Most contractors, fabricators and manufacturers have a number of welding proce- dures, qualified either by test or with prequalified status. In any given situation, existing procedures may or may not cover all the required welding to be carried ‘out. In the event of deficiencies, it takes some time to have new procedures devel coped and qualified. Taking action on this matter at the earliest possible stage is prudent. All necessary welding procedure specifications can be developed once the supporting procedures are qualified Similar remarks apply to welder status. The limitations on welder qualification include the form of items to be welded (plate, pipe), the welding process or pro- cesses, electrode classifications, the welding positions, member thickness, and pipe diameter. Prompt action to have suitably qualified welders on the roster is a self-evident requirement. In the event that new procedures have to be qualified, existing welder certifications may or may not be sufficient. ‘There is a provision in some codes that permits welders to qualify during produc tion. This possibility should be viewed with restraint. Usually, radiographic exam- ination of a certain length or number of joints is required. If the film images conform to specification, the scope of the qualification is typically much narrower than normal welder tests. Ifthe test welds do not conform, then removal of all the subject welds, not just repair, is typically required. Usually, welding procedures are not time constrained, Once qualified, procedures remain current indefinitely. Welder qualifications, on the other hand, are often for a specified time. The duration of currency may be 6 months or a year. Renewal by evidence of use of the process is frequently automatic. In other cases, retesting after a specified period of time is required.[AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual inspection of Welding 1.7 Inspection Program— Phase B Ad—Fstablish Inspection Documentation System ‘Most organizations operating in the field of welded fabrication will have inspec- tion documentation such as Inspection and Non-conformance Reports. With these and other required documents however, it should be verified that the form of the documents satisfies the requirements of the applicable codes or specifications. Some companies require special documentation in addition to requirements speci- fied by code. Today, with the widespread use of computers, producing specialized forms is a simple matter. The time co identity and respond to special requirements is before the job commences. A3—Publish Non-conforming Product ID System Most firms have a means of identifying and handling non-conforming product. It should be verified that the system meets the purchaser’s requirements, with changes made as required. Any such changes must be communicated to all con- cerned with the job. Incorporating non-conforming product into an assembly is fone of the most common problems associated with welded fabrication. It is usu- ally brought about by ignorance of the system. A6—Maintain a Corres inate Defects ive Action Program to Eli Corrective action to eliminate defects should be an organized activity, caried out in accordance with a formal procedure, and approved for use by the competent authority—typically, the engineer. ft should not be a surreptitious activity, carried out when no one in authority is present. While under-the-table repairs may smooth feelings, it overlooks the basic aim of quality systems to identify causes of non- conformance. By so doing, system problems, rather than just symproms, can be addressed and prompt corrective action implemented, the most common being: 1. Improved communication 2. Job training Phase A activities have the effect of laying the foundation upon which a Welding Inspection Program is based. The actions required represent what are generally considered normal to most persons expected to execute them, However, it is desir~ able, where possible. to have written procedures to structure and standardize action as per the program procedure. For instance. in reviewing the purchase doc- ‘uments and specifications, what information is being sought? Certainly, a check list or similar document will be useful when checking welding procedures and welder status While industry is not unanimous on the need for formal procedures for Phase A. there is no doubt that Phase B, C, and D activities should be govemed by formal 18AWS Visual Inspecton Workshop Module #1—Visual inspection of Welding procedures. For example, in Figure 1.4, where should the temperature indicating be applied in relation to the joint? Should it be 1 in., 2 in., or just what distance from the joint? Figure 1.4—Using a Temperature Indicating Crayon jtability, Condition of Welding Eq The suitability of the welding equipment refers to its capability to produce sound welds using the applicable welding procedures, It is unlikely that a 150 amp, AC welding machine would be capable of successfully running 1/8 in, E7018 el trodes; notwithstanding a maximum current requirement of say 120 to 130 amps. A 600 A, 60% duty cycle machine would not be suitable for submerged arc weld- ing (SMAW) a circumferential seam of a 6 foot diameter vessel at SOO amps. The same machine may well be capable of welding longitudinal seams on the same vessel if the seam length is not more than 5 or 6 feet Additionally, secondary equipment must also be checked for suitability. For example, storage ovens for low-hydrogen SMAW electrodes, e.g,, £7018, must be capable of maintaining a temperatue of at least 250°F. These electrodes are limited in terms of how long they are permitted to be exposed to the atmosphere without adversely affecting their low-moisture content Welding accessories such as cables and workpiece leads, electrode holders and workpiece lead clamps all carry the full welding current. Are the connections suf- ficiently tight and secure to avoid overheating and consequent loss of current and possible variation in electrical output? The heating effect of electrical current is a function of circuit resistance (HR). These and similar questions are to be addressed and resolved before welding commences.[AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual inspection of Welding B2—Check Conformance of Base and Filler Metals While itis an evident requirement that base and filler metals must conform to the WPS requirements, it may take Foresight to ensure that itis possible to make this verification. Material Test Reports (MTRs), even Certified Material Test Reports (CMTRs) are fine; but how is the metal to be welded identified as being that referred to in the Test Reports? Material traceability is a must for all metals to be welded B3—Check the Positioning of Members and Joints ‘This is the appropriate time to verify that access for welding has been allowed. Dur- ing the review of drawings in Phase A of the Welding Inspection Program, the ini- tial activity involves a documentation review. At that time, any potential access problems will have been identified, Simple examples are showa in Figure 1.5. ‘Afi itispéetion carried out at this stage will possibly be the first opportunity the inspector has to see that changes were made to correct any design shortcomings. This example also illustrates the need for effective communication. When initially identified and the matter drawn to the attention of the relevant parties, circum stances may dictate that the inspector who carried out the initial phase of the weld- ing inspection program is not the same person involved with the later phases. [tis thus vital to have a record of the initiat finding flagged for later attention and verification Of course, it is always possible that access problems were not identified from the drawings. While the problems shawn in Figure 1.5 are obvious, potential difficul- ties of this type are not always readily discernible, This check provides an ideal ‘opportunity to verify this important point Preseiting of members to be welded is a prudent and effective way in which to offset. of at least reduce the effects of weld shrinkage. Some examples of preset~ ting are shown in Figure 1.6. Where presetting is involved, there are 3 important accompanying factors to be considered, as follows: + Amount of presetiing + The existence of non-uniform restraint + The sequence of welding Icis also appropriate at this time to again review the scope of qualifications of the welder(s) concerned with making the joint(s) under consideration. In Phase A of the Welding Inspection Program, the welder’s qualifications are required to be verified, 110ELECTRODE MUST BE HELD CLOSE TO 45° WHEN MAKING THESE FILLETS. AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual Inspection of Welding ‘TRY TO AVOID PLACING PIPE JOINTS. NEAR WALL SO THAT ONE OR TWO SIDES ARE INACCESSIBLE. THESE WELDS MUST BE MADE WITH BENT ELECTRODES ANO MIRROR. MiRROR, EASY TO SPECIFY *WELO ALL ; EASY TO DRAW, BUT THE 2NDweLD AROUND" BLT. we WILL BE HARD TO MAKE t oe Zz a ut TOO CLOSE INSIDE TO ALLOW PROPER ELECTRODE POSITIONING. PIPE very oFFiouur MAY BE OK FOR AVERAGE WORK, BUT BAD FOR LEAK-PROOF WELOING, easy ae Figure 1.5—~-Examples of Unweldable Joints Due to Access Problems wi in terms of composition, form (plate, pipe) and dimensions, |ders are qualified to weld in one or more joint positions, on a range of metals, Additionally, certain codes (including, for instance, AWS DILL) impose positional restraints on the scope of welding procedures. WPSs supported by procedures qualified on pipe butts usually have a wider scope of positional capability than procedures qualified on plate. Welder quatification is generally similar. B4—Check Joint Preparation, Fitup, and Cleanliness The ment, On working drawings, the dimensional requirements for joint preparations should be shown by the use of the appropriate welding symbol(s). The purpose of mn joint preparation covers a wide sage of combinations of plate edge treat-AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual Inspection of Welding ~~ cuawrs atone eoes eel ey { | PRET l / — Figure 1.6—Presetting of Joint Members edge preparation is to allow the electrode access to the joint root. The are must be able to impinge on all surfaces to be melted. This means there is no universal “edge prep” because there are many electrode sizes in use. It also means the dimensions of a weld preparation are important, Consider the joints in Figure 1.7. While the examples in Figure 1.7 may represent extreme cases. it is evident that the tolerances applicable (o weld edge preparations and to joint fit-up are signifi cant and must be observed. In the absence of anything to the contrary. it is si gested that the tolerances shown in Figure 1.2 be adopted, The examination of weld edge preparation and fit-up is considered to be the most important of the Welding Inspection Program steps. Inaccuracies at this point pre- destine a weld to almost certain non-conformance. Use of suitable instruments to check each part of the weld preparation and fit-up is vital The assembly of T-joints deserves particular attention. Most T-joints are fillet welded, generally from both sides. Separation between the members acts (0AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—~Visual inspection of Welding Lb ricHT oad ance of Weld Preparation Elements reduce the effective weld size. With double-welded joints, separation cannot nor- mally be seen after welding. Generally, specified weld sizes are required to be increased by the amount of separation to restore the specified weld size. A second consideration in this connection stems from the way in which fillet welds perform their function. By definition, the weld root of a sound fillet weld intersects the joint members at one point only. In ather words, there will be a sin- gle point of stress concentration at the joint root. Where there is separation tween the joint members, there will be two weld roots and thus two points of stress concentration; at best, an und ble situation, If from some prior event there is an excessive gap between members of a butt joint, there are several possible remedies short of member replacement. For small additions, joint edge(s) can be built up by welding, Alternatively, consider the use of a backing bar. After welding, the backing bar can be removed if necessary.‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module # Visual Inspection of Welding Another possibility is to use a “spacer” which is gouged out after welding from the first side is completed. See Figure 1.8, Figure 1.8—Regularizing Joint Members Gaps B4—Check Joint Prepar: yess (Cont'd) n, Fit-up, and Clean ‘Cleanliness of the joint area is a general requirement. Arc heat melts and vapor izes everything in its vicinity. Cleanliness of the joint area is a general require- ‘ment and must be verified prior to welding. Loose scale, rust, oil, grease. cutting, fluid residues, paint and other surface contaminants should not be present for at least 2 in, on either side of the weld center line nor on the other side of joint members, Ifthe area to be welded is pitted with rust, itis highly desirable to grind the area to shiny metal. For new material, vigorous brushing should suffice. For steel no longer showing tightly adhering blue «rill scate, grinding is preferred. Particular attention needs to be paid to pipe joints, especially if gas backing is to be used. Under the heat of welding, many surface contaminants are vaporized — LadAWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual Inspection of Welding generally into hyérogen-rich substances which have potentially unsatisfactory effects on molten weld metal and base metals at the elevated temperatures associ- ated with welding, BS—Check Adequacy of Alignment Maintenance During welding, forces of considerable magnitude act on joint members. It is nec ‘essary to establish that the means of holding joint members is adequate to ensure that members are held in proper alignment throughout welding. Where members are tacked, verify that tack length and the number of tacks are sufficient to main tain alignment, When joint alignment is to be maintained by use of clamps, pressure is at right angles to the forces involved in weld-caused expansion and contraction. The reac- tion to transverse expansion and contraction is @ function of welding speed. Rapid ‘welding tends to open seams in front of the arc, Slow welding, such as with GTAW or gas welding tend to cause closing of members, or “scissoring”. B6—Check Preheat or Initial Job Temperature It is the responsibility of the welding inspector to verify that the workpiece has been heated to the specified preheat temperature, The workpiece may have been heated to the required temperature, but in such a localized area that workpiece temperature has fallen by the time welding commences. Preferred practice is to apply the heating medium in a band of 2 in, width centered 2 in. away from the edges of the joint members. The joint itself and adjacent metal for at least 3 in. on either side of the joint should be raised to the specified preheat temperature, “Temperature checks should be made 2 in, away from the joint (some specifica tions call for 3 in.) on both sides of the joint and on both front and back. Means (6 verify job temperature include temperature indicating crayons (immediate) and a number of pyrometers, most of which require litte time to give the correct job temperature. A surface contact thermometer is shown in Figure 1.9.‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #1—Visual Inspection of Welging 1.8 Inspection Program— Phase C For site work or work being carried out in low-temperature environments, special conditions may apply. AWS DI1, for instance, mandates that no welding is to be carried out when the ambient temperature in the work area is 1/50 in, is needed for a dis- cemible image change. Image density is given as the (logarithmic) ratio of the light applied to the film and that emerging on the other side, A minimum density of 2 is commonly required This means if the viewer (see Figure 2.16) delivers 1000 lumens, an observer will see 10 lumens through the film. (100 = 2 log,g)AWS Visual Inspecton Workshop Module #2—NOE of Welds and Welding Figure 2.16—Viewing a Radiographic Film Radiation of industrial strength is very hazardous. Due care must be exercised to control the operation. Operators and all other persons in the work area are at risk The level of radiation is to be monitored at all times throughout any radiography. Depending on the radiation source strength, distances of 50 feet and more are required (0 be maintained between the source and the nearest persons when an exposure is being made. In general, demarcation by tape surrounding the hazard- ous area is required. In addition, warming signs are to be displayed to avoid acci~ dental entry to the area. Welding inspectors are not required to interpret radiographic film. This isthe task of a Level If or Ill radiographer. However, itis desirable that the welding inspec tor has an understanding of how interpretations are reached. The welding inspec tor should know the general appearance of the more usual discontinuities on a radiographic film, In addition, the inspector should also be conversant with the principles of interpretation to be able to evaluate the radiographers report ‘The first item to look for on a film is the identification. If it is not possible to pos- itively identity a film with it’s location on a job, it serves litle purpose. In Figure 2.17, the fetters SO are part of the job identification and the number 25 denotes a position on the joint. This latter position is typically from an end, or zero point, marked on the job to ensure positive location, ‘The identification on the film also needs to be cross referenced to the radiogra- pher's report. The report itself will also show the sensitivity and the image den- sity, These data should be within the limits of the applicable specification, For sensitivity, 2% for X-ray work and 4% for some isotope shots is not unusual. For density, [.8 to 4 covers the usual range, but this should be verified by reference to the code or specification 2s‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #2—NDE of Welds and Welding ation, and Macrosection of Longitudinal Toe/HAZ Crack Figure 2.17—Film, Iden Each discontinuity has a specific shape, size and orientation, Most also have char- acteristic positions of likely occurrence. As seen from Figure 2.17, itis possible to identify the weld by the lighter image. Notice that the crack has clearly defined edges. However, the crack image represents the vertical portion of the crack. The initial portion of the crack is not favorably oriented to the beam of radiation and is this not readily discernible on this reproduction, As shown in Figure 2.18, the beam orientation is usually normal to the surface of the joint being examined. Centerline cracks, incomplete penetration and undercut are usually favorably oriented. With incomplete fusion and certain cracks, this may not be so. M usually readily identified. t inclusions are 3-dimensional, and along with porosity, are vv SOURCE Y i I ! I ! i ' 1 1 ! a I I oom Figure 2.18-—Normal Radiation Beam Orientation2.5 Ultrasonic Examination (UT) AUS Visual inspection Workshop Module #2—NDE of Welds and Welding For smaller diameter pipe work and where incomplete sidewall fusion may be present, an oblique beam orientation is used. Depending on the pipe diameter, either a single or a double image of the weld will appear. This makes interpreta- tion more difficult. Ulteasonic examination of welds and welding has been used since the early 1970s, albeit with large and cumbersome equipment. More recently, UT equipment size has been reduced dramatically and hand-held units are now in daily use. UT has an advantage in that the size, character, orientation and location of a discontinuity can be determined, This compares with RT where orientation of beam to disconti- nity is critical, and size is limited to projected width and breadth. Depth of dis- continuity is not readily determined. RT produces a permanent record but UT technology is making it possible to produce a hard copy image in one, two and even three planes. Ultrasonic testing works on two principles: 1, Sound, light, and other members of the electro-magnetic spectrum can be reflected and refracted at the interface of two media. 2. Sound obeys the wave laws and travels through a uniform body at constant velocity. fn air sound travels at = 300 meters per second (m/s); through water at = 1,000 mvs and through steel at just under 6,000 m/s, The basic principle is illustrated in Figure 2.19. Sound in the outer areas passes through sound material and is reflected from the back wall. It will take a specific and determinable time to do so, depending on such variables as the test object or material density The sound reflected from the discontinuity shown in the center of the object under test will likewise be reflected but with a much shorter time of flight. By introduc- ing short pulses of sound into a job then waiting for the return echo, the same twansducer may be used as both transmitter and receiver. Transducers (also called probes) have an active element consisting of a wafer of a crystal having piezoelectric properties. When a current is applied to such crystals, vibration commences and sound is generated. The same, or other crystals, when acted upon by sound, generate electrical impulses. The transducer in Figure 2.19 is known as a single-crystal probe, and acts a8 transmitter and receiver. For some work itis desirable to have separate transmitters and receivers in what are knowa, 1s twin crystal probes, Each transducer acts at a characteristic frequency, typically in the range 1 to 10 MHz, 27AWS Visual inspection Workshop Module #2 NOE of Welds and Welding wi COUPLANT LT] Lule! | fe Lo ‘SPECIMEN Figure 2.13—Sound Reflection in Ultrasonic Testing In the lower right of Figure 2.20, a cathode ray tube (CRT) is shown, The horizon- tal axis registers time, the vertical axis shows signal strength measured in decibels (4B). On the CRT, four echoes, or pips, are seen. The pip at the extreme left (zero time) is the main bang. It is seen that each pip in this display has less amplitude that the previous pip. This indicates the reducing signal strength of each succes- sive echo, In calibrating the UT display, the operator works with one or more calibration blocks. These blocks are of known dimensions and have reflecting surfaces ia var- ious positions. Calibration blocks are made from material of similar acoustic properties to the material being tested. It is seen that pips on the Figure 2.20 CRT display are at 0, 1.5, 3.0, and 4.5 on the time base. Since CRT divisions are at | in. 5 1.5 in. thick intervals, it means the metal under test In Figure 2.2, a pip of less amplitude appears between the test surface and the backwall. This shows the presence of an intermediate reflecting surface. By anal ysis of the intermediate pip, the UT operator is able to determine information about the discontinuity such as depth and other data. To assist in this activity, the UT operator is required to have an accurate diagram of the weld preparation. By integrating these data with information from various scanning patterns, most, ifAWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #2—NDE of Welds and Welding PULSER cLock AMPLIFIER SWEEP DELAY ‘ATTENUATOR, SWEEP LENGTH CATHODE RAY TUBE [SCREEN DISPLAY ‘TRANSDUCER TEST PIECE Figure 2.20—Diagram of a Pulse-Echo Flaw Detector not all, details of the dis: terns, see Figure 2.23, matinuity will have been established. For scanning pat: There are a variety of sound waves. In UT work, longitudinal (or compression) ~ used, as shown in Figure 2.19. These waves are used to check for lami- nations, particularly those adjacent to welds, before examining the weld itself, This later utilizes shear waves, transmitted from an angle probe. Such a trans- ducer is shown in Figure 2.22. Other angles used include 60° and 70°, wavesAWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #2—NDE of Welds and Welding REAR ‘SURFACE ECHO MAIN BANG Figure 2.21—UT Cathode Display Tube Display TRANSMITTED BEAM ——e- 45° ANGLED TRANSOUCER, RETURN ECHO — ie ZL Va ‘COUPLANT INTERNAL DEFECT Figure 2.22—Angle Transducer in Use For longitudinal discontinuities, movements A. B and C are combined as a single scanning pattern, Pattern E is usual co search for transverse discontinuities. The angle e is 15° maximum, With moverient C,¢ is 1/2 the transduced width. How- ever, ifthe weld is ground flush, pattern D is used. Where possibl ed out from both sides of the weld, With the exception of pattern D, searches are symmetrical about the weld axis. testing is car- 2.202.6 Summary of Weld NDE Methods ‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #2—NDE of Welds and Welding WELD AXIS: ii WELD AXIS i MOVEMENT C Eo PATTERN O Figure 2.23—Searc! Liquid Penetrant Applicati pores, surface slag, incom fh Patterns, UT Weld Examinations ins: Weld discontinuities open to the surface cracks, undercut, surface jete fusion, incomplete penetration of finished welds and during backgouging Advantages: Portable with consumables only required; electrical power only for visibility; economical; eas ‘on completion of test Limitations: Discontinuities m grease, oil, paint, etc., could y to interpret results: result immediately available nust be open to the surface; surface films such as mask indications; no direct permanent record of test; dwell time can be significant, test area temperature to be < 250°F, unless special PT materials are used.AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #2—NDE of Welds and Weldi 2. Magnetic Particle + Applications: Weld discontiauities open to the surface cracks, undercut, surface Pores, surface slag, incomplete fusion, incomplete penetration of finished welds and during backgouging: neat surface crack-like discontinuities. + Advantages: Portable, permanent magnet version needs no electrical power except for visibility; economical; easy to interpret results; result immediately available on completion of test + Limitations: Only for ferromagnetic materials; discontinuities must generally be open to the surface; no direct permanent record of test; may require post-test demagnetization; may require post test cleaning. Radiography + Applications: Discontinuities parallel to radiation beam particularly gaseous and solid inclusions; incomplete penetration of double-sided welds, + Advantages: Direct, permanent record of result; most discontinuities readily identified. + Limitations: Hazards associated with X-rays, gamma rays; requires consider- able ancillary equipment, such as dosimeters, films, screens, lead ID letters, and numbers, IQs; area must be cleared of personnel; requires access to both. sides of joint; may require skilled interpreter; results not immediately available; discontinuity depth difficulties possible. 4. Ultrasonic + Applications: Subsurface discontinuities of all types and of any orientation. + Advantages: Truly volumetcic test: no upper thickness limitation; precise deter- mination of discontinuity type, size and position in joint possible + Limitations: Not suitable for thin materials: requires highly skilled operator; no direct, permanent record except using special equipment; requires suitable cou- plant; metals with large sized grains are a problem.MODULE #3—WELD DISCONTINUITIES 3.0 Aims of Module #3 3.1 Introduction to Module #3 The aims of Module #3 are: + To review weld (and related) discontinuities; + To consider how discontinuities are formed; + To comment on the potential severity and influence of discontinuities on weldments Weld discontinuities (a discontinuity is any change or interruption to the unifor- rity of an object) are an ever-present possibility with welding. While most dis- continuities detract in some way from member cross section, this loss is usually not the main concer, Rather, the stress concentration associated with the presence of a discontinuity is customarily the dominant factor. It is from this perspective that discontinuity influence is considered. ‘A.common mis-impression of persons outside the industry (and some within) is that welding is unreliable. Further, that welders are prone to producing defective work. Nothing could be further from the truth. This idea completely overlooks the nillions of pounds of weld metal deposited properly each year. Thousands of welds are made every day, with a very small percentage of defective product. The factors determining welded joint imegrity are \yay 1. Weldment and joint design 2. Base metal and filler metal selection 3. Joint preparation, positioning, set up 4, Weld procedure adequacy and observance Welder skill The determinants of discontinuity significance can be shown to depend on the fol- Jowing factors: L._ Linearity (ratio of largest and least dimensions) 2. End condition (or sharpness). A linear discontinuity is a discontinuity of length > 3 times its width. Gas pores tend to be round and thus non-linear. This contrasts with cracks, typically of greater length chan in any other dimension and with a sharp end condition. Gas pores are rounded and so present a large angle (to any propagating force). A crack, BHAWS Visual Inspection Workshop ‘Module #3—Weld O'scontinutties fon the other hand, has a very small angle at its tip. These factors, taken together, lead to the following general order of potential discontinuity severity: Most severe Cracks see 3.2 L Incomplete fusion see3.3 L Inadequate penetration see3.4 L Solid inclusions see 3.5 Least severe Gaseous inclusions see 3.6 ‘Varying sever Shape discontinuities see3.7 Miscellaneous discontinuities see 3.8 Figure 3.1—Weld and Weld-Related Discontinuities 3.2 Cracks and Cracks develop when the applied load in a given area exceeds the locat strength of Cracking the metal. The extent and consequences of cracking are largely de factors, namely: 1. The load, its magnitude (and application mode)[AWS Visual Inspection Workshop ‘Module #3—Weld Discontinuities 2, The mechanical properties of the material (grain type or size) in the area of load application. With welding, the heating and cooling of the weld area alone are sufficient, in ‘many cases, to supply a load. This can well be exacerbated by local stress concen- tration, which, in turn, may develop as a result of joint design or even the shape of the joint. Ievespective of any other factors, with welding there is always some form of load available, ‘The mechanical properties of a metal are affected by welding, A prime concern is the cooling rate in the weld area. As the cooling rate increases, carbon steel tends, to lose its toughness and ductility. Consequently, its ability to bear load without failure may be reduced. Stated another way, metal that has been welded becomes potentially susceptible to failure under adverse circumstances. For carbon steels, especially those exhibiting high strength, an additional factor, that of hydrogen, must also be considered. Molten metals have great affinity for ‘gases. In the welding process, a considerable amount of all the gases in the arc area may be absorbed into the weld pool. This is shown in Figure 3.2. FILLER WIRE, FUSION LINE DILUTION Figure 3.2—Weld Area at Time of Weld Formation 43‘AWS Visual inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinutties In the normal course of events, the gases drawn into the molten weld pool are expelled as solidification proceeds. Expulsion takes place in all directions. Hydrogen, because it has a very small atom, may migrate to the heated, but now solid, edges of the weld area, Being stil! mobile, the entrapped hydrogen moves in all directions; including into the metal affected (but not melted) by the welding heat, known as the eatatfected zone (HAZ). For carbon steels, the simultaneous presence of the three factors listed below can result in a form of cracking referred to as underbead, or delayed, cracking: + Presence of hydrogen in HAZ + Residual stress + HAZ hardness >R.30 3:24 Cracks—Hot Cracking There are two broad categories of cracks, based on the stage in the welding cycle when cracking occurs, Hot cracks typically occur in the weld metal, at or near the time of solidification. In most cases, this type of occurrence is more correctly described as a fear rather than a crack. As the weld metal solidifies from the outer edges towards the center, the metal is cooling and contracting. Circumstances may develop to preclude the solidifying weld metal joining together in the center of the weld. When the weld pool is deep and narrow (depth exceeding width) there is risk of hot crack development. In Figure 3.3, a throat crack, also known as a centerline crack, longitudinal crack, or solidification crack is seen. The root crack may also develop from the same factors. The crater crack or star crack derives from simitar conditions. At the time of welding, insufficient liquid metal was available, so the Jast metal to solidify was tom apart as cooling proceeded There are other sources of hot cracks. Impurities in the weld metal may give rise to the presence of liquid films. These may impede joining of the solidifying weld metal along the weld center line. Sulfur or phosphorus in excess of 0.06% can cause cracking of this type, particularly if the manganese content of the weld metal is low. With certain steels, such as chrome-moly types, cracking based on tiquid file presence may occur during or following heat treatment. This is known as liqua- tion or reheat cracking. itis for this reason that specifications frequently call for a further inspection, often with MT, for weldments subjected to post-weld heat treatment. In addition to the sites mentioned above, liguid film cracking may occur at the toes of welds.AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontiquities Figure 3.3—Cracks in Weld Metal Hot cracks usvally break the surface, and are detected by visual examination. Where cracks are suspected, MT or PT will identify even tight cracks. Crater cracks are caused by improper weld termination technique, a matter that can be readily comected by additional welder training, The most common cause of throat cracking is restraint. Smaller wetd beads, with added preheat if required, will often overcome the problem, As already noted, weld pool width-to-depth ratio should be greater than one, Another cause of hot cracking may be off-analysis steel. In such cases, reduce the percentage of base metal melted (as a function of total weld metal) to reduce the weld metal ditution (see Figure 5.1 for percent dilution). 3.2b Cracks—Cold Cracking Cold cracks typically develop at or near ambient temperature, certainly below the lower transformation (A,) temperature, Cold cracks may be considered a metal- lurgical occurrence. The principal factors generally involved when cold cracking occurs reduce to! 1, Weldability of the base metal 2, Suitability of the welding procedure. It should be noted that while in the case of certain hot cracks, welder skill may be involved, with cold cracks welder skill is rarely a consideration. The problem stems from design or supervision, or both. as[AWS Visual inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinuities Cold cracks may break the surface, such as with the transverse crack, as in Figure 3.4, However, in general, cold cracks are subsurface and thus not readily detect- able during visual inspection. Rather, the welding inspector's principal activity with cold cracking is usually associated with its repair. Figure 3.4—Weld and Base Metal Crack When cold cracking is detected, most codes require the crack site to be excavated, forming a boat-shaped cavity which extends over the full depth of the crack. The length of the excavation is typically required to extend beyond the identified lim- its of cracking by a certain amount. In AWS DL.1, this is 2 in. beyond each end of the crack linear extremities. Numerous types of cold cracks are reviewed in welding literature. Heat-affected Zone cracks and underbead cracks are just two of the many types which are described by their direction, by their appearance, and at tines by the position of their occurrence (see Figure 3.5). However, the common factor is the stage at which cracks develop: at or below the transformation temperature. (The term M, denotes the ternperature at which certain microstructural changes occur.) Another type of cold crack is delaved cracking—cracks that only develop some time after the weldment cools to ambient temperature. Certain alloy steels, for instance, the quenched and tempered steels such as ASTM ASI4 and ASI7, are prone 10 this problem. For this reason, many codes require examination of such, ‘weldments after a delay of up to 4 days3.3 Incomplete Fusion AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinuities Figure 3.5—Cold Cracks Hydrogen is often involved in cold cracking, and for this reason welding of all alloy steels should always be carried out with low-hydrogen consumables and using the appropriate techniques in all relevant areas. In particular, careful controt ‘of welding heat input and joint restraint are vital to crack-free welding, Incomplete fusion is a significant welding problem. It has linearity and end condi- tion. It develops when molten weld metal flows over unmelted base metal or adja- cent weld beads, Incomplete fusion is found in one or more of the following locations: 1. At the joint oot, known as incomplete root fusion 2. Between weld beads, known as incomplete inter-run fusion Between weld bead and weld groove, known as incomplete sidewall fusion 4, Between weld metal and base metal, known as overroll or overlap. Incomplete joint penetration or incomplete fusion is common with T-joints with both fillet and groove welds adjacent to the joint root, Electrode size or improper manipulation, or both, are primary causes. With incomplete joint pene- tration in groove welds, the cause is usually improper electrode manipulation. 30[AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinuties Incomplete interrun fusion and incomplete sidewall fusion are shown in Figure 3.6. Again, improper electrode manipulation is the primary cause. This may be exacerbated by improper placement of weld beads. This restricts access and does ‘not permit the arc to impinge upon and melt all the base metal on which the weld pass is being made. INCOMPLETE FUSION INCOMPLETE FUSION Figure 3.6—Incomplete Fusion in Various Locations Overlap results from molten weld metal Mowing over unmelted base metal. This is potentially a problem with all types of semi-automatic and automatic welding. When more molten filler metal is available than can be contained within the area of molten base metal, overlap results. With this type of discontinuity, electrode ‘manipulation and travel speed are the key factors. Unusual weld profile shape often indicates that overlapping has occurred Overlap occurs if molten weld metal flows out of the weld on to unmelted base metal. Overroll is conimon in out-of-position groove and fillet welds. Overlap and overroll are the only types of incomplete fusion that may normally be detected by visual examination. Other types of incomplete fusion are usually found only by a subsurface examination such as RT or UT. However, even these techniques have only limited reliability as the orientation of the incomplete fusion may be unfavorable for detection by radiography and the ultrasonic echo may be lost amid other echoes. This is @ particular problem with the examination of fillet welds for depth of penetration, In-process inspection of weld bead placement allows potential problem areas to be identified, and corrected, if necessary. The arc must be able to “see” and be closest to the area of the base metal/weld metal that the next weld bead will occupy when deposited, The arc takes the shortest path from electrode to the weld area. An assessment should be made before weld ran placement. As mentioned, examina- tion after the event is too late, even where a subsurface examination is specified. 383.4 Incomplete Joint Penetration AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinuities Welder awareness and welder skill upgrading provide the best rout ance of incomplete fusion. In-process welding inspection give of minimizing incomplete fusion. 0 the avoid: the best assurance Incomplete joint penetration results from utilizing an unsuitable welding proce: dure, Incomplete (or inadequate) penetration is differentiated from incomplete fusion by this consideration. In other terms, incomplete fusion results from improper or inappropriate manipulation of the electrode and is thus largely a welder-based problem. Incomplete penetration, on the other hand, stems either from the use of a welding procedure unsuited to the work in hand or from the non: of key provisions of an otherwise suitable welding procedure. observan Figure 3.7 shows the general form of the discontinuity. In some respects, it is sim- ilar to incomplete fusion; but it may not have the same ability to concentr stress. {Cis for this reason that incomplete penetration is considered less serious. ever, it should be pointed out that most codes prohibit either discontinuity in .ount. End condition and linearity are always the determinants Figure 3.7—Incomplete Joint Penetration In most fabr inspection. For joints welded from both sides, i identified during backgor n work, incomplete penetration is readily detected by visual mplete penetration should be ing A notable exception to this rule is where small-diameter pipe and tube work are concerned. Unless itis possible to view the back of a joint, directly or by bores- cope, the discontinuity can only be detected by a subsurface examination. How- ever, in contrast to incomplete fusion, incomplete penetration is usually readily discerned on radiographs and by UT echo. The radiographic image is typically clearly defined with both edges sharp, as seen in Figure 3.7, 39AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinuities 3.5 Solid Inclusions In the case of small-diameter pipe and tube work, repair typically involves com- plete removal of the weld, In the case of groove joints welded from both sides, the weld on one side must be removed. Repair of incomplete penetration where the back of the weld is accessible presents litde problem, Backgouging is the only preparation necessary, but its thorough- ness should be checked by MT ot PT to ensure that the discontinuity has been eliminated. The term solid inclusion embraces a variety of solid matter trapped in the molten weld metal and remaining within the solidified weld metal at the time of examina- tion. Inclusions fall into three groups: oxide inclusions, metallic inclusions, and slag inclusions, with the latter most common (see Figure 3.8). Inclusions are con- sidered to be less severe than the discontinuities considered above. The end condi- jon is rounded and the linearity is less pronounced Figure 3.8—Slag Inclusions With non-ferrous metals, oxide inclusions can represent a problem area, while in the case of the ferrous metals, oxide inclusions are not a significant factor. Iron ‘and its alloys of steel melt at temperatures considerably above the melting temper- ature of the main oxides of iron, namely ferrous oxide and ferric oxide. It és this property that enables carbon and many alloy steels to be cut by burning in the rapid oxidization of flame cutting, Apart from metallic objects deliberately placed within a weld, such as weld rod stubs and sometimes spatter, the only significant metallic inclusions normally encountered in welding are tungsten and, to some extent, copper. Tungsten drop- lets may leave the electrode in both Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) and Plasma Are Welding (PAW), and become embedded in the weld metal. For rea- sons not well understood, tungsten inclusions do not appear to exercise any signif icant effect on weld properties, even in instances of fatigue loading. Thus most codes allow considerable latitude with this type of discontiauity. Similar remarks are generally applicable to copper inclusions in welds. 3-103.6 Gaseous Inclusions (Porosity) [AWS Visual Inspection Workshop ‘Module #3-—Weld Discontinuties Slag is the term describing all types of non-metallic inclusions that occur in weld metal. Except for surface inclusions, slag inclusions are only detectable by a sub- surface examination. Slag is readily discemible on radiographs. Slag inclusions generally result from improper electrode manipulation, Part of welder skill is con- fining slag to the rear of the weld pool as the slag rises therein. Slag in front of the electrode can be trapped, becoming an inclusion. Slag inclusions may also result from wide weaving. Another type of slag inclusion is “wagon tracks.” In making the weld root pass, sidewall undercutting may occur. To achieve penetration, without excess, the rate of travel is increased. The groove sides are melted, but insufficient metal is avail- able 10 completely fill the groove. Slag acts to cover any sidewall undercut. Even if thoroughly cleaned of slag, a type of incomplete fusion will result during the next weld run, which leads to either slag entrapment or a void along one or both sides of the weld, hence the term, wagon tracks. Most codes permit a certain size and number of slag inclusions to remain unre- paired. As the stress concentration ability is not great and the end condition is usu- ally rounded, many codes consider slag more from the point of view of section Joss. Under such conditions, repair is only mandated in cases of gross excess, which often indicates a poor weld. |As discussed above (see Cracks and Cracking), the molten weld pool dissolves and takes considerable amounts of gas into solution. Most, if not all, of these ‘gases come out of solution and are expelled into the atmosphere as the weld metal cools, Gases remaining after solidification will form pores, worm holes or piping (the three basic types). These discontinuities are collectively known as porosity: Fast freezing weld metal and incorrect or improper electrode manipulation are the primary causes of porosity. AC the instant a consumable electrode arc is struck, no shielding is available, Thus the first metal deposited will contain pores, due to fast freezing. This dictates a particular method to commence consumable electrode welding, the weld start technique. The asc should be struck 1/2 in. downstream on the weld axis and quickly moved to the intended starting position as the arc stabi- lizes. At that paint, nonmal welding should commence, As the arc moves over the previously deposited (but porous) weld metal, it is remelted and the entrapped gases are able to escape, along with such gases as are taken into the molten weld pool, as is normal. If a weld bead is characterized by raised bumps at the stop-start positions, grinding the cap off the bump will often reveal starting porosity Holding the face of the weld pool open and not allowing the slag to ran over mol- ten metal and seat in the gases, greatly facilitates gas escape for the production of porosity-free welds. AlAWS Visual inspection Worksnop Module #3—Weld Discontinuities 3.7 Shape Discontinuities Porosity assumes a number of forms, and the occurrences are named for the appearance, most of which are self-explanatory. Single or “isolated” pores, uni- formly and non-uniformly scattered porosity, staring porosity, linear or longitudi- fal porosity are examples. In addition, there are what may be termed special event Porosity, porosity that arises from a specific cause. The most common are pores caused by lack of cleanliness. Some scale remains on the line of welding, Arc heat melts and decomposes it into iron, oxygen and water vapor (such oxides are usually hydrated). These gases, plus those already present in the weld pool, are unable to escape as the weld pool solidifies, resulting in cluster porosity. Pores may be elongated to some extent in the welding direction. When the rate of gas escape is matched by the rate of solidification of the weld metal, elongated pores result, sometimes known as worm holes or vermicular porosity. Such porosity may be as shown in Figure 3.9. Alternatively, individual worm holes with tails may form, Another possibility is a gas bubble moving lin- early along the weld to form a longitudinal pipe. AA vertical pipe, on the other hand, forms when molten metal in a subsequent weld pass is deposited over weld metal having a pore which is open on the surface, The air therein expands and forces a path through the molten metal of later passes. Shape refers to the weld profile (in cross section), The most significant feature of weld shape is the angle between the base metal and the weld. As this angle increases, the stress concentration increases Figure 3.10 illustrates the significance of the weld reinforcement angle with respect to the load carrying capacity of the joint operating in conditions of cyclic loading, The load capacity of fillet welds, is based on the weld throat. In fatigue loading. it is also a function of the angle the weld makes with the base metal. For this reason, specified limits of shape are laid down in codes applicable to welding. The dia- grams in Figure 3.11, show typical requirements for both fillet and groove weld shape. It is possible to have more than one shape discontinuity present in a single weld, for example, undercut and insufficient throat The diagrams in Figure 3.12 are from the AWS DI.1, Structural Welding Code— Steel. The limits of convexity C for fitlet welds are as shown below. 5/16 in. leg (16 in, (1.6 mm) > SI16 in, ~< Lin, U8 in. (3.2 mm) and 2 1 in. 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) 3-12[AWS Visual Inspection Workshop ‘Module #3—Weld Discontinuities “ e © Figure 3.9—Porosity Types In the same code, the allowable weld reinforcement height R for butt joints is 1/8 in, (3.2 mm), irespective of the thickness of members joined. Notice that size under run is considered a shape discontinuity Shape discontinuities are associated with the manner in which welding is carried out. The opposite of the excessive reinforcement reviewed above is underfill, which gives rise to insufficient throat. In Figure 3.11, there are examples of this discontinuity at both the face and the root of a joint. Remedial steps are simple, except in the case where preheating was specified for the original welding, In all cases, restoration of under-filled joints requires welding,AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinuities 20] 18 16}. FATIQUE CRACK; PLAIN PLATE “ 2 FATIGUE STRENGTH UPPER LIMIT STRESS AT? x 108 CYCLES. TONS, IN? 80 0 0 20 ° REINFORCEMENT ANGLE, 0° Figure 3.10—Reinforcement Effect to be carried out using the original welding procedure or a specific repair proce- dure. Weld examination and testing should be as specified for the original welding. Possibly the most conunion shape discontinuity is undercut. As already discussed in connection with sidewall difficulties, undercut results from the non-availability of sufficient metal to completely fill the weld area melted by the arc heat. Figure 3.11 shows the two usual forms of undercut. While not a discontinuity that is entirely position sensitive, welds made in the horizontal pasition are most vulnerable An accompanying likelihood is that of overlap—a type of incomplete fusion as mentioned in 3.3. Liquid metal runs out of the weld pool and covers unmelted base metal. Notice in the diagram above, the fillet weld. Overlap is present at the weld toe of the horizontal member, as shown in Figure 3.12(c). This is not as readily evident as in the case of the groove joint, When undercut is present at one toe of a weld, it is prudent to search the area of the other toe to ensure overlapping or over rolling have not taken place. Both undercut and overlap are readily corrected. If shallow, that is, not of a depth in excess of the base metal thickness tolerance, it can be ground out to a shallow 3a3.8 Miscellaneous Discontinuities ‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop ‘Module &3—Weld Discontinutties — UNDERCUT UNDERCUT UNDERFIL, UNDEAFILL: OVERLAP, OverLA INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION Figure 3.11—Examples of Underfill and Undercut dish, If depth exceeds the thickness tolerance, undercut is repaired by welding. As ‘with all other corrective welding, it is to be carried out using the original proce- dure, For deep, narrow undercut, it may be beneficial to grind the undercut chan- nel to a more favorable shape for welding, 3.8a Welding-Caused Discontinuities Although welding involves both weld metal and base metal, there are distinct divisions between the two when it comes to a series of miscellaneous discontinui ties identified in connection with welded fabrication. Spatter and are strike, for instance, are clearly welding-caused discontinuities. Equally clear, laminations and cold laps are material discontinuities. Welding and materials are thus the basic divisions of this topic. Lamellar tearing, a combination of factors, represents yet a further type of discon- tinuity that does not fall into any of the preceding categories. Without welding, it would not have devetoped, On the other hand, there is no way lamellar tearing can be avoided by welding control methods, taken in isolation. Lamellar tearing will therefore be considered as a separate part of the topic under review. 3.15AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module €3—Weld Discontinuities (A) DESIRABLE FILLET WELD PROFILES (8) ACCEPTABLE FILLET WELD PROFILES. NOTE: CONVEXITY, C, OF A WELD OR INDIVIDUAL SURFACE BEAD WITH DIMENSION W SHALL NOT EXCEED THE VALUE OF THE FOLLOWING TABLE: WIDTH OF WELD FACE OR INDIVIDUAL SURFACE BEAD, W WE 5/16 In (8mm) Win. (18mm) W> 5118 in. TO W < 1 in, (25 mm) 118 in. (8 ram) we tin 16 in. (5 os) Oy Bs fesze-| bese! foze] foe] bse] b sve-| EXCESSIVE OVERLAP INSUFFICIENT INCOMPLETE FUSION INSUFFICIENT EXCESSIVE THROAT CONVEXITY. UNDERCUT Les (©) UNACCEPTABLE FILLET WELO PROFILES i A BUTT JoINT— EQUAL THICKNESS PLATE NOTE: AEINEORCEMENT R SHALL NOT EXCEEO 1/8 in (2 mm. S (0) ACCEPTABLE GROOVE WELD PROFILE IN BUTT JOINT BUTT JOINT (TRANSITION UNEQUAL THICKNESS PLATE 244, EXCESSIVE: INSUFFICIENT EXCESSIVE overLar CONVEXITY THROAT UNDERCUT (©) UNACCEPTABLE GROOVE WELD PROFILES IN BUTT JOINTS Figure 3.12—Acceptable (Conforming) and Unacceptable (Non-Conforming) Weld Shapes (AWS D1.1)AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinuities Spatter is a normal accompaniment of the consumable electrode welding pro- cesses. Typically, during transfer across the arc, not all the molten electrode stream is retained within the arc cone. Metal droplets are thus deposited on the base metal outside the weld area. Provided the droplets or spatter are small, such droplets will be removed during normal wire-brush cleaning of welds. However, if droplets of spatter exceed a specific size, relative to droptet volume and temper: ture, sufficient superheat will exist to cause at least partial welding of the spatter to the job. Apart from the difficulty of removal of such spatter, a situation analo- gous to arc strike (see below) may have developed. Apart from identification of the possible are strike condition, spatter removal serves a number of purposes. The composition of spatter is different (due to oxi- ization) from that of the base metal upon which it falls. This can cause preferen- tial corrosion. If the weld in the spattered area is to be examined by UT, spatter will prevent good coupling with the work piece. If spatter remains on work to be painted, it may be later dislodged, again with corrosion potential. Further, the spatter may mask discontinuities when the area is examined. The ease, or diffi- culty of spatter removal is often a guide as to the general weld quality. Are strike occurs when a live part of the welding circuit contacts the work piece in any area not to be melted during welding, This typically, but not exclusively, arises from accidental contact between electrode and work piece. The potential danger assoc 1m the possible consequences of the super-fast cooling rate experienced by the base metal a the point of arc strike. ted with arc strike comes fr Arc strikes are readily identified. Characteristics often include a small area of di coloration, with some shallow gouging and usually evidencing a drop of weld metal (that has melted during the occurrence) and often one or more gas pores. Potentially, microcracking may have also occurred as a result of the accelerated perienced by the area in question. ation consists of two stages (1) The area containing the are strike is ground out to produce a shallow dish, centered on the are strike, (2) The site of the are strike is examined visually and tested. This means conduct ing either MT or PT in the area. The aim of this testing is to ensure that no cracks remain in the area of the are strike, 3.8b Base Metal-Caused Discontinuities Metal plates and sections arriving from the supplier are normally inspected more for quantity than for quality. For this reason, certain base metal discontinuities may only become evident during fabrication, with laps and seams most com- monly encountered. During the rolling process, considerable movement of metal ard‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinuties takes place and a lap may form. In certain cireurnstances, such laps may become a seam. Both are evidenced as non-cohereat junctions or separations between other- wise sound metal. Laps and seams result from rolling practices The next base metal discontinuities to be considered concem lamination. There are two types of lamination that are caused by failure to fuse during rolling or that ‘caused by the metal’s composition or its processing, Considering only the latter, as shown in Figure 3.13, a lamination is a closed sepa- ration of metal on a plane parallel with the plate, stab or billet surface. Delamina- ‘ion occurs when a lamination physically separates as shown, LAMINATION DELAMINATION. Figure 3.13—Lamination and Delamination Manganese, an alloying element in steel, serves several functions. One is to com bine with and neutralize the effects of sulfur. Manganese sulfide, formed in this Process, exists as high-melting temperature beads within the metal, During roll- ing, these beads are flattened and dispersed within the body of the metal, How- ever, if their number is great and they aggregate on a common plane, a lamination ‘may result. The risk increases as metal thickness inereases. For joints at risk, UT scans readily identify such material. A tamination scan should always precede a weld UT examination Figure 3.14 illusteates a discontinuity known as lamellar tearing, Shrinkage ass0- ciated with cooling weld metal causes lamination-prone steel to teat. Lamellar tearing presents a step-like, wood-grained appearance when visually examined, In ‘many instances, there is no extemal evidence of the presence of lamellar tearing 3-18[AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #3—Weld Discontinulties until a failure under load takes place. As with other types of lamination, lamellar tearing is readily identified by UT. Joints applying tension in the through-thick- ness direction are vulnerable, Its thus prudent to take steps to avoid lamellar tear- ing when working with the thick materials that are most at risk. Corrective action often requires considerable rework or the replacement of material, Some avenue for design change exists with most comer joints \L Laminar TEARS LAMINAR TEARS. Figure 3.14—Examples of Lamellar TearingMODULE #4—WELDING CODES AND SPECIFICATIONS 4.0 Aims of Module #4 4.1 Introduction to Module #4 The aims of Module #4 are: + To consider the role of codes and specifications in respect to welding inspec- tion and the activities of welding inspectors + To review and practice a method for finding information and applicable requirements for the quality of welds and welding. Part B of the AWS Examination Book of Specifications is to be used as represen tative of all welding codes and specifications for the purposes of Module #4. The term code (or codes) is used herein to denote the applicable code, standard, speci- fication, or document(s) stipulating weld quality requirements. ‘The basis of inspection is that quality is conformance to specification. This means that welding inspection involves, on the one hand, finding what is required and on the other hand, comparing this with what has been produced. In actuality, welding inspectors are required to have a systematic method for reading and extracting information from cades and specifications, Supesticially, this does not appear to be a difficult task. Just read the applicable code and find whatever is needed to be known. However, this simplification over- looks some very important issues. Most codes are Long and complex and abound, with exceptions and special cases. Footnotes and asterisks are a feature of many pages and most tables. For accuracy and to determine requitements in the most effective manner, a systematic approach is essential. The balance of this module is devoted to out- lining and practicing a method to expeditiously obtain the required information from any code or specification. This is known as finding the (applicable) code references 4[AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specification 4.2 Finding Code References (1) In working with a code, it is essential to become familiar with its structure and layout, Has it a detailed index or only a table of contents? How are the contents grouped and what does each section, exhibit or appendix include? This informa- tion forms the basis of the method to find the required code references. The first step in finding code references is to convert the information sought into a question, For example: 1. Isthis welder qualified to fillet weld a T-joint if the angle between members is 45°? 2. What is the allowable undercut for joint A? 3, What is the maximum convexity for this fillet weld? ‘The second step is to identify in the question, the key terms or phrases likely to be found in the index or table of contents of the code in use. Taking question #1 above, the key terms would be welder qualification, followed by fillet welds. Significant, but of lower order, members at 45 degrees. In question #2 above, the key terms are the type of joint represented by joint A and undercut. In question #3 above, the key terms are fillet weld and meuximaumt convexity. The third step is to search the index or table of contents for the key terms. Remember, key terms selected may not exactly match the words of the code index or table of contents. So, keep possible altematives in mind. For instance, in AWS DILL, the term fir up is used extensively in the text but there are no references to this term in the index or table of contents. The term used is assembly ‘The fourth step is to find, and confirm, the reference for comparison with the job atiribute(s). 424.3 Part B, Examination Book of Specifications AWS Visual inspection Workshop Module #4—Weiding Codes and Specifications For the purposes of this workshop, the only code in use is Part B of the Examina- tion Book of Specifications for AWS Welding inspector Examination, For weld- ing inspection in general, only the documentation (such as codes or standards) specified in the purchase documents and agreed between buyer and seller, are applicable to a specific job. The tact that another code may be more commonly used, for whatever reason, is interesting, but totally irrelevant. To repeat, only the applicable documents are sig nificant in each specific case, While it may sometimes be beneficial to memorize portions of a code, on every occasion when a judgment is being made, refer to the code in use, Provisions change from time to time. Special circumstances may modify the memorized rules. ‘The front cover of the Code for this workshop is depicted on Page 4-2 (facing). ‘The lower portion of the page has the Table of Contents. On the left of the Table of Contents, the Roman numerals [ through XV identify the individual appendix dealing with a particular topic. In working with Part B, as it will be identified hereinafter, it is desirable to have a feel for the intent and scope of each appendix. In this manual, a copy of the whole or a part of each appendix in Part B will be shown on the even numbered pages. On the odd numbered pages, there is a review of the main provisions covered by the appendix. Unusual provisions or excep- tionat circumstances are noted, and comment is given to draw attention to these items. 43‘Avis visual inspection worKsnog Module #4—Welding Codes and Speci EXAMINATION BOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS | ; Cee Reel ol aa WELDING INSPECTOR EXAMINATION Part B “EXAMINATION BOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS . Weld Procedure Qualification Test Record 1 I. Welder and Weiding Operator Qualification Test Record 2 Ml. Prequalified Complete Joint Penetration Groove Welded Joints 3 IV. Pipe Schedules 4 V. Weld Profile Acceptance Chart 5 VI Weld Profile Acceptance Description 6 Vil. Quality of Weld Visuat Requirements 7 Vill. Test Results Required, Guided Bends 8 1X. Welder Metal Analysis 9 X. Electrode Groups 10 Xi. Weider Quatification Test Requirements 11 Xl. Fillet Procedure Qualification Requirements 13 XIIl_ Butt Procedure Qualification Requirements 14 XIV. Matching Filler Metal & Strengths 1s XV. Minimum Preheat and Interpass Temperature 18 44‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Madute #4—Welsing Codes and Spectications Appendix Lis the form used as a record in welding procedure quatification testing, Appendix II is the form used as a record in welder qualification testing, Appendix III deals with the requirements for prequalified joints ‘An exception is Appendix IV, Pipe Schedules. Being simply a table of dimen- sions and weights, it is unnecessary to go beyond the general comment that the footnotes (dealing, in this instance with UPPFR FIGURES and LOWER FIGURES) should be given due attention. In addition, the abbreviation sro, refers to standard weight and £41, refers to extra heavy weight Appendix V is a chart of weld profite acceptability. Appendix VI amplifies and codifies Appendix V, ‘Appendix VIL lays down the requirements for visually inspected welds, Appendix VIII deals with the requirements for and the results required for guided bend test specimens. Appendix IX lists the A-numbers for weld metal analyses used in procedure qualification. Appendix X lists F-numbers for electrodes and welding rods for procedure and performance qualification. Appendix XI is a table setting out welder qualification test requirements for type of test and position, Appendix XII is a table showing the requirements for fillet weld (procedure) qualification, Appendix XI1L is analogous to the previous table and covers the requirements for butt welding procedure qualification, Appendix X1V is a table showing base metal and matching filler metals, each with, strength data, Appendix XV is a table setting out the prefieat and interpass temperature require ments for welding specific groups and thicknesses of base metals 45‘Aws visual inspecton worksnop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specitication WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TEST RECORD PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION GROOVE WELD TEST RESULTS. Tensile svengin. psi ®. 2 @ Guided-bend tests (2 root, 2 taces, or ¢ side-bend) Material speciteation Welang process Manual or machine Postion of wolang Fier metal speciteation Filer metal cassticaton Root Face Weld metal grace” : e 1 Shetding gas ano aeee eee ‘Single oF multiple pass Single oF mutipie arc Radiogrephic-ulteasonic examination Welding curert ® " 3 CO rept no @ Welding progression AT ep no) —____.__ Preheat temperature ® i ee eee Postneat treatment FILLET WELD TEST RESULTS Welder’s name ® “Applicable when filer metal has no AWS classiication. Minimum size muliple pass Maximum size single pass Macroetch Macroeich VISUAL INSPECTION (APPENDIX Vil) Appearance 8 Undercut eS Piping porosity 2 Tensie strength, psi Yield poinusirengin. os! a, Test date Elongation in 2 in., % _———$—— Witnessed by —— eee ee eee ee WELDING PROCEDURE tension test e\e Welaing current pass] Elecuoce Speed of r0.| size | Ampees | vats ‘ravel Joint cetait e| @ @ 6 @ 8 We. the undersigned. cerity tnat the statements in this record are correct Procedure no, B___anutacturer or contactor 8 Reision no @ Atuthorzed by —_ @ 7 Coe ome4.4 Part B, Appendix | AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Speciications As noted in the overview, Appendix I and Appendix Il are forms used to record, respectively, welding procedure and welder performance qualification welding variables and the results of tests. While in general, each field heading is self-explanatory, some amplification is appropriate in certain instances. Appendix I is considered below: In field [1] the Material Specification is amplified by a reference to the base metal ‘eroup t0 which the base metal used belongs. The base metal group will be found in Appendix XLV. The purpose of including the group is to ensure the scope of the procedure is as wide as possible, within the limitation of the code. ‘As a general principle, codes do not require procedure qualification tests to be car- ried out on each and every metal. Those metals exhibiting a similar reaction to welding are grouped so that qualification using one metal of the group qualifies all metals of the same group for the procedure qualified, There may be limitations with the higher strength metals. Field {4], Position of Welding, is a variable in some codes, not in others. As a gen eral principle, however, each field of a welding form must have a response. Not all fields of a form are applicable in every case. Where this applies, the response should be “N/A” or “Ioapplicable,” with explanation if necessary. Empty fields and strike outs are rarely valid responses, Field (7) is applicable only when the filler metal does nat have a recognized AWS classification in accordance with the applicable filler metal specification. In such cases, it must be identified with one of the metals shown in Appendix [X. Field [13], Progression, is only applicable for vertical welding and the response choice is either uphill or downhill. Upwards and downwards are non-preferred tenns In field (14], Preheat Temperature, the response is a single temperature, the mini- mum, or a range defining the upper and lower temperature limits to be maintained throughout welding. Of the fields on the right hand side of Appendix I, the response for the Guided Bend Tests fields would be conforming (or non-conforming) in respect to the requirements of Appendix VIL [immediately under the heading FILLET WELD TEST RESULTS, it will be noticed that the minimum size multiple pass fillet weld and the maximum size sin- gle pass fillet weld are required to be tested by macroetching, This involves sec- tioning the test coupon(s) through the weld, followed by light polishing and etching with a suitable reagent such as 5% nitric acid in alcohol (NITAL). The pur- pose is to ensure full fusion of the weld metal up to, but not necessarily beyond, the joint root. ar[AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specification APPENDIX I WELDER AND WELDING OPERATOR QUALIFICATION TEST RECORD Weldor or welding operator's name © _______ Identification no. © Welding prooses Q. ‘Manual © Semiautomatic __@__ Machine _@. Postion @ a = (Flat, horizontal, overnead or verical — if varical, stale whether upward or downward) In accordance with procedure spectication no. ® Material specification Diameter and wal thickness (i pipe Thickness range this quaifies ‘otherwise, joint thickness FILLER METAL Spesicaton ro o Ciupsitcaton__@ no, _@ Deserbe filer mea tact covered by AWS wpecicaiony BS is backing snp used? ————————— Filer metal diameter and trade name Flak fr submeigad ae 6 gas fr gas geal a Or tax en | Bieeeeee cee cee ees! cored are walding — VISUAL INSPECTION (APPENDIX Vil) Appearance ® Undereut Piping porostiy Guided Bond Test Results Type Resutt Type Resutt 8 8 @ ® 8 ® ® @ Test conducted by S Lavoratory test no. per Test cate a a Fillet Tost Roautte ‘Appearance eG een par gira @ Fracture test root penetration Macroetch B_ (Describe the locaton, nature, and size of any crack or teaving of tne spacimen } Test conducted by. Laboratory test no, —_@ per = Test dae RADIOGRAPHIC TEST RESULTS Fim Fara identi Asus Remarks ‘der Results Remarks ‘eatin ‘cation e 8 @ 6 ® 6 e 6 8 @ 8 @ Test witnessed by @ Se a ee) a We, the undersigned, certly that the statements in this record ara correct, Manutacturer or contractor BO Authorized by —_ @ ta 6‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshoo Module #4—Welding Codes and Specifications In Appendix II, fields [4], [5], and [6] refer to welding terminology. Manuat welding is where the welder guides, feeds and manipulates the electrode, as in SMAW or non-mechanized GTAW. Semiautomatic welding refers to processes where the electrode is mechanically fed while guidance, and traverse manipula- tion of the arc are the responsibilities of the welder. Typical of semiautomatic welding are GMAW and FCAW. It is possible to operate SAW in a semiautomatic mode. Machine (field (6)) refers to welding cartied out where all the functions of weld- ing are mechanized. SAW in normal operation (sometimes referred to as auto- matic welding), mechanized GMAW and GTAW are examples of machine welding, In field [7], Position, the recognized position of welding is given. An additional note mentions the welding progression (if vertical), using the non-preferred terms noted above. ‘The required responses for the remaining fields are all self-evident. 49AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specification APPENDIX II Prequalified complete joint penetration groove welded joints Root opening a Permaes | ieiing weisiog | sot (us ntimiees) | “Root face | —Arseaiied ] —Arfitup | welding | "tor process_| designation Ty [ral sroove ona positon | (eCAW) | Notes wow] sineo | nena suaw | aur v =| ff ore} rie-o | Nottimias | an - fon snee no ay Reowve | +1160 woe | ac, oman | eure v =] floste | tie=3 ai | vesies | AE ow ize] | | asso | saw | etzes | overtwe tira] - Oo . = few } over 1/2102 | = | Note ¢: Gouge root of joint etore welding the second 3:0, Note N:_ The eriantation ofthe two members inthe joints may vay rom 135 deg to 180 deg proviged that the basi Joint Contiguration (groove angle root face, root apering) romain te name and that the Sanign throat thoknean ie maintained, Note a: For comer and T-jeints the member orientation may Se changed provided he groove angle maintained aa epectheg ws Tolerant Tv = woising | doint |= untienat Roar T - procees_| eeignation a 7 | moe Reve T aa suaw | eure Gee (rs 9 N ouaw RE ane 3230" EN.OK_| Requires | AN gman | g.uaacr v . A= 230" Fv.0H | Notes [AN Saw ets | ae aie aan saw | eurs v 7 7 an lia Note A” Not proqualiiog for ges metal are welding using shor crculing Wan Note G: Gouge raot to aaund metal Delors welding ancond ade, Now J. iis wos are wie in pucings 10 rentoree groove wes coed Tp Ney sal be eal © V4, But W747, But not more nan 378 I “ fonnim ones “= Nota Ni The ovsatation of ha twa members in the joints may vary tram 195 deg to 180 deg provided thatthe ‘oot openingt remain ine samme and tha! the Gesign throal eerste 4-1045 Prequalified CJP Groove Welded Joints Appen ‘AWS Visual inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specifications AA prequalified joint is one that has been proved will serve its intended purpose 1out having to be requalified by mechanical testing. Needless to say, there are numerous restrictions applicable to this type of procedure. Typically, only speci- fied processes may be used. As with procedures qualified by testing, other limita- tions apply. This will be specific for each code. In cerms of Part B, an unbacked joint designated B-U2 and a backed joint, B-U2a are to be considered. The symbols used in the Joint Designation are given in the boxes at the upper left of each diagram, The letter S means submerged arc welding, (SAW). The letters GF mean GMAW and FCAW. Where no suffix letter is given, it means the procedure is for SMAW. Lower case letters mean a variation of the basic joint. In this instance, the vari tion is between the unbacked version (B-U2) and the backed version (B-U2a). The letter U means the procedures have no thickness limitations (from U for unlim- ited, as shown). The other possibilities are L for limited thickness and P for partial penetration joimt. Considering joint designation B-U2, the specified joint dimensions are shown in the left column under “Groove preparation”, It is seen that some dimensions are given as a single value, others as a range. For the purposes of this workshop. where the term max. meaning maximum is given, this signifies a range from zero (0) to the dimension stated, Moving to the next principal heading, “Permitted welding positions” some varia tions are evident between the respective joints. In the case of B-U2, only when welding with SAW is the procedure restricted to the flat (F) position. For the other joint, B-U2a, it is seen that except for SMAW with /4 in, root opening and a groove angle ot of 45°, all other forms are positionally restricted. The second to last principal heading deals with Gas Shielding for FCAW. In instances where itis requited, it means that only FCAW electrode wires suitable for gas shielding are to be used—in this case, for B-U2a-GF with a 3/16 in. root ‘opening R and a groove angle ct of 30°. The last principal heading “Notes” refers to the footnotes accompanying each joint. For all B-U2 joints, backgouging is required by Note C. Note N is common throughout and refers to allowable joint member orientation, Where GMAW is to be used, Note A indicates that welding is to be carried out in other than the shor. circuiting transfer mode. The final items for consideration is that of tolerances. For a variety of well under- stood reasons, all engineering dimensions have a finite accuracy. By way of com- pensation, tolerances are allowed because of the impossibility of maintaining absolute precision, Tn the present instances, the tolerances are given within the body of the table in the first case while in the second case, the tolerances are found in a box in the upper right hand comer.‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Weiding Codes and Specification APPENDIX V Weld Profile Acceptance Chart (8) ACCEPTABLE FILET WELO PROFILES (A) DESIRABLE FILLET WELD PRORLES NOTE: CONVEDCTY,¢, OF A WELD OF INOWIOUAL SURFACE BEAD WITH DIMENSION W SHALL NOT EXCEED ‘THE VALUE OF THE FOLLOWING TABLE woot} OF Weta FACE OR !NONIOUAL SURFACE BEAD, W We wba (@mm) W>s5i18in. TOW <1, (5 mem) BB &d ms, fs Bon in Bs = beer] Lowe] bore] ace] Wisin. (4.8 men) 178 1G mm) ___Msiesmm | swe INSUFFICIENT EXCESSIVE EXCESSIVE OVERLAP_—_INSUFFICIENT INCOMPLETE THROAT CONVEXITY UNDER tes FUSION (O) UNACCEPTABLE FILLET WELD PRonILES a BUTT JOWT TRANSITION — EQUAL TSKRESS PLATE UNEQUAL THICKNESS PLATE NOTE: REINFORCEMENT A SHALL NOT EXCEED 118 (2mm). SEE 5 244, (©) ACCEPTABLE GROOVE WELD PROALE IN BUTT JOINT Let (Bs CEs CBS excessive INSUFFICIENT excessive OvERLAP THROAT ENFORCEMENT UNDERCUT (© UNACCEPTABLE GROOVE WELD PROFILES IN BUTT JOWNTS.46 Weld/Test Quality Criteria— Appendix V, V1, Vil, and VII AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specifications ‘Two types of tolerance are seen. As detailed means as it appears on the working drawings, which in tum means that it has been approved by the designer or responsible engineer. As fit up means as the joint is assembled for welding. The role of the welding inspector covers: 1. Verification that prequalified procedure dimensions, as drawn, are within the dimensional range, as detailed. 2, Welding inspectors are required to verify that joints as assembled and ready for welding meet the dimensional requirements, as fit up. For this workshop, tolerances are applied to the basic joint dimensions in either case, Needless to say, negative tolerances cannot be applied to a zero dimension. Although the input is different, the ranges of root opening for B-U2 are the same. 4.6.1 Appen Vand Appendix VI Appendix V and Appendix VI detail the requirements for weld profiles. An exam- ination of Appendix V shows a clear distinction between fillet welds and groove welds. For fillet welds the term convexity, C, denotes what in groove welds is termed as reinforcement, R. It will also be noticed that Appendix V and Figure 3.12, although similar, are not the same, The allowable convexity in Appendix V is a function of the bead width, or weld width, as applicable. As an equation, maximum allowable convexity C = (0.07 x W) + 0.06. As shown in Figure 3.12, a fillet weld resembles a right angle isosceles triangle. For this type of triangle, the hypotenuse (W) equals the square root of the sum of the squares of the two equal legs (size). For a 1/2 in. fillet weld, weld size = 0.5 in., and W (the hypotenuse) = 0.25 + 0.25 = JOS = 0,707. The maximum con- vexity (0.07 x 0.707) + 0.06 = 0.049 + 0,06 = 0.11 in. Apart from demonstrating the use of Appendix V in the case of fillet welds, the comparison dramatically shows how two apparenily similar codes can differ on a fundamental point Appendix VI is a written description of Appendix V. Paragraph 2 contains very important information about the surface of groove welds. Notice that base metal thinning is limited to 1/32 in, or $% of the base metal thickness, whichever is smaller. Notice also that grinding is to be used to finish welds and adjacent parent metal. Finally, notice the requirements for the direction of grinding as a function of the fineness of surface finishAWS Visual Inspection Workshop: Module #4—Welding Codes and Specification APPENDIX VI Weld Profile Acceptance Description (1) The faces of fillet welds may be slightly convex, flat, or slightly concave as shown in Appendix V (A) and (B), with none of the unacceptable profiles showa in (C). Except at outside comet joints, the convexity C, of a weld or individual surface bead with dimension W shall not exceed the values noted in the table in Appendix V. 2) Groove weds shall preferably be made with slight or minimum reinforcement except as may be otherwise peo vided. In the case of butt and comer joints, the reinforcement shall not exeeed 1/8 in, (3.2 mun) in height an shall have gradual transition to the plane of the base metal surface, See Appendix V. They shall be free of the discontinuities shown for butt joins in (E). G) Suefaces of but joints required to be flush shall be finished so as not to reduce the thickness of the thinner base ‘ictal or weld metal by more than 1/32 in. (0.8 mim) or 5% of the thickness, whichever is smaller, nor leave kein. forcement that exceeds 1/32 in. However, all reinforcement must be removed where the weld forms part ofa fa ing or contact surface, Any ceinforcement must blend smoothly into the plate surfaces with tansition areas free from edge weld undercut. Chipping may be used provided itis followed by grinding. Where surface finishing is ‘requied, its roughness value shall not exceed 250 pin. (6.3 um), Surfaces finished 10 values of over 125 pin. 3.2 Hm) through 250 nin. shall be finished so thatthe grinding marks are parallet to the direction of primary stress. Surfaces finished to values of 125 pin, of less may be finished in any direction (4) Ends of butt joints required to be flush shall be finished so as not to reduce the width beyond the detailed width (oF the actual width furnished, whichever is greater, by more than 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) oF 80 as aot (0 leave rein: forcement at each end that exceeds 1/8 in. (3.2 mm). Ends of welds in but joints shall be fated to adjacent plate fr shape edges ata slope not to exceed 1 in 10, (5) Welds shall be free from overlap, APPENDIX VII Quality of Weld Visual Requirements All welds shall be visually inspected. A weld shall be acceptable by visuat inspection if it shows that (1) The weld has noe @) Thorough fusion exists between adjacent layers of weld metal and between weld metal and base metal (3) All craters are filled tothe full cross section of the weld. (4) Weld profiles ae in accordance with Appendixes V & VI (5) When the weld is transverse to the primary stress in the part that is undereut, undercut shall be no more than 0.01 in. (0.25 rom) deep, (6) When the weld is parallel to the primary stress in the past that is undercut, undercut shall be no more than 1/32 in, (0.8 mm) deep. (7) The sum of the diameters of visible porosity shall not exceed 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) in any linear inch of weld nor shall the sum exceed 3/6 in. (19.0 mm) in any 12 in, (305 mam) length of weld (8) Any single continuous fillet weld shall be permitted to undemun the nominal fillet weld size required by W/16 in. (1.6 mm). (9) Visval inspection of welds in all steels may begin immediately after the completed welds have cooled to ambi- {ent temperature. Final visual inspection for ASTM ASI4 and A517 steel welds shall be performed aot less than 448 hours after completion ofthe weld and removal of preheat.AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specifications 4.6.2 Appendix VIL This Appendix sets out the visual requirements for weld quality in nine para- ‘graphs. Paragraphs (1) and (2) are customary, as are paragraph (3) and (4). Para~ graphs (5) and (6), which deal with undercut, may be confusing, As a starting point, all undercut is parallel to the axis of the adjacent weld, For a correct interpretation of paragraphs (5) and (6), it is necessary to omit the words Transverse and Parallel before reading the same. In this context, transverse also means any of the following term + at right angles to the direction of, + at 90° to the direction of... ‘+ norinal to the direction of... Stress is the reaction of a material to an applied load. Primary stress results from the principal load acting in a joint member, tensile or compressive, as applicable. Paraltel stress develops when the load is applied parallel to the axis of the weld. In the case of the load acting transverse to the weld axis, undercut will cause a con- centration of stress. With loads acting parallel to a weld axis, there is no concen- tration of stress. However, there is a local loss of section, For paragraph (7), the largest dimension of individual pores is to be determined and the sum of all pore diameters calculated. For weld lengths > 2 in, but < 12 in., the 3/4 in, limit applies. Paragraph (8) under run provisions are Timited linearly but the weld size is its actual size. In paragraph (9), the time lapse is to allow for possible delayed cracking, 4s‘AWS Visuat Inspection Workshos Module #4—Welding Codes ana Specification APPENDIX VIII Test Results Required, Guided Bends Alll Guided Bend Tests. The convex surface of the bend test specimen shall be visually examined for surface discon- Tinwities. For acceptance, the surface shall meet the following criteria, exceed 1/8 in, (3.2 mm) in length, () No single discontinuity s 2) The sum of all the discontinuities over 1/32 in. (0.8 mm) but less than or equal to 1/8 in. (3.2 mm) shall not exceed 3/8 in. (9.5 mm). (G) Comer eracks shall not exceed 1/4 in. (6.4 mm) unless the crack results from a visible slag inclusion oth fusion type discontinuities, then the 1/8 in, (3.2 mm) maximum shall apply. ‘The specimens with comer cracks exceeding 1/4 in, (6.4 mm) with no evidence of stag inclusions or other fusion type discontinuities may be disregarded, and a replacement test specimen from the original weldment shall be tested.‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specifications 4.6.3 Appendix VII Guided bend tests are used in both welding procedure and welder performance qualification testing with the object of applying a tensile load to the convex face of specimens. The bending of a specimen having a thickness of “t” around a man- drel having a radius of “2t” will resule in an elongation of approximately 20%. ‘The text of Appendix VIII is explicit and thus requires litle amplification. The edges of bend test specimens should be rounded to the maximum radius permitted by the applicable code. Most codes require that alt bend test specimens conform, s0 if a single bend test specimen fails, the bend test set as a whole fails. Note the exception in the last paragraph. ai?AWS Visual Inspection Workshop. Module #4—-Welding Codes and Specification APPENDIX IX WELD METAL ANALYSIS A-NUMBERS Classification of Ferrous Weld Metal Analysis for Procedure Qualification Analysis, % {Note (0) ANe, c cr Mo Ni Ma Si 1 Mig Sie os = 5 S 1601.00 2 Carkoa-Moiybdenare ous 00 040.065 = 1.60 1.00 3 Chrome @.4% 19 28)—Molyidemm 01S 0.40-2.00 040-0.65 . 1.50 1.00 4 Chrome @% wo 6)—Molyhdenum 1s 2.096.00 0.40:1.50 = 16 2.00 5 Crome (6% w 10.5%)=Melybdenam 41S 6.00-10.50, 0.40.1.50 = 120 200 6 Cyrome—Marensite 015 11.00413.00 070 a 2.00 1.00 7 Chwome Ferrie 015 11,000.00 1.00 S 1.00 3.00 8 Chromium-Nicket 01S 18.5030.00 4.00 7.50150 250.00 9 ChronisaNickel 030 -25.00-30.00, 400 15.0037.00 2301.00 10 Nickel w 6 ous 035 0.304.00 170 1.00 11 Manganese Molybéeaum our 5 0250.75 oss 125225 1.00 12 Nickel-Chrome Molybdenum ous 19 0250.80 125280 0752.25 1.00 NOTE: (1) Single values shown above are maxim, 4184.7 Weld Metal— Appendix IX and Electrode Groups— Appendix X ‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specttications 4.7.1 Appendix IX For the purposes of certain procedure qualifications, it is necessary to identify the analysis of the weld metal, Each type of ferrous weld metal within the range cov- ‘ered is required to conform to a specific range of analyses. The A-number repre- sents a classification in the same way as other materials are classified or grouped. Suc classifications or groups allow the scope of a welding procedure to extend beyond the specific base metal, filler metal or weld metal, as applicable, qualified in the procedure testing ‘As was mentioned in reviewing Appendix 1 and will be amplified when Appendix XIV is considered, families of base metals, filler metals and weld metals behave in a similar manner when welded. A-numbers are particularly important, and become very significant, when dissimilar metals are being welded. The same is true when welds are being made with a non-matching filler metal. ‘CALCULATION OF DILUTION FROM CROSS-SECTIONAL AREA OF WELD BEAD ate putin = 8 (100) igure 4.1—Calculation of Weld Metal Dilution Consider a mild steel welded with an austenitic stainless steel electrode. Assume the latter contains 20% Cr and 10% Ni. From the formula given in Figure 4.1, the weld metal would contain 10% Cr and 5% Ni, This is a weld metal not classified in Appendix 1X. It would tend to be very hard and brittle, as opposed to the com- ponents, both of which would be less hard and much more ductile. Construction codes, such as AWS DI.1 of API 1104 do not have A-numbers because their field of applicability is largely confined to fewer steel alloys. 419AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specification APPENDIX X ELECTRODE GROUPS F-NUMBERS Grouping of Electrodes and Welding Rods for Qualification Ne. Specification No. (Cuassifiation No. 2 a % u u 3 2 2 2 ASI 8SS ASL RSS ASI 85S Asi ass ASA (esc) Sed sad Stel Alloys AS. (suet) Asa ASI aso re as.20 ASD ASB AS ASD AS.10 A510 $5.10 Aso EXX 20, EXX 26, EXX 27, EXK 28 EX 12, BAK 13, BX 1 XK 10, EXX LL BX 15, EXK 16, EXX TB, EX 8 EXX 15, EXK 16 EXX 15, BOC 16 aX FXX-EXX ERXX ERXXS EXXEX Boor x OCEXRK, FXX-ECKOOCX, and FRXCEXXCAN, POCECKIICXN ERNXS and 300K, EXXTKX, [Aluminum and Alominum-Base Alloys Copper and Copper Base Alys 4.20 ER 1100 ER S854, ER 536, ER 5856, ER S183, ER S64 ER 4013, ER 4047, ER 4165 RSC SIA, R3S50 ecu ER Co ER Gu ECuSi ER Cush ER CASA‘AWS Visual inspacton Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specifications 4.7.2 Appendix X In general, welding electrodes and filler metals are grouped and classified for @ variety of purposes. In welding procedures, qualification with one member of a group, and possibly classification, qualifies the procedure for use with other mem- bers of the same group or classification, o both, Another important reason to have filler materials classified is to enable purchasers to understand electrode suppliers’ advertising literature, Filler metals, almost universally, are made to meet certain criteria, typically laid down in a specification, AWS specifications commence with the symbols AS, as shown in the center columa of Appendix X and are analogous to them, ASME filler metal specifications are identified by the initial symbols SA. Each main type of filler metal will conform to a particular classification within the overall specifi- cation. Classifications take the form as shown in the right hand column of Appen- dix X. In Appendix X, filler metals F1 thcough F6 are all for ferrous-hased metals. FI through F4 refer to, respectively, electrodes of the following types: + Fl Metal Powder, restricted position types + F2_ Rutile (acidic), all position, GP types + F3. Cellulosic, all position, deep penetration + F4 Low-hydrogen (basic), all position types F-numbers are also used in welder qualification. Most codes specify that welders qualified to weld with a certain F-number electrode are qualified to weld with that F-number and all lower F-numbers. A welder qualified to use Fa electrode would also be qualified to weld with FI, F2, and F3 electrodes. F5 electrodes are for stainless steel while F6 electrodes are continuous electrodes (wires). The symbol E denotes electrode. The symbol R is for rod, a non-current carrying filler material,AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specification APPENDIX XI Welder Qualification Test Requirements 1. Tests on plate Number of specimens ‘Thickaess of 1 test plate CT, Bend texts? 1s welded, ed ee ie hae Prae thickness in Inspection Face Root Side break etch test, use, in 38 Yeo bobo = 314 wax! Groove aeerer Ys = = 2 = a Taaat Groove 1 or over Ys = = 2 = 7 Unliraiteat Fillet Option No, { wa Ys 5 Se 1 1 Unlites Filet Option No. 2 38 Ys = 2 = 7 = Ustieted 1 Also gualifis for welding filet welds on material of unlimited thickness. 2. T max for welding operator qualification, ‘Radiographic examiration ofthe welder of welding operate text plate may be made in lieu ofthe bend ws SINot applicable for welding operon qualification, 4.224.8 Welder Qualification Requirements— Appendix XI ‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4-—Welding Codes and Spectications Welders may be qualified to weld a variety of joints by welding one or more test coupons, Subsequently, the test coupont(s) o specimens extracted therefrom, are subjected to certain tests. Appendix XI is set out as three tables with some foot- notes. Collectively, these give all the necessary information for welder qualifica- tion testing and the qualification status achieved if the tests are successful. As with all code reading, particular attention should be paid to the footnotes. Table { deals with tests on plate, Such tests only qualify welders for welding on plate. This is shown in the right hand column of the table as Plate Thickness Qual- ified. In this content, the letter T stands for test coupon thickness, as shown in the second column from the left. The asterisk (*) in the center column references a footnote indicating the option to use radiography in lieu of bend tests. For groove welds on 3/8 in. plate, the double asterisk (**) footnote indicates that this cest option is not to be used for welding operator qualification. Welding oper- ators generally work with SAW and the like, customarily used for welding heavy ‘materials. Apart from the visual inspection required for all tests, the center col- tums indicate that both a face and a root bend test specimen are required to be extracted from test coupons and tested as elsewhere specified. Finally, footnote 1 applies, indicating that the welder, if qualifying, is also qualified for filler welds on material of unlimited thickness. The next line—3/8 3¥8 in, but <1 it", Thus, it applies to all test coupons greater than 3/8 in. in thick- ness, up to but less than 1 in. in thickness. Tests required are «wo side bends and the thickness qualified is from T/2 to 2T, where T is the test coupon thickness. If the test coupon thickness was 1/2 in., then the range qualified would be 1/4 in. to 1 in, Footnote 2 applies and denotes that welding operators are only qualified up to the test coupon thickness. With a test coupon of | in. thickness or over, two side bends are required and the thickness qualified is unlimited. For fillet weld qualification alone, options exist. Option | is a T-joint test coupon, tested by one macroetch specimen and by a fillet-break test. For Option 2, a spe~ cial test coupon is used. It is welded on to a backing bar, which is subsequently removed to enable the root bend tests to be carried out. In both cases, qualification is for Fillet welds on plate of unlimited thickness. Table 2 deals with tests on pipe or tubing, It is noted that only two test options are available: to qualify for welding diameters of 4 in. and under or 4 in, and over. The specifics are listed at the left of the table, [a the center of the table, it is to be noted that the required tests age dependent on the position of welding, In the last column, itis shown that the 4 in, and under qualification is valid up to a thickness of 0.674 in,, which is the thickest 4 in. schedule pipe made. It is also shown that for the 4 in, and over qualification, the lower limit of thickness is 0.187 in. or 3/16 in., not 18 in. as for the 4 in, and under. 423AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—-Walding Codes and Specification APPENDIX XI Continued Welder qualification—type and position limitations __ Type of weld and position of welding qualified Quiifcnion test Piste Pipe Phas or pipe we postions Groove Fille Grove File Pe groove 6 F FH F Qo b RH 26 Fat FR FH (Now 1) FH 36 AY FAY FAY (Note 1) FR 46 FH FEO F sG44c All A EH. Pie ie 1 F E (¥oee 2) 2 FH FH FAY HOH il Phe poe 1 F F (owe 4) F v vy na on ow Pi-roore 1c F BH F FH 26 EH EA BH RK sc F.V,0H Vou EY.OH FV.OH “ Nowe 3 Nove 3 Nowe 3 Noe 3 26.456 Nowe 3 Note 3 Nore 3 Noe 3 oR al A al All Pipe filet 1 F FE 2 EH a 2FRolied FH eH “ FHOW FLOM ease All ai Nace: 1 Welders qualified to weld tubulrs over 24 in. (600 rm) in diameter wih backog or bck gouging, or the test position indicted. 2. Not aplcaie for filet welds between part having 2 neds angle () of 6D deg or lost 53. Quulfed for al tt groove welds for T,¥-, and K-coanectons, 4 Applable only to qualification of plug wel 424AWS Visual inspection Workshop ‘Module #4—Weiding Codes and Specifications Table 3, page 12, of the Book of Specifications deals with the type and position limitations for welder qualification. The first two entries deal with welds on plate, the last (wo with welds on pipe. The third entry is confined to plug welds used for Joining plates in surface to-surface contact Possibly the most significant aspect of this table are the footnotes and their impli- cations. Note 1 extends the scope of Table 1 in that welders qualified in the 1G, 2G and 3G positions on plate are also qualified to weld on tubular members over 24 in. in diameter, provided a backing bar or backgouging is used. Note 2 limits work on T-joints where the angle between members is < 60°, Note 3 limits the qualification for welding T-, Y-, and K- configuration joints, Finally, Note 4 applies, as indicated, only to plug welds.AWS Visual inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specttication APPENDIX XiIl Fillet Procedure Qualification Requirements ‘Tes specimens cequired Allweld Macro: metal Side Number of etch tension bend Sizes qualified Test Fillet welds Pie ‘Filler specimen Sze er procedure —_— thickness size Single-pass, max size Vineeach position 3 faces. = Unlimited Max tested tobeused inconstruction tobe used single-pass Test and smaller Muliple-pas, min size 1 imeach postion 3 faces S — Unlimited Min tested (obe used inconstrction tobe used smuliple-pass and larger Groove test = LintG = t 2 Qualifies welding consumables position tobe used in Test above Note: All welded test plates shall be visually inspected 4.264.9 Welding Procedure Qualification— Appendix XII & Xill biscaRO buscar — ~ OS fen TAI The groove test is only used for filler metal quali section tensi ‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specifications 1 Appendix XII Appendix XII is used in the qualification of fillet weld procedures. The test speci- men is a T-joint, welded on one side with the largest single pass weld to be made in production. On the other side, the joint is to be welded with the smallest multi- pass weld to be made in production, One coupon must be prepared for each pro- duction position, After welding and visual inspection have been completed, the test coupon is sec- tioned as shown in Figure 4.2. Three non-adjacent faces are to be prepared and macroetched to establish fusion up to, but not necessarily beyond, the joint root, The weld profiles must satisfy Appendix V and Appendix VI requirements. The body of each weld crosssection must conform to Appendix VII provisions. «| 100 t 5 | 150 12 | 305 We = wiiviMuM MULTIPLE MAXIMUM SINGLE PASS FILLET WELD PASS FILLET WELD USED IN USED IN CONSTRUCTION ‘CONSTRUCTION MACROETCH TEST ‘SPECIMEN Figure 4.2—Fillet Weld Procedure Test Specimen ation. Only one reduced: specimen, extracted wholly from weld metal, is required‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #¢—Welding Codes and Specification APPENDIX xill Groove Procedure Qualification Requirements 1. Tests on plate i _ ‘Test specimens Reduced- Plate Plate fection Roots Face Side- thickness thickness (7) Number of tension bend =—=—sbend = bend qualified, T tested, sample welds in in erposition NOT maximum? Meet oe T Yer 2 2 ——— V8.2 38 1 Yes 2 2 2 — 3a we wesveirsvsmw | osroae S955 soe OF S270 91SV RUSY ‘Avs | sion sites ose OE Tos SY wor UES oeciose —orfer 20 Ser wuz swore om sy overs sere Yee oosy nusy sey ume Se OS aw ore “st Sexe THEY SV wmsiy wg OSE fae GeV ALSY AVAS | Osrow tas Ok aS VED TEIVRISY tsi mo oe Se aD SIV ALSY omsiy uiwon OSE fae “tev SY Oss OFS OO 90 HLS un am i gvonwaytzods WA MN It @ "sive: Besnyaod Seansord “save “plvanrawod e-Woragoads as 2 ween ae peut eamanany otean sine, pak un ° 9 ‘wosuaabas row id emai UOT syjGueus pue jew sai) BuyEW AIX XIGNSddV¥ 430‘AWS Visual inspection Workshop Module #4—Welging Codes ana Spectications etpug or Ave sigeoidde | puomarbas gy, pase am seswaade wore, fda aoa (> 2) sls 02) Waar eday wae 3am ei pods“ Roc) G'S SAV MOH pas 9¢ 989 6oLYs0 9-V BPI s3—H paso 9q as Sap ‘soa 205 ory 4 um sou banner s Suma, IAD 01 agREREIE Ny Oss uOR osy ge 190Na BUSVSMVMVHKO | 069-055 corok sir op 28D EeOV HIS 60-055 COLD Sth 3tDLESV RIS¥ wxxxaxed | owoss —uron osr 9 S990 Osos ones oy ay eesvsaw | mwsis ws, sie Op 97D LISVISY AVS si0¥a Ct a a) sioea ‘stows S'S SAY MWS OLS OGL OES OEHAICHXG DEV NID EIS OSL Sky” cena "ZeHA'ECHY =D say Serssy 199 om es 25x 2Pu0, xiv oss-orr oft) ost outlay wursey SQL SFE OF (so~'o1-"t~"z-aoora) | ose IMSS ref couv Wusy sor ome sep axed OUsy sav | oxe-s8y oso sre os VOM | OLSSEY CHD Ose exov wusy iss re B19 WLSY uimssy ow, Oe gs som sty op x-sonea | umosy uss sr OF arsvsay | umsiy vimop ore Sr Los HSV. ‘MVNO | sIOsy BMwSD OL Se 99099 HLS sin ced Se SSOStY S60 Sly O® xxxaxca | muosy mss one 5g Sssv Musy eesveLisysav | user wor sre OF Cxpun pu ui») RAS RLS MVS | Siwosy uWSS Sr Os. 05 29840, AIX XIGNAddv 5° Z e6egodes and Specification AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Weiaing “g Yanoayp | Sa}ON 405 aBed snoysaud ag coon ston 96 UXXLXOTE 6216 SAV MVE oe wmort sig asolnea aU'SY SY MWD —_ Tm spun por (wu ¢9) S609 Octo! $986 axxxaxite | soot 0599 oot ‘8001 ‘09! cou wasy ETSV SM | o6-s6u 069 ool LISV WAS A avs | sono 069 GOT sBpIMpURKumE) MELE FSV LS s1011a om umort 09a stot ta 'sto11a S'SV SMV AVS ore-069 oz! sop aw OXEXTE 6t'SV.SMY MVD 069 ewHoo! ory 06 ss0rwa BUSY SRY KVKO 568-069 oct-col $69 AXXxEXOIE | S6R-069 O€L-GOr ax9— os (wD VES) -wIFONe/T-Z fosy Smy ‘MODI “O01 SPUD OLY WISY AI MVS | s68069 DEOL ozo Ow, (ura e9)-sZ/-2E4O FSV LIS at001g, 910018 ‘stool S'SV SMV MVS: ‘cuotayraeds un = a sponse "tau tod -ytomayoode tag 8 Infuans aysuay, "1 ° 2 ‘aUauaiabes (meu BI ‘nuswannbar wonrayioods Fag AIX XIGN3dd¥V 30 & aed4.10 Matching Filler Metals and Strengths— Appendix XIV AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Weiding Codes and Speciications Before reviewing the content of this Appendix, itis beneficial to look at its struc~ ture, The Appendix extends over 3 pages. There are 8 footnotes, found at the bot- tom of page 2 of the Appendix. It will be seen that footnote 4 is inapplicable in the present context. The Appendix is divided vertically with steel specifications and strength ranges on the left. On the right, filler metal requirements in terms of spec~ ifications and strength properties are given. The left hand column is headed Group. Each grade of each steel of the 31 steels listed in the Appendix is listed in one of three groups (F through TI) according to its chemical composition and strength. Within limits, approximate minimum ten- sile steengths for the respective groups are: + Group I steels are up to about 60 ksi + Group I steels are up to about 70 ksi + Group II steels are of 80 ksi minimum These values are significant in terms of the welding consumables to give matching weld strength. The groups. as explained above, simplify and extend the scope of welding procedure qualification ‘The second colurnn—Steel Specification —calls for the application of footnotes 1 and 3, Footnote | is significant when dissimilar metals are to be welded, Foot- notes 5 and 6 also deal with special conditions that pertain in specific instances. {tis beneficial, when reading a table or similar code provision, to make an initial overview of the areas of interest before entering it to determine the specifics in any given circumstances. Being aware of the footnote provisions beforehand acts as an alert signal when extracting information. An overview of the right hand col- umn reveals two further significant footnotes, 7, 8. Prior knowledge is always of benefit, For each of the base metal groups, electrode specifications are given for the four principal welding processes: SMAW, SAW, GMAW and FCAW. Any metal of a particular group may be welded with any of the four processes. However, there is the proviso that the specified classification of filler metal be used. For example, ASTM A106 grade B steel may be welded with E6XT-X or E7XT-X electrodes of AWS A5.20 for FCAW. When welding with SMAW, only low-hydrogen electrodes may be used for steels of groups {1 and IIf. Analogous provisions apply in the case of FCAW electrodes. Footnote 7 is applicable for each of the processes, SAW, GMAW and FCAW when welding steels of group II. These are not facts to be memorized but must be utilized when the occasion arises. 433‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welsing Codes and Specification For example, find a suitable GMAW electrode for welding a T-joint between an ASTM A572 grade 50 girder to an ASTM AS72, grade 60 column, ASTM A572 grade 50 is a group II steel, and of grade 60 is a group III steel. Foot- note 1 applies so the electrode will be a low-hydrogen type for Group Il (as the lower strength group). However, the process (GMAW) shall be subject to the tech- hique requirements for group II (as the higher strength group), In this example, ‘no change is necessary as the process is of the low-hydrogen type and the joints concerned are not part of a bridge structure. To take another example, what is the minimum yield stcength of a suitable FCAW electrode for making butt joints between ASTM AS{4 tension flanges for a bridge girder between members 3-1/4 in, and 2-1/2 in. in thickness? ‘Steels of Groups [V (3-1/4 in.) and V (2-1/2 in.) are involved, The filler metal required is that for che lower strength member: Group IV. Application (bridge work) is not a factor, so min. 6, is 88 ksiAWS Visual Inspection Workshop ng Codes and Specifications tree pane gags wo pq S014 FPD6 9g) se wecHa, sev2CHO OB RSEHIPUO oISV HISY ° ost RELI SHEID sav 105V HAS apn He sods ta 2m 2m pasoa any Burptam xistay v cosy nusy av paw so Bu “stay rs HISY a os 30 potiouigas MOS'0S"9E PHD HOLY KIS scx sty Hsy st We m0. ‘opamp wap 03570 wrty WAS "aol qm Rapes wv8MO COW KISY 8 el SY aioy wus. se wie Hs S5'05'svs99ID LOB HSV seed Soy Rus SeVZCHY 0N, mat we od D'a'vS9OD S68v HISY a'sa'a's9. SRV WLSY BVsED evs sein Cusv HISY 820 SOV LSY zisw WESY eeu“ ALSY OSV RSV 290 RISY Oe EIS 35 105¥ HLSW sa's‘a'a'y s9pu sav exsmD asd cosy Rasy mse "sav CY HASY i cow us sclv Husy soo Tee EASY SY ost ocsv HSV case Wus¥ Rey WISY =n SI5Y WISY ms 7% aw cr oi 35 amersdura” —“Fupiaajo iwod aman sd oye JO sr, Supe AX XION3ddV¥ yromnjeseduiay ssediajuy pue yeayaid wnwiuly 4.35jon Workshop Module #4—Welcing Codes and Specification ‘AWS Visual inspect nad oq Kew amoge ‘sor ony 2 ou Inq “paps RoIDq Hed 99 30 S949 ay Jo s>agins aq} ye) s9aoKD Gone my past Suaq sroooud Bpjau aqy Joy pay aungesadaveyaq1 mola 1 “parran aq pjaM 80d 29 0} papuatmosas yuawypjam agp oF 1294 ata Wa}quHe GL “PH 941 JO “papjan 3019 pais yates og 1 paytsads se 9q jugs yaya asm 29 184s spas 34 eS IAW 2509 241 40) wZE MOLAG SI aaMrEzaduay josdus sH¥q Ap fu pine> papas Buiaq nave oy punase Jayage Jo auni9nans pareag W of aympoutay ayn vy asmyezadeay 24H yng aueHNsadaay jm¥aMUALTAGD Wo;qUIE a UeDE TOU Sep CO cgt) Ecole -Y tase 0 storage Foyonm sf LISY Po FISY HILSV swonepeswmear5oonpaid jos a) pos ou eye 840 (9 OEE) 3 05 Bue “uIsnj>u) (se 4) 121 A001 POE 0 PRI cacy BU ean o Uap oa sasmusndams abs asamp wy aunyssduoy en iio se 1548) poeayaad 19% Jo yoda yn payoads 9g) axoqe 10 18 “opie snag yeuoysus jo ssarys a pte paisodsp wadospi mot S100 2 1 5 9 no1oq 94 Cer so10N or we 9 aeRO {espa dae pasos J nitipgan ae 8 SLL m9 fez nag eu se8 “yny pene Be Yet m0 “an jan Koy MOO FOOTSPHD — GOLW KLLS SUE vo voqie> ym LISVWULSY AT os Sct ems Ze ang PISw WLS a He 0 ot os mate ordn a0 mise popiaus Ost 08 Ure ImO wor stz rg yee nm upton SC att 30 tric set tuipten ix ts tay 9 et aay ae podraugns 3975 eV NLSY HT ve 5 "spponoote vatorpky s9wOPED — TUSV WIS —__—___ er perenne or et we adn an [aw papIAYS panunuod AX XIGNaddv 4:36Appendix XV 4.41 Minimum Preheat and Interpass Temperatures— Appendix XV AWS Visual inspection Workshop Moule #4—Welding Codes and Speciications Appendix XV is similar in structure to Appendix XIV in that itis a table extend- ing over more than a single page. Again, there are footnotes to be considered. Likewise, the metals are grouped, but in this Appendix there are four groups. However, the basis of grouping is not strength but weldability, or the reaction of ‘metals to the welding thermal regimen. The term, preheat and interpass temperature refers to the minimum temperature that must be maintained in the workpiece in the weld area throughout the duration of welding, In the interests of brevity, the abbreviation PH & IT will be used herein to signify preheat and interpass temperature. The title of Appendix XV is the first place footnotes are found. As such, these footnotes have overall applicability. In looking at these footnotes, also note that there is a footnote not referenced in the Appendix Table. This is an explanatory note (Note A), clarifying the manner of interpreting ambient temperature. Foot- note 1 deals with base metal temperature when no PH & IT is specified. Again, as with Appendix XIV, the table is divided vertically into principal sec tions. Notice, however, that the steel specifications are listed in double columns. The data in the right hand column are applicable to each steel in the respective groups. Ie will be noted that many of the steels of group I were also shown in Group I. The difference is the welding method, and specifically, its hydrogen potential. In group I, steels may be welded with any electrode, However, if comparable grades and thicknesses are taken, Group I steels require a higher PH & IT. Compare ASTMAS29 steel. 1 in. thick in Group I and in Group 2. By using low-hydrogen electrodes (SMAW) or a low-hydrogen welding process (GMAW and FCAW and. SAW with Iow-hydrogen consumables), there is a difference of 100° in the PH & IT required In the right hand column, there are four ranges of thickness for each metal group. Care should be exercised in applying these ranges. Within any single group, each thickness range is equally applicable to any of the steels, given in the Steel Spec- ification columns. For instance. in Group 1, ASOL and A36 steels, each over 2-1/2in. thick, would require the same minimum temperature (300°F). As a mat- ter of interest, notice that A36 steel could not be used if the material was for a bridge application. Rather, it would require the use of a low-hydrogen welding process. This would automatically make it a Group Il stee! Footnote 3 is very important and should be read very carefully. i will be noted that for ASTM ASI4 and ASI7 (quenched and tempered steels) and the higher strength grades of ASTM A709 steels, there are maximum temperatures also to be considered. These steels derive strength from the heat treatment to which they are 437AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codas and Specification subjected during manufacture. If the PH & IT is not limited, this strength might be diminished As stated in Module #, the application and monitoring must be applied with pre~ cision to ensure soundness of welds and the adjacent base metal. While not part of the consideration of codes and specifications directly, itis useful to keep in mind both the requirements and their verification. In the case of dissimilar metals, the preheat must be that of the higher strength metal involved. This is logical as PH & IT is aimed at retarding the cooling rate of the weld area to ensure the applicable critical cooling rate is not exceeded. From Appendix XIV, it will be recalled that dissimilar metal joints are to be made with filler metal matching the lower strength member of the joint. The logic here is based on the premise that the joint will not be strongerthin its lower strength member. As a bonus, in most cases, lower strength mefals tend to have higher = ductility, 4.12 Finding Code In 4.2—Finding Code References on page 5-1, a four-step method for finding References (2) code references was set out in detail. The program, as set out in paragraph 4.2— Finding Code References—thus entails the following. |. necessary, convert the required information to a question. 2. Identify the key terms in the question, 3. Locate the key terms in the Index or the Table of Contents and establish reference. 4. Find the reference in the code text and confirm its applicability, In this section of the workshop. this 4-step method will be used to find code refer ences in simulated practical examples. Exercise 1. For a procedure qualification test to be performed, the welding isto be veaically up. In what field(s) would this information be entered? Step Action 1, Data already in the form of a question, Key term is procedure qualification and secondary terms are position and progression 3. Inthe Table of Contents (of Spec B), Welding Procedure Qualification Test Record is shown as being on page I. (Appendix 1) 4-38AWS Visuat Inspection Workshop Module #4—Welding Codes and Specifications 4. Tuming to page 1, the appropriate form is seen. The position field is located as field (4) and the progression field as field (13), For this question, field {4] plus field [13] would be the correct answer. Exercise 2. A groove joint is to be made using joint designation B-U2a between members at 160°. The edges of the members have not been chamfered and the joint is set up for welding with a 7/16 in. gap. What action, if any, should the welding inspector take? Step Action 1. What are the angle and the fit-up tolerances for prequalified joint B-U2a? Key term is: prequalified joint and secondary terms are joint B-U2a, joint preparation, and fit-up tolerance. 3. From Table of Contents, Prequalified Joints are found 10 be on page 3— Appendix IIL 4, In Appendix 1], joint B-U2a is found in the lower diagram. The details of joint preparation are given, along with fit up tolerances. This confirms that the reference found is applicable to the question. To address the specifics of this exercise, the reference found is examtined to deter- rine how the input data are to be manipulated. First, in Note N, itis found that members may be disposed at angles between 135° and 180°—provided the groove angle is maintained, Second, the required groove angle is found to be dependent ‘on the root opening. Options are a 30° groove angle with 3/8 in. root opening or 20° with a {/2 in, root opening. In this instance, with 7/6 in. root opening, the fit- up tolerance is required to be found, In the Tolerance table, a 1/16 in. tolerance is permitted. From the foregoing, it is noted that the joint presented for inspection conforms to the requirements of the code, and as a consequence, no further action is required of the welding inspector. Exercise 3. A welder is to be qualified on 4 in, schedule 60 pipe in the 2G pos tion. For what other groove weld positions will this welder be qualified to weld if. all tests are passed satisfactorily? Adopting the methods outlined above, appropriate information will be found on pages I and 12 in Appendix XI. Looking in Table 2 of the Appendix however, shows that 4 in, schedule 60 pipe is not a size used for welding qualification. Therefore, tests with this size pipe would be invalic. 4.39‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding 5.2 Inspection ‘ Instruments and Gauges 5.3 Undercut Gauge instrument may yield results of greater accuracy than available altematives, par- ticularly for dimensions over | in. or when the shape is otherwise unfavorable. Determining what is required may be considered the first step of welding inspec- tion, The second step is measuring the applicable features of the job. The third step is establishing conformance status at the time the measurement is made, In summary, a significant part of the visual inspection of welding is involved with measurement. This makes it essential that the welding inspector be familiar with, the application and use of the common tools of mechanical inspection, such as scale nule, micrometer or vernier calipers. Further, some weld dimensions are best ‘measured with special instruments or gauges. Therefore, a thorough knowledge of their use is essential if meaningful inspections of welds and welding are to be made, F The actual instruments and gauges used in any given welding inspection task witl be dictated by the specifies of the situation. In Figure 5.1, the common instru- ‘ments, ools and gauges likely to be used in welding inspection are shown, Some of the items in Figure 5.1 may not be readily recognized, for instance, the undercut gauge, which is shown in Figure 5.2. Other welding-specific gauges and instruments are identified below. Clockwise from the undercut gauge in Figure 5.1 are: 1. Fillet gauges; see Figures 5.16 and 5.18 Palmgren gauge; see Figure 5.13 3. Bridge Cam (or Cambridge) gauge, a “universal” welding gauge 4, Adjustable fillet weld gauges 5. HiLo gauge, for measuring misalignment in groove joints being assembled for welding. ‘The first item to be considered is the undercut gauge. As shown in Figure 5.2, the gauge is made up of a body plate and a movable double-ended pointer. The body plate is graduated in 1/32 in. increments above and below a center or zero poi. ‘When the body plate is placed on a flat surface and the pointer moved to just touch that surface, the measuring pointer should be on the zero mark. This “zero test” should be made before use. In the event that there is a disparity, the gauge should be returned to the maker for adjustment.[AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding ee a cra aceon ee en Figure 5.2—Undercut Gauge In use. the undercut gauge is placed adjacent to the weld to be checked, with the body plate in con cut member. The undercut pointer is then low- ered into the undercut. The depth of undercutting is then indicated by the measur~ pointer ct with the un Problems may arise with access. The gauge body plate is 4 in. long. Itis desirable to have the gauge normal (at right angles) to the weld axis. Should the gauge be at an acute angle to the weld axis, the pointer may not be able to enter very narrow undercutting. A problem of a different type is in connection with measuring undercut less than 1/32 in. in depth, as this is the smallest graduation on the mea suring scale 53AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding FRICTION STOP ScREW — THIMOLE BARREL Lock nur SPINDLE ant FRAME Figure 5.4—0 to 1 in. Micrometer and Its Components friction stop, set to release at a preset pressure, lis merits are hotly debated, but for inexperienced users, accuracy is enhanced. In Figure 5.5, the spindle is closed on the anvil, and the measurement is zero. The zero mark on the thimble and the barrel reflect this. When adjustment is necessary, itis made with a hexagon wrench (Allen key). Slackening the grub screw connect- ing the thimble to the spindle allows free movement between the parts, When using the micrometer, the first step is to ensure measurement acct “zeroing” the instrument, Between the graduation marks on a micrometer, it is possible to estimate fractions of one-half @ thousandth of an inch, For work 5-6‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding BARREL = THIMBLE cLoseD rE R Figure 5.5—Micrometer Zeroed associated with welding inspection, this degree of accuracy need rarely be exceeded, By Way of example, the diameter of the reduced-section of all-weld metal tensile specimen may be specified as 0.505 in. ‘The barrel of a micrometer, over which the thimble rotates, is graduated at each ‘one-tenth of an inch, with graduation marks numbered 0, 1, through 10. Between each 1/10th in, are three graduations, with individual spacing of 0,025 in, (25 thousandths of an inch), As mentioned above, the thimble circumference is divided into 25 graduations, each Sth mark being numbered respectively 0, 5, 10, 15, 20. The diagrams in Figure 5.6 show the principles associated with reading dimen- sions from the micrometer. fn the uppermost diagram (A), the thimble has been rotated through 1/25th of a revolution, retracting the spindle from the anvil by 1/1000th in. of 0.001 in, Movement of the spindle through 5/2Sth of a revolution retracts the spindle by 0.005 in., as shown in the center diagram (B). One complete rotation of the thimble opens the instrument 25 thousandth of an inch (C), tn so doing, a graduation mark on the barrel at 1/4 of 1/10th in. or 1/40 in is revealed. This is shown in the lowest diagram (D) of Figure 5.6. Three fur- ther revolutions would open the instrument 10/1000 in. (0.01 in.) ‘The diagrams in Figure 5.7 show the progressive opening of the instrument to the dimensions indicated. The last diagram (D), showing 0.787-1/2 in, is usually read as 0.7875 in. For dimensions greater than | in., micrometers with larger frames are used. The anvil is replaced by removable spacers allowing a range of measurements to beAWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding 5.6 Dial Caliper b fa wo TE ® =] 0.004 i, 0.005 in. 7 |e) = © ° c) : 2» 2 0.025 in ot00in, Figure 5.6—Mike Readings ‘made using the one instrument, Accuracy is achieved by using a calibration gauge. usually supplied for each spacer. ‘The dial caliper, depicted in Figure 5.8. is a versatile instrument, widely used in many parts of the world as almost a universal measuring device. It evolved from the Vernier Caliper, In another form, the dial caliper has an electronic readout which is capable of downloading dimensions to a computer program for use in nspection and statistical quality controt work, The instrument c mprises a main beam, over which the slider may be moved. The beam has teeth into which a comesponding wheel meshes. Movement of the slider along the beam causes rotation of the wheel. which i¢ turn actuates the needle in the dial portion of the caliper. In the mettie version of the dial caliper, the main beam is graduated in millimeters. marked at 10 mm inter vals, 0, 10, 20, through the beam length The dial has a movable bezet, enabling the caliper to he “zeroed” when the jaws of the instrument are closed. The dial itself has 100 graduations. numbered at intervals of 10. One full rotation of the needle represents {0 mm, each dial gradu- ation is therefore 1/100th of 10 millimeters or O.t mitn. 1€ is possible to estimate fractions between the 0.1 mm graduations. 38AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding TT 0.200 in. ©) TTS |° 20 0.250 in 7s) © le 0.562 in o Tp TT yr 0.787 Vein, Figure 5.7—Reading the 0 to 1 in. Micrometer Figure 5.9 shows the dial caliper in use. For outside measurements, the caliper is placed over the object. The knife edge portion of the jaws are then closed over the item being measured. For inside dimensions, the upper jaws are placed within the area being measured, then extended to bring the knife edged portion of the jaws into contact with the surfaces between which the measurement is sought. In either case, the primary measurement is indicated by the pointer over the graduated por- tion of the beam, The secondary, or fine measurement, is then read from the dial and added to the primary measurement, For example, 70 on the beam + 7 (exactly) on the dial indicates 77.0 mm. In use, the first operation is to zero the instrument. The jaws are moved to the fully closed position. IF the dial pointer is not precisely over the zero mark, the dial cover, or bezel, is unlocked or loosened. It is then rotated to bring the pointer and 59AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding INsi0€ oursive Figure 5.9—Measuring with the Dial CaliperAWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding zero mark into correspondence, The bezel is locked in position, and rechecked. Measurements are then taken as shown in the diagram in Figure 5.10. 17.85 mm 1047.85 = 17.85 mm ao eee | 47.85 mm, Figure $.10—Reading the Dial Caliper Figure 5.10 illustrates the reading of the dial caliper measurement. Notice that the needle is positioned midway between 7.8 and 7.9 on the dial, Estimation between divisions has a degree of accuracy governed by the precision with which the esti~ mation of needle position is made. Some dial calipers have intermediate gradua- tions o improve the order of accuracy. In Figure 5.11, such an extension can be seen at the right end of the instrument beam. Here, opening the jaws by a specified amount (17,85 mm) corresponds to the exten- sion rod movement of the same amount beyond the right-hand end of the instrument Figure 5.11—Using the Extension Rod ‘Annote of caution. When using the extension rad for a depth or other measurement, ensure when zeroing that the end of the extension rod is precisely at the end of the beam, If not, measurements taken using the extension rod will be inaccuratAWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measuroments of Welding 5.7 Measurement Conversions 5.8 Magnifier $5.9 Linear Measuring instrument Compa ons To utilize measurements made by metric instruments, such as the dial caliper just considered, the output may require conversion to U.S. units. [n the conversion of ‘measurements from U.S, customary units to St (metric) units, or vice versa, use is made of conversion factors, a list of which may be found in the inside front cover of the AWS Examination Book of Specifications, Part B. To convent millimeters to inches, use is made of the factor 25.4. Keep in mind that 25.4 mm is not | inch, Rather, inches are equal to 25.4 mmfin, This becomes the ‘multiplier for converting inches to millimeters. To make reverse conversions, the ‘same factor (25.4 mrnvin) becomes the divisor. For example, converting 17.85 mm to inches requires the following steps: FORMULA mmto inches divide by 25.4 17.85 mim + 25.4 mavvin, = 0.7028 in,** , but in this To reconvert inches to millimeters, use the same factor 25.4 meawis instance as the multiplier. FORMULA inches tomm multiply by 25.4 0.703 in, 25.4 mafia, = 17.85 mme* **In rounding converted dimensions, use as many numbers in the result as there fare in the input. In this instance, the input (17.85) has 4 significant numbers Hence, the result is rounded to 0.7028 in, Ifthe teast significant number in the cal- culation is taken (3 from 25.4) an error will be found when the calculations above are made. L 17.85 mm = 25.4 movin, = 0.703 in, 2, 0.703 in. x 25.4 mmvin, = 17.86 mm A simple, low-power magnifier, such as shown in Figure 5.12 greatly assists mak- ing accurate measurements with linear measuring instruments. Look at the area of interest through the magnifying gtass. Move the magnifier toward and away from the area of interest until the best image is found, Use the magnifier for the exercises that follow. Instruments considered to this point have the primary purpose of measuring linear dimensions, or the distance between 2 bounds. Each of the instruments reviewed is available in U.S. customary units (inches) and in S1 units (millimeters). For this Workshop, machinist’s rules and micrometers, graduated in inches, and the dial caliper, graduated in miltimeters, will be used 5-12AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module £5—Measurements of Welding Figure’5.12—Magnifier While there is a degree of interchangeability between the three instruments. each, has its main area of application, Certain differences may be demonstrated by a series of exercises. After each measurement, record it. Take 3 separate measure- ments of each object with each designated instrument. Then add the results and divide the total by 3 10 get a mean measurement. |, Compare the capabilities of the Machinist's Rule and the Micrometer ‘+ Measure the width of the beam of the dial caliper. using both instruments. + Measure the thickness of the beam of the dial caliper. + Measure the thickness of this Manual. 2. Compare the capabilities of the Micrometer and the Dial Caliper. + Measure the width of the machinists rule. + Find the thickness of the machinist’s rule. + Measure height of the twin arrows that follow: 1 3. Compare the capabilities of the Dial Caliper and the Machinist’s Rule. + Deterinine the inside radius of the micrometer frame, + Measure the diameter of the micrometer barrel. + Measure the distance between the points of the following arrows > <. S13AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding From these elementary comparison: inctuding . some basic conclusions may be drawn, 1, Bach instrument has its own area of best application. 2. Most measurements require a specific instrument for greatest accuracy. 3. Single, one-time-only measurements are not always precise 5.10 Special ‘A number of special gauges are used to measure specific features of welds and Welding welded joints. Two such gauges are considered below. These are: Gauges 1, The Palmgren reinforcement gauge 2. The FibreMetal Fillet (weld) gauges The Palmgren gauge in Figure 5.13 is shown as a reinforcement height gauge. In use, the retaining nut for the sliding pointer is loosened. Following this, the jaws of the gauge are placed across the weld being examined and positioned laterally so the end of the sliding pointer just touches the highest point of the weld reinforce- ‘ment, The slider retaining nut is then tightened to secure che slider. MAX vB. MIN 1/32 BUTT WELD REINFORCEMENT. ets Figure 5.13—The Palmgren Gauge S14AWtS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #S-—Measurements of Welding The body of the Palmgren gauge is marked with max 1/8 in. and min 1/32 in., often the upper and lower limits of allowable weld reinforcement height. The slider zero mark indicates reinforcement height. In Figure 5.13, the zero mark is between the 1/8 in, and 1/32 in, marks. In instances where the applicable code requires reinforcement height between these limits, the weld would conform in. this respect. ‘The second type of welding gauge to be considered is the single-size fillet weld gauge. The bulk of all welding is in making fillet welds. This leads 10 two very significant points 1. As welding is the leading method of metal joining, and as fillet welds repre~ sent a large fraction of all welds, the strength of these welds is required to be suitable for the intended purpose. 2, As the cost of welding is a function of weld size, overwelding is to be avoided in the interests of simple economy of production. In US. customary terms, the size of a fillet weld is “the length of the side of the largest right isosceles triangle that may be wholly inscribed within the cross sec tion of the weld” The definition for fillet weld size is illustrated in Figure 5.14, In practice, the mea~ suring of fillet welds with the usual measuring instruments is not a simple task, and there is great opportunity for inaccuracy. Further, although the “perfect” fillet would have a flat profile, it is more usual that fillet welds have either a convex profile or a concave profile, as shown in Figure 5.15, For this reason, various types of gauges have been developed. Based on weld pro- file, there are three types of fillet welds. It is readily apparent that the side of the largest right isosceles triangle that may be wholly inscribed within a convex weld will be different from that inscribed within a concave weld. It is equally apparent that a gauge to measure the weld leg length will be unsuitable to accurately mea- sure fillet welds having a concave profile A widely-used, sturdy type of fillet weld gauge is that known as a blade gauge. In use, the blade of the gauge is placed flat on the surface of one joint member. The gauge end is then moved across to the second joint member as shown in Figure 5.16. The end shape of the upper and lower sides of the gauge will be seen to be different. This difference is to accommodate both convex and concave profile welds. As shown in Figure 5.17, on the left the leg of the convex profile weld will be the same as the side of the largest right isosceles triangle, Assuming the weld legs are equal, this dimension equals the weld size 5-15AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding /— CONVEXITY ‘ACTUAL THROAT — te AND SIZE EFFECTIVE THROAT} —/ LEG AND Size THEORETICAL HROAT > : (4) CONVEX FILLET WELD concavity | — “ACTUAL THROAT AND EFFECTIVE THROAT —} THEORETICAL THROAT (6) CONCAVE FILLET WeLo Figure §.14—Fillet Weld Profiles and Dimensions convex concave: Fur FILLET Fier FILLET Figure 5.15—Fillet Weld Profiles 5-165.11 Welding Math AWS Visual Inspaction Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding Figure 5.16—Fillet Gauge Figure 5.17—Convex and Concave Fillet Weld Sizes The leg of the concave fillet weld does not coincide with the weld size. By virwe of its shape, the toes of concave, profile fillet welds extend beyond the side of the largest right isosceles triangle. This does not provide a terminal point as in the case of the convex profile weld, Rather, it is necessary to measure the throat of concave profiled fillet welds. The throat (of a concave fillet weld) is the shortest distance from the weld face to the joint root, For fillet welds, the theoretical weld we throat is 0.707 * the weld leg length (derived from “5 ) A typical fillet weld gauge, to measure 5/16 in. and 7/16 in. fillet welds having a convex (lower side used) or concave (upper side used) profile, is shown in Figure 5.18, Fiat profile fillet welds must be checked with both gauges. In welding inspection activities, certain calculations are required to be made. Apart from conversions of U.S. customary linear units to SI units as outlined in 5.1, other calculations that may be required from time to time include:‘AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding Heat input 2.” Tensile (and yield) strength % Elongation 4. % Reduction of area 5. Carbon equivalence. 5.111 Heat Input ‘The heat input associated with welding is of interest in connection with two spe- cifie aspects of welding, both concerned with welding procedure development 1. For crack avoidance, it is frequently required that a certain minimum heat input be achieved with the aim of limiting the cooling rate 2. When welding the quenched and tempered (Q & T) steels, a certain maximum heat input should not be exceeded Heat input is measured in Joules per unit length. As a Joule is a watt second, and remembering that a watt is voltage x current, the heat input is determined as follows: Heat Input = voltage x current = speed of travel In US. customary units this reduces to: HISEx1x60+¥ 5-18AWS Visual Inspection Workshop Module #5—Measurements of Welding where: HI = Heat Input in Joulessinch (J/mm), oltage in volts, current in amperes (amps), travel speed in inches per minute (in./min) factor converting minutes to seconds In Sl units: HIsEx where: HU = Heat Input in Joutesfinch (J/mm), roltage in volts, -=current in amperes (amps), ravel speed in millimeters per second (mni/sec) E = v 5.11.1 Examples What is the heat input if welding at 220 amps, 24 volts with a travel speed of 9 inches per minute? HI =Ex 1x 604¥ (in,) 4 220 x 609) 35,200 Vin. oF 5.2 kifin, (10005 = i) In the above example, GMAW was used. If the process was changed to SAW at 35 volts, 450 amps and a travel speed of 27 infmin, will the heat input be increased or decreased? HI =ExIx602¥ 5 450 x 60 +27 = 35,000 Jéin. of 35 kin. ‘The foregoing calculations show that the heat input is almost identical—less than 1/2% different 5.11.2 Tensile (and Yield) Strength, Calculations of tensile and yield strength are used in connection with procedure qualification for groove welds. In the tensile test, typically a round or rectangular reduced-section specimen taken from the coupon (or material being tested) is pulled (0 destruction, The reduced-section dimensions are taken before testing commences to determine the cross sectional area