Significance - and - Importance - of - Qualitati 2

1
Significance and Importance of Qualitative Approach in Social Research with

Special Reference to Pastoral Counselling
These new [qualitative] methods are not for

the faint of heart. They demand imagination,
courage to face the unknowable, flexibility,
some creativeness, and a good deal of
personal skills in observation, interviewing,
and self-examination-some of the same skills,
in fact, required for effective
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counseling.
Abstract
No research is conducted in a vacuum. Every research is shaped by the presuppositions of

the researcher. These presuppositions are in turn a reflection of his/her philosophic
underpinnings. This paper seeks to explore the significance and importance of qualitative
research, especially in the context of pastoral counseling by first presenting a broad definition
of qualitative research. Then determining how qualitative research is shaped by various
paradigms. In the next section, five major qualitative approaches are presented with their
relevance for pastoral counselling. And finally qualitative research and its implications for
pastoral counseling is presented, to demonstrated how qualitative research can inform and
guide pastoral counseling.
Introduction
Leo Goldman’s statement as quoted above reflects the close relationship that qualitative
research shares with pastoral counseling. Both demand a certain amount of flexibility and
openness to encounter the unknown. And above all both require a willingness to take a risk in
stepping into unchartered waters. In this paper the researcher has sought to establish the
importance of qualitative research in social science in general and pastoral counseling in
particular. This paper is divided into four sections. The first section deals with a general
understanding of qualitative research, its characteristics and its difference from quantitative
research. In the second section the paper explores the role of paradigms and how they shape
both the method and outcome of research. In the third section, five major qualitative
approaches have been discussed along with their importance and significance for pastoral
counseling. In the final section the researcher makes an attempt to correlate qualitative
research with pastoral counseling.
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Leo Goldman, “Moving Counseling Research Into the 21st Century,” Counseling Psychologist
17, no. 1 (January 1989): 83–84.
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1. Understanding Qualitative Research
1.1 Definition
Denzin and Lincoln have rightly pointed out that qualitative research is a very complex term
which comprises of various concepts, assumptions and employs a variety of methods in the
research procedure. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Nonetheless, after considering some definitions from
various scholars, a generic definition is given to establish the boundaries and set the
foundation of this paper.
Rossman and Rallis in defining qualitative research focus on the role of the qualitative
researcher and what he/she strives to achieve. According to them, “Qualitative researchers
seek answers to their questions in the real world. They gather what they see, hear, and read
from people and places and from events and activities. They do research in natural settings
rather than in laboratories or through written surveys... (The) purpose is (to) learn about some
aspects of the social world and to generate new understanding that can be
used” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Mcleod writing from a counseling perspective offers this definition of qualitative
research. “The primary aim of qualitative research is to develop an understanding of how the
social world is constructed.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
According to C.T Fischer “Qualitative research is a reflective, interpretive,
descriptive, and usually reflexive effort to describe and understand actual instances of human
action and experience from the perspective of the participants who are living through a
particular situation.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Creswell’s definition of qualitative research is as “Qualitative research begins with
assumptions, a worldview, the possible use of a theoretical lens, and the study of research
problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human
problem” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
The above given definitions indicate the complexity and profundity of what
qualitative research entails. But nevertheless there are some common denominators in these
definitions that can help us to extrapolate a working definition of qualitative research.
Qualitative research is an endeavour to understand people as they live encompassed
in a complex reality and seeks to present coherently as best as possible their life experience(s)
and event(s) to generate theories that explain or describe the given social phenomenon that is
under study. In other words qualitative research focuses on the meaning that people ascribe to
life events/experiences and how they understand them from their own given worldview. The
task of the researcher is to understand these events/experiences as empathetically as possible
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Egon Guba and Yvonna S. Lincoln, “Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions and Emerging
Confluences,” in The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research, ed. N.K Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, Third
Edition. (Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc, 2005), 2.
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Gretchen B. Rossman and Sharon F. Rallis, Learning in the Field: An Introduction to
Qualitative Research (SAGE, 2011), 4.
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John McLeod, Qualitative Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy (London: Sage
Publications Ltd, 2001), 3.
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Constance T. Fischer, Qualitative Research Methods for Psychologists: Introduction through
Empirical Studies (USA: Academic Press, 2011), XVI.
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John W. Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five
Approaches (SAGE Publications, 2007), 37.
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and then present the findings in such a manner that truly reflects or at least, reflects as closely
as possibly what the participants have shared with the researcher.
1.2 Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Different scholars have proposed different aspects that they feel truly characterise qualitative
research. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP But across the board they have some common elements that
characterise qualitative research such as, research is carried out in the natural world and not
in a laboratory setting, the emphasis being on learning about people, how they live and the
meaning they attach to their life’s experiences and events. Also the context in which they live
and interact is of utmost importance and finally the findings that are generated from this
study are presented in an everyday language that attempts to reflect the language and the
worldview of the participants. For a concise understanding we will consider the
characteristics of qualitative research as proposed by M.Q. Patton, under three major
headings i.e. design strategies, data-collection strategies and analysis
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strategies.
1.2.1 Design Strategies
1.2.1.1 Naturalistic Inquire: - Qualitative inquire is carried out in a real world situation. It
attempts to capture events and experiences as they happen without any or minimum
intervention. There is a sense of openness to whatever transpires in the course of the
study. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
1.2.1.2 Emergent Design Flexibility: - In a qualitative research the starting point is the
research question and not the hypothesis. The question determines the data that needs to be
acquired and data analysis begins stimulates. As the researcher works on this inductively
he/she begins to recognize themes, patters and categories that emerge. These are then tested
deductively by comparing with the new and existing data. This oscillation between induction
and deduction is termed as “recursive or abductive.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP This then leads to
sharpening of the research question and further modifications are made to the data gathering
and analysis strategies. “This sensitivity to emerging findings ...is referred to as emergent
design.”1
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Refer to Guba and Lincoln, “Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions and Emerging
Confluences.” And Robert K. Yin, Qualitative Research from Start to Finish, 1 edition. (New York: Guilford
Press, 2010), 7–8.
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Michael Quinn Patton, Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods (SAGE Publications,
2002), 40–41.
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J.W Heyink and TJ Tymstra, “The Function of Qualitative Research,” Social Indicators
Research 29, no. 3 (July 1993): 293.
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Donald E. Polkinghorne, “Language and Meaning: Data Collection in Qualitative Research,”
Journal of Counseling Psychology 52, no. 2 (2005): 140.
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Susan Morrow, Carrie Castaneda and Elizabeth Abrams, “Counseling Psychology Research Methods:
Qualitative Approaches,” in Qualitative Research Methods in Psychology, ed. Nollaig Frost, vol. I
(Maidenhead; New York: Open University Press, 2011), 215.
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1.2.2 Data collection Strategies
1.2.2.1 Qualitative data: - One of the key aspects of qualitative research is to understand the
situation of the participant and what they are experiencing. In order to do justice to this,
qualitative research needs to be emic rather than etic. “An emic perspective attempts to
capture participants’ indigenous meanings of real world events.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP So the data
collection and data analysis is based on categories, patterns and themes that emerge from the
inside (data itself) and are not super imposed by the researcher.
1.2.2.2 Personal experience and engagement: - Since qualitative research demands indepth
knowledge of the participants, which can be acquired only when the researcher is able to
witness firsthand what is being studied. The researcher cannot accomplish this by being a
passive observer. On the contrary, he needs to assume what Maykut and Morehouse have
termed “...the posture of indwelling.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Elaborating on this they further state
that a researcher literally lives within the context of what he/she is studying. The researcher is
a part of the investigation. Which means his/her own background, experience, bias and
worldview play a pivotal role in how data is collected and how it is interpreted.
1.2.3 Analysis Strategies
1.2.3.1 Holistic perspective: - Qualitative research always keeps the big picture in mind. In
other words qualitative research follows a ‘Gestalt’ perspective. The focus of qualitative
research is to understand the whole phenomenon as a complex system which cannot be
fragmented or reduced to a few variables. To do so, would yield a lopsided result which
would not be true to the participant’s real situation. Camic, Rhodes, and Yardley rightly
point out that “Qualities are emergent properties arising from the configuration of elements
in a whole. Hence qualitative research is necessarily holistic...” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
1.2.3.2 Unique case orientation: - Qualitative research restricts itself in terms of its sampling.
The rationale being that each individual or the group that is under study is unique and special.
To truly capture the details of the participants one needs to treat them as unique and not seek
generalization right at the outset. Qualitative methods like case study focus on an individual’s
aim to acquire as much details as possible of that particular case before they attempt to
engage in theory development or generalization. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
1.3 The Qualitative and Quantitative Debate
Qualitative research can also be understood from another vantage point. That is by comparing
it with the quantitative approach. A quantitative approach can be simply defined as a research
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Yin, Qualitative Research from Start to Finish, 11.
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Pamela Maykut and Richard Morehouse, Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophical and
Practical Guide (London ; Washington, D.C: Routledge, 1994), 23.
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Paul Marc Camic, Jean E. Rhodes, and Lucy Yardley, “Naming the Stars: Integrating
Qualitative Methods into Psychological Research,” in Qualitative Research in Psychology: Expanding
Perspectives in Methodology and Design (American Psychological Association, 2003), 9.
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Carla Willig, Introducing Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2 edition. (Maidenhead,
England; New York: Open University Press, 2008), 88.
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that is ‘designed to answer a research question in terms of numerical

quantities.’ ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP A number of scholars actually define qualitative research by
explaining how qualitative research is not quantitative. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP But on the other hand
there are also those who are of the opinion that “The relationship between qualitative and
quantitative research should not be considered in terms of mutually exclusive dichotomy but
rather as a continuum of complementary paradigms...” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Taking this view even
further King, Keohane and Verba comment that “...the difference between the quantitative
and qualitative traditions are only stylistic and are methodologically and substantively
unimportant.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Whether contradictory or as a continuum, these two approaches are distinctive in their

own right and cannot be used interchangeably. Furthermore we must also remember that
distinction does not imply superiority of one approach over another. As Elliot Eisner rightly
points out that though both these approaches describe qualities; the difference lies in the
forms used to represent them. He further stated that “Quantification, the hallmark of scientific
method, describes with respect to magnitude. Qualification describes qualities through the
use of descriptive language and meaning associated with such language.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP So
though these two approaches are complementary they are also unique and it would be helpful
for us to highlight some of the major points where they differ. Following are some of the
major areas where these two approaches can be compared and contrasted. (This is not an
exhaustive list and a number of other issues can also be included in this)
1.3.1 Approach to Inquiry: - Qualitative research aims at explaining and gaining insight
into people’s lives. The focus is to understand how people experience life and
what meaning they derive from it. “Qualitative research is concerned
with...questions such as why? how? in what way? Quantitative research on the
other hand, is more concerned with questions such as how much? How many?
How often? To what extent?” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
1.3.2 Scientific Methods: - Qualitative method employs an exploratory or “bottom-up”
approach in which there is a constant interplay between data collection, data
analysis and the formulation of knowledge, hypothesis or theories. And in the
light of one the other is constantly evolving. Quantitative approach on the other
follow more of a confirmatory or “top-down” approach. In which the researcher
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Kathleen M. Wallace, “The Use and Value of Qualitative Research Studies,” Industrial
Marketing Management 13, no. 3 (August 1984): 181.
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Ref to .A. Strauss and J. Corbin, Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures
and Techniques (Newbury Park, CA: SAGE, 1990). And G.D Shank, Qualitative Research: A Personal Skills
Approach. (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hal, 2002).
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Kenneth W. Borland, “Qualitative and Quantitative Research: A Complementary Balance,”
New Directions for Institutional Research 2001, no. 112 (December 1, 2001): 5.
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Gary King, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific
Inference in Qualitative Research (Princeton University Press, 1994), 4.
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Elliot Eisner, “On the Art and Science of Qualitative Research in Psychology,” in Qualitative
Research in Psychology: Expanding Perspectives in Methodology and Design, ed. Paul Marc Camic, Jean E.
Rhodes, and Lucy Yardley (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2003), 20.
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Beverley Hancock, An Introduction to Qualitative Research (Nottingham: Trent Focus Group,
2001), 2.
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begins with a hypothesis or theory which needs to be confirmed in the light of the
data gathered. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
1.3.3 Data Collection Strategies: - As stated above each approach has a unique focus
and a different starting point and so obviously the data collection strategies will
also differ from one approach to another. In qualitative approach a flexible mode
which is non-interventional and causes minimal disturbance is employed, such as
ethnography, grounded theory etc. In contrast, quantitative data collection
strategies are more structured, rigid and specified in detailed prior to the
commencement of the study. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
1.3.4 Sampling: - Data collected and the findings presented will largely depend on the
kind of samples that are used to generate the report. In qualitative inquiry the
sample size is normally small and restricted; since the focus is on gather as much
information as possible from a small group or individuals. Purposive sampling is
one such example, and as the name suggests the researcher purposefully selects
the participants based on his/her knowledge of the group so as to ensure that the
data collected enhances the knowledge of the researcher. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Quantitative approach on the other hand is characterized by large, random and
representative as Hoepfl states “In qualitative inquiry, the dominant sampling
strategy is probability sample which depends on the selection of a random and
representative sample from the larger population.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
1.3.5 Data analysis: - For qualitative research the raw data constitutes words which
help to understand the experience of the participants. The quantitative researcher
on the other hand reduces measurements to numbers. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
1.3.6 Final Report: - Qualitative research is generally presented in an informal narrative
style with contextual description and often direct quotations from research
participants. Quantitative research is often, presented as formal statistical reports
comprising of correlations and reporting of statistical significance of
findings. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
2. Exploring the foundational Paradigms of Qualitative research
No research is conducted in a vacuum. Every research has a starting point, certain

foundations on which this inquiry is based. As the research progresses, the starting
point/foundation might be reinforced or it might get modified in the light of the new
knowledge acquired. But nevertheless, every research needs a starting point, some basic
assumption which becomes the launch pad for the research to take off. According to Creswell
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R. Burke Johnson and Larry Christensen, Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and
Mixed Approaches (SAGE Publications, 2013), 33.
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Borland, “Qualitative and Quantitative Research,” 11.
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Bruce L. Berg, Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences (USA: Pearson
Education, Limited, 2001), 33.
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Marie C. Hoepfl, “Choosing Qualitative Research: A Primer for Technology Education
Researchers,” Journal of Technology Education 9, no. 1 (1997): 51.
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Johnson and Christensen, Educational Research, 35.
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this starting point is essentially the ‘knowledge claim’ of the researcher which governs what
the researcher seeks to achieve. These claims are called as ‘paradigms’. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP In the
research context, “...the term ‘paradigm’ describes a system of idea, or world view, used by a
community of researchers to generate knowledge. It is a set of assumptions, research
strategies and criteria for rigour that are shared, even taken for granted, by that
community.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Filstead defines ‘paradigms’ as a “set of interrelated
assumptions about the social world which provides a philosophical and conceptual
framework for the organized study of that world.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP It is this philosophical or
conceptual framework that determines the direction that the research takes; furthermore it
also influences the tools, instruments, participants and methods used in the study.
2.1 Research Paradigms and their Components
Every research operates from a particular paradigm or paradigms. The lack of appreciation
for the philosophical underpinnings of research will result in a misdirected or even faulty
research conclusion. As Ponterottos states “...some are doing (qualitative research) without a
firm grasp of the philosophical anchors undergirding many approaches to qualitative inquiry.
It is important that researchers understand well the philosophy of science parameters
anchoring their work.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Having said that it must also be noted that there are no
right or wrong paradigms, only different paradigms that will steer the course of the research.
As Hesse-Biber and Leavy rightly point out
Paradigm or world views are neither right nor wrong; one way of
seeing is another way of not seeing. However, paradigms are
powerful; ways of looking at the reality, and they are windows
giving us information about the social world and often frame the
particular questions we seek to answer. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Therefore to understand qualitative research and the philosophy that governs the stance of the
researcher, four major paradigms namely positivism, post-positivism, constructivism-
interpretivism and critical theory will be discussed as proposed by Guba and
Lincoln. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Followed by which the researcher will also discuss four related
questions about ontology, epistemology, axiology and methodology.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
John W. Creswell, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches (SAGE Publications, 2013), 6.
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Ellie Fossey et al., “Understanding and Evaluating Qualitative Research,” The Australian and
New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 36, no. 6 (December 2002): 718.
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W.J Filstead, “Qualitative Methods: A Needed Perspective in Evaluation Research.” in
Qualitative and Quantitative Methods in Evaluation Research. ed. T.D Cook and C. S Reichardt (Beverly Hills,
CA: Sage., 1979), 34.
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Joseph G. Ponterotto, “Qualitative Research in Counseling Psychology: A Primer on Research
Paradigms and Philosophy of Science,” Journal of Counseling Psychology 52, no. 2 (2005): 127.
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Sharlene Nagy Hesse-Biber and Patricia Leavy, The Practice of Qualitative Research
(USA: SAGE, 2010), 38.
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Guba and Lincoln, “Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions and Emerging Confluences,”
196.
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2.1.1. Positivism
Positivism has its roots in the works of Auguste Comte (1798-1857). Comte proposed a
social progression that has taken place in phases which he describes as the ‘law of three
phases.’ These phases were termed ‘the theological, the metaphysical and the scientific.’
Significantly, the scientific phase was termed by him as the positive phase. In the theological
phases knowledge is derived from religion and sacred traditions, the metaphysical phase is
when reason refused to accept laid down knowledge in an uncritical manner. This was an age
where questions were asked and reason was sought for truth claims. And the scientific stage
was marked by knowledge that was based on empirical reasoning. Consequently to this day
we link science with positivism. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Positivism is of the view that there exists an objective knowable truth that can be
accurately perceived by us. It suggests “that there is a straight-forward relationship between
the world and our perception, and our understanding, of it.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP In the broadest
sense positivism is a negation of the metaphysics. For positivist, knowledge comprises simply
to describe the phenomenon that we experience. The parameters of knowledge for a positivist
are restricted to what can be observed and measured. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
2.1.1.2 Qualitative research and Positivism
As highlighted earlier, positivism assumes that scientific inquiry implies that it can
quantitatively measure independent facts about a single knowable reality. This is to say that
the data collection and its analysis, is done in a value-free setting and it does not influence
what is being studied. In other words it poses research as a one way street, where the
researcher is only acquiring knowledge passively. Qualitative research at its core is in direct
conflict with such a world view. The assumption on which the qualitative researcher operates
is that there are multiple realties and that they all are equally valid in their own right. Also, it
recognizes that the researcher is not a passive observer rather he is an active participant in the
whole process and his presence will influence the study to a certain extent. Hence, qualitative
research and positivism stand antithetical to each other. As Hale, Treharne, and Kitas have
rightly observed “...the philosophy behind qualitative research is essentially different to that
of quantitative; as the basis of positivism suggests that there is already a reality or truth out
there, which researchers simply have to discover by measuring it.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
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Kurt Von Fritz, “Western Philosophy :: Positivism and Social Theory in Comte, Mill, and
Marx,” Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed August 3, 2014,
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1350843/Western-philosophy/8873/Positivism-and-social-theory-
in-Comte-Mill-and-Marx.
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Willig, Introducing Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2.
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SE Krauss, “Research Paradigms and Meaning Making: A Primer,” The Qualitative Report 10,
no. 4 (December 2005): 760.
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Elizabeth D. Hale, Gareth J. Treharne, and George D. Kitas, “Qualitative Methodologies I:
Asking Research Questions with Reflexive Insight,” Musculoskeletal Care 5, no. 3 (September 1, 2007): 143.
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2.1.2 Post-Positivism
Post-positivism originated in anthropological studies in the 20 th century. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP

Anthropologists who engaged in ethnography and in participative observation were of the
opinion that the western point of view and western cultural values could not be universally
applied. Unlike positivism which adhered to a single knowable reality. The post-positivist
recognized that reality was complex and a simple cause and effect (as understood by the
positivist) approach distorted the reality. Nor could the researcher be neutral in terms of his
value system as he engaged in research. A prominent distinction between the positivist and
post positivist is that the former stresses “theory verification” and the latter “theory
falsification”. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Tekin and Kotaman in summarizing the views of Cakir,
Wonacott, Yang and Yu state that following, are the key aspects of post
positivism ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP :-
 Objective and extrinsic reality exists

 It is difficult if not impossible to capture this objective reality as the researcher is
governed by his own subjectivity. He approaches the subject from his own cultural
and social context which influence if not taints his perspective.
 The focus of post positivist inquiry is not to lay down universal and timeless laws
rather the idea is to make recommendations that are relevant to the existing
conditions and may be only temporarily valid.
 Since reality is complex it must be approached from various vantage points to gain a
broad understanding of the phenomenon being studied. This is possible only when the
researcher gathers his data from various sources.
The above mentioned characteristics highlight a number of differences between positivism

and post-positivism. But the other side of the coin is that these two perspectives share much
in common. Both seek explanation and prediction and thus control the phenomena. Both
these perspectives seek to establish the cause and effect principle in research. Furthermore
both operate from a nomothetic and etic perspective. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
2.1.2.1 Qualitative research and Post-Positivism

Unlike positivism (in the strict sense logical positivism) post-positivism perspective can be
used in qualitative research becasue it is broad enough to acknowledge the subjective of the
researcher, Also, it recognizes that meaning is constructed and is not just inherently present in
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ali Kemal Tekin and Huseyin Kotaman, “The Epistemological Perspectives on Action
Research,” Journal of Education and Social Research 3, no. 1 (January 2013): 83.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Guba and Lincoln, “Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions and Emerging Confluences,”
196.
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Tekin and Kotaman, “The Epistemological Perspectives on Action Research”84; Refer to
Mustafa Cakir, “Epistemological Dialogue of Validity: Building Validity in Educational and Social Research,”
Education 132, no. 3 (March 22, 2012): 664; Michael E. Wonacott, Postmodernism: Yes, No, Or Maybe?
(Center on Education and Training for Employment, 2001); Mikyeong Yang, “A Critical Review of Research on
Questioning in Education: Limitations of Its Positivistic Basis,” Asia Pacific Education Review 7, no. 2
(December 1, 2006): 195–204; Chong Ho Yu, “Misconceived Relationships between Logical Positivism and
Quantitative Research: An Analysis in the Framework of Ian Hacking.” (April 7, 2001), accessed September 16,
2014, http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED452266.
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Ponterotto, “Qualitative Research in Counseling Psychology,” 129.
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the phenomena. According to Susan L. Morrow “In counseling psychology, the research
design most closely aligned with post-positivism is consensual qualitative research...
(Furthermore) some post positivist researchers also use grounded theory
design.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP So, unlike positivism which is more in line with quantitative
approach, it is possible for qualitative research to find some common ground with post-
positivist position but this must be done critically and carefully. What does post-positivist
perspective have to offer researchers? According to Ryan, a post-positivist position has four
insights to offer for a researcher, they are ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP :-
 Critical Self- reflection: - Ryan states that ‘investigating your own epistemologies and
understanding how they affect you as a researcher is an essential part of the post-
positivist approach.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP In other words a researcher must acknowledge
that he does not approach a research topic devoid of his prejudices and assumptions.
On the contrary it is his prejudices and assumptions that will shape the research. A
self reflection requires that a researcher recognizes how his own world view is
shaping what he is studying.
 Researcher not a spectator but a participator : Positivist researchers assume that their
methods mirror reality, the presupposition being that a researcher is above the
research subject and can objectively describe it as it unfolds. A post positivistic
approach is that a researcher is not one on the sidelines rather he/she is actively
involved in what is unfolding. As Ryan comments “We regard ourselves as people
who conduct research among people, learning with them, rather than conducting
research on them.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Raising the right questions: - Research is often understood as seeking answers to the
research questions but post positivists do not claim to know it all and thus they
recognize that they may not be able to solve the problem they have set out to
investigate. In the post positivist world view this is not a limitation on the contrary
this aspect of research is desirable and is seen as a scholarly activity. As Ryan suggest
“Good research is something that opens up the nature of problems and sticks with
hard questions.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Reflexive not dogmatic: - Since a post-positivist researcher acknowledges his/ her
limitation in grasping the truth, it logically flows that the researcher is not attempting
to arrive at any rigid and fixed conclusions. On the contrary they recognize the
complexity of events being studied and keep their conclusions reflexive and
accommodative. In Ryan’s words researchers “avoid dogma(tic) and authoritarian
tones.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
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Susan L. Morrow, “Qualitative Research in Counseling Psychology: Conceptual Foundations,”
Counseling Psychologist 35, no. 2 (January 2007): 213.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Anne B. Ryan, “Post-Positivist Approaches to Research,” in Researching and Writing Your
Thesis: A Guide for Postgraduate Students, ed. M. Antonesa et al. (MACE: Maynooth Adult and Community
Education, 2006), 16.
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Ibid., 18.
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Ibid.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid., 19.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid.
11
2.1.3 Constructivism/Interpretivism
The roots of constructivism/ interpretivism grew out of the philosophy of Edmund Husserl’s
phenomenology and Wilhelm Dilthey’s and other German philosophers’ study of interpretive
understanding called hermeneutics. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP The constructivist/interpretvism
paradigm does not assume one knowable reality (view taken by the naȉve realistic positivism)
that exists in the world. On the contrary, constructivists’ world view affirms that reality is
constructed in the mind of the individual, rather than it being an external singular entity. The
understanding of this paradigm is that people actively construct or create their own subjective
representations of objective reality. Dilthey’s distinction between Naturwissenschaft (human
science) and Geisteswissenschaft (human science) further clarifies the distinction between
positivist and constructivist positions. He states that the goal of natural science is scientific
explanation; on the other hand the goal of human science is to understand the meaning of the
social phenomenon. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
The idea being that when it comes to natural science we can look for a cause and
effect phenomenon. Whereas when it comes to human science a liner cause and effect theory
will not suffice since humans live in a complex web of meaning that are constructed as they
interact with their environment. Thomas further states “(constructivism/ interpretivism)...
opposes the naȉve realist and empiricist understanding (that states) that there can be some
kind of unmediated, direct grasp of the empirical world and that knowledge simply reflects or
mirrors what is out there.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP So the proponents of constructivism/
interpretivism are of the view that meaning is constructed and not discovered.
2.1.3.1Qualitative research and Constructivism/ Interpretivism

As stated above, the emphasis of constructivism/ interpretivism paradigm is to understand
how people live and describe their own life. It is this lived experience from the point of view
of those living it or experiencing it that is of paramount importance in qualitative research.
For the constructivism/ interpretivism researcher, the starting point is not a pre-developed
theory. Rather they begin by generating or inductively developing a theory or pattern of
meanings. This is done on the presupposition that the research essentially constitutes
understanding of the world of human experience which is socially constructed and can be
best understood by relying on the views of the participants. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP One of the key
aspects of constructivism is the inter-dynamics between the researcher and the participants.
Since this paradigm operates on the assumption that meaning is hidden and must be extracted
through reflection. This reflection takes place in the form of ‘researcher-participant dialogue.’
And it is this dialogue that results in the findings that are jointly created (co-
construct). ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Dilthey’s distinction between Naturwissenschaf and
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Noella Mackenzie and Sally Knipe, “Research Dilemmas: Paradigms, Methods and
Methodology,” Issues in Educational Research 16, no. 2 (January 2006): 194.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Thomas Schwandt, “Three Epistemological Stances for Qualitative Inquiry: Interpretitivism,
Hermeneutics and Social Constructivism,” in Handbook of Qualitative Research, ed. NK Denzin and YS
Lincoln, 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2000), 197.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Noella Mackenzie and Sally Knipe, “Research Dilemmas: Paradigms, Methods and
Methodology,”135.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
12
Geisteswissenschaft is another key dimension of constructivism/ interpretivism paradigm that

is in line with the basic philosophy of qualitative research, advocating that the primary
purpose for an investigation is to understand a phenomenon rather than explaining
it. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
If one were to follow the positivist approach and attempt to explain the lived
experience of the people ‘mathematically by using statistics (it) would be to strip the
experience of its meaning, that is the meaning as the participants experienced
it.’ ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP But constructivism/ interpretivism want to understand the world. It is not
that the post-positivist qualitative researchers are not interested in meaning but “...their focus
tends to be more on the objective stance of the research than the meaning- making
process.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP From a counseling perspective constructivism/ interpretivism has
much to offer as S. Morrow suggests “Designs based on a constructivism/ interpretivism
paradigm are particularly appropriate to counselling psychology because of the constructivist
nature of psychotherapy.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
2.1.4 Critical Theory (Critical-ideological)

Critical theory grew out of the Institute of Social Research at the University of Frankfurt in
1920s. Similar to the constructivism/ interpretivism perspective, that reality is multi
dimensional but it also recognize that there is a real ‘reality’ which is related to power and
oppression. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Critical ideology is more of a cluster approach than a single
thought, which encompasses various ideological positions such as feminist, critical race and
queer perspectives. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Despite some major points of divergence among these
thoughts, they nevertheless share some common ground. Following are some the aspects as
proposed by Ponterotto ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Research from a critical-ideological perspective is always a form of cultural and

social criticism.
 Language is a foundational aspect of a person’s subjective formation.
 Not all groups in society are at par, some clearly enjoy a privileged status over the
others.
 Oppression is multi-faceted and cannot be explained in a singular cause and effect
theory
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Tracie Constantino, “The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods,” ed. Lisa
Given, Constructvism (USA: SAGE Publications, August 19, 2008), 116.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Maykut and Morehouse, Beginning Qualitative Research, 17–18.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Susan L. Morrow, Carrie Castaneda-Sound, and Elizabeth Abrams, “Counseling Psychology
Research Methods : Qualitative Approaches,” in APA Handbook of Counseling Psychology: Theories,
Research, and Methods, ed. Nadya A. Fouad, vol. 1 (USA: American Psychological Association, 2012), 95.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Morrow, “Qualitative Research in Counseling Psychology,” 213.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Christine Griffin and Ann Phoenix, “The Relationship between Qualitative and Quantitative
Research: Lessons from Feminist Psychology,” Journal of community & applied social psychology 4, no. 4
(1994): 289.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
13
2.1.4.1 Qualitative research and Critical ideological
According to Gelo “...critical ideological paradigm provides a strong rationale for the
application of qualitative research method.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP This is because critical
ideologicaly seeks to understand the world from the eyes of the participants. In our
contemporary times when issues such as Dalit movement, the LGBT identity struggle etc are
at the forefront, this paradigm has much to offer. Heather Lyons in “Qualitative Research as
Social Justice Practice with Culturally Diverse Populations” offers the following points of
convergence for qualitative research and critical ideology paradigm. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Both in qualitative research and the practice of social justice context and
environment is of paramount.
 A strong interpersonal relationship between the researcher and the participant that is
reciprocal.
 Sensitivity to the impact of research.
 An emphasis on an emic and inductive understanding of experience concepts and
samples.
A researcher working from this paradigm wears many hats has he/she conducts the research.
A researcher is at times a co-researcher with the participants striving for emancipation; At
times he/she is also a mentor as he/she works with communities that are underprivileged.
More importantly a researcher tries to influence his/her reader to get involved in an issue
his/her researcher raises.
2.2 Connecting the Dots: Paradigms and four philosophical assumptions
Susan Morrow describes a paradigm as a “net” containing the researcher’s ontological,

epistemological, axiological and methodological assumptions. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP If a paradigm,
as stated above, is a worldview or an assumption which will steer the course of the research
then these four philosophical assumptions are the axles on which the research moves ahead.
Gringeri, Barusch, and Cambron have rightly pointed out “ Every research has a paradigm
that guides the work, a view of the process of knowledge production, composed of the basic
elements of ontology(nature of existence), epistemology (nature of knowing), methodology
(best way to build knowledge) and axiology (the role of values in knowledge
development).” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP The researcher in this section will briefly describe each of
these four assumptions and also specify how they are related to the paradigms that were
presented in the previous section.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Omar Carlo Gioacchino Gelo, “On Research Methods and Their Philosophical Assumptions:
Raising the Consciousness of Researchers,” Psychotherapie und Sozialwissenschaft 14, no. 2 (2012): 124.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Heather Lyons et al., “Qualitative Research as Social Justice Practice with Culturally Diverse
Populations,” Journal for Social Action in Counseling and Psychology 5 (November 2, 2013): 12.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Christina Gringeri, Amanda Barusch, and Christopher Cambron, “Epistemology in Qualitative
Social Work Research: A Review of Published Articles, 2008–2010,” Social Work Research 37, no. 1 (January
3, 2013): 57.
14
2.2.1 Ontology
Ontology is the study of being; it is essentially concerned with the nature of existence and
what constitutes reality. It is a philosophical belief system about the nature of social reality-
what can be known and how. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP An ontological query is focused on two key
issues; first does, social reality exist independently of human conceptions and interpretations?
Second, is there a shared common reality in general or only multiple but individual context
based realities? These two questions are influenced by two very broad perspectives found in
ontology, namely realism and idealism. The former postulates that reality is a product of the
human mind and only when the mind ascribes any meaning to an event does it acquire that
meaning. Whereas the later perspective claims that reality is independent of the human mind
and has an objective reality outside of our subjective experience. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Each of the
paradigms discussed in the previous section respond to ontological questions from their own
given worldview.
 Positivist: - This position postulates that reality is objective, identifiable and

measurable. Also, it assumes that a researcher is able to stand beyond the
phenomena being studied and his own values do not influence the research.
Furthermore, since there is one reality, a careful manipulation of the right
variable will always yield the same result. Uwe Flick gives an example of
research from this paradigm states “a positivist conducting a study on
counselling process and outcome in cross-racial dyads may set up a tightly
controlled experimental analogy study, manipulating carefully only one
variable while holding all other variables constant.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Reality from this world view is orderly, predicable and has the possibility to
be controlled. Robin Ursher rightly asserts that this stance claims to be
“...orderly, lawfully and hence predictable (is) highly
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
problematic.” Since human reality is an every changing
phenomenon and cannot be boxed into a singular version of reality.
 Post-positivism:- In this paradigm, the world is knowable but not directly
comprehendible. As the research looks at the world (that is the research data)
from his own subjective worldview, this influences how he conceptualizes
and interprets reality. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Since no one objective reality exists,
absolute claims of how things are cannot be made. The claims that can be
made are imperfect or only partial reflections of what is understood.
 Constructivism/Interpretativism: The ontological foundation of this paradigm
affirms that there are multipe constructed realities each equally valid in their
own given situation. Also reality rather than being objectively present is
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Hesse-Biber and Leavy, The Practice of Qualitative Research, 4.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Jane Ritchie et al., Qualitative Research Practice: A Guide for Social Science Students and
Researchers (SAGE, 2013), 4.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Robin Usher, “A Critique of the Neglected Epistemological Assumptions,” in Understanding
Educational Research, ed. Robin Usher and David Scott (London: Routledge, 2002), 14.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Maureen Duffy and Ronald J. Chenail, “Values in Qualitative and Quantitative Research,”
Counseling and Values 53, no. 1 (October 1, 2009): 27.
15
created or rather co-created as a result of the interaction that takes place

between the researcher and the participant. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Critical-ideology: - For the critical-ideological researcher, reality is shaped
by gender, class, context etc. Furthermore how the researcher and the
participants recognize reality will depend on their status quo and how they
are placed in society. “Thus knowledge (reality) is always mediated and
embedded within an historical and institutional context.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP And
so this paradigm again views that reality is only perceived as it is corresponds
either to power or oppression. In other words, the emphasis is power, class,
gender and ethnicity that actually shapes reality.
2.2.2 Epistemology
If ontology is about knowledge, then epistemology is related to how we acquire that

knowledge. The term epistemology is derived from the Greek word epistȇmȇ which simply
means knowledge. So in other words epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge or how
we come to know. Epistemology, primarily deals with questions such as what is the
relationship between the knower and what is known? How do we know what we know? What
counts as knowledge? ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Every research is fashioned on the basis of its
epistemological assumptions. It is these assumptions that guide our research design. In fact it
is our epistemology “... (That) encourages us to reflect on the connection between how we do
research and the credibility of any research products; underlying this reflection must be an
examination of our own knowledge formation process.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Within the context of
research Carte and Little have astutely commented that “Epistemology is inescapable” since
it establishes the theoretical foundation of the research. They further state that adopting a
theory of knowledge or recognizing your epistemological assumptions is not a question of
choice whether you want it or not, rather it is a matter of how you embrace it, explicitly or
implicitly. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP We shall now discuss some epistemic questions in relation to the
different paradigms.
 Positivism: - “According to the positivist, epistemological, science is seen as the way

to get at truth, to understand the world well enough so that it might be predicted and
controlled.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP This paradigm dichotomizes between the researcher and
the subject of research. Also, it assumes that the researcher can be completely
objective in his observation, interpretation and findings. This view is an outcome of
two fold aspects namely dualism and objectivism. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Dualism
bifurcates, the research and the researcher, and on the other hand whereas objectivism
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Uwe Flick, A Companion to Qualitative Research (London; Thousand Oaks, Calif.: SLE
Pound, 2004), 89.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Gelo, “On Research Methods and Their Philosophical Assumptions,” 123.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Krauss, “Research Paradigms and Meaning Making,” 758–759.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Gringeri, Barusch, and Cambron, “Epistemology in Qualitative Social Work Research,” 55.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
S. M. Carter and M. Little, “Justifying Knowledge, Justifying Method, Taking Action:
Epistemologies, Methodologies, and Methods in Qualitative Research,” Qualitative Health Research 17, no. 10
(December 1, 2007): 1319.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Krauss, “Research Paradigms and Meaning Making,” 760.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
16
postulates that replicated findings are considered absolutely true with no room for
error or modification. Robin Usher has aptly warned about the danger of the
absolutism that positivism claims. He writes
“The assumption of a positivist/empiricist epistemology leads to an approach

in research that emphasises determinacy (that there is a certain truth that can),
rationality (that there can be no contradictory explanations, that there must be
convergence on a single explanation), impersonality (the objective and the less
subjective the better) and prediction (that research is the making of knowledge
claims in the form of generalisation from which predictions can be made and
events and phenomena controlled) ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Social researcher who deals with human beings, their life and their experience finds it
hard to strike a chord with positivism, especially in the qualitative research domain
due to its deterministic and reductionist worldview.
 Post-Positivism:- The post-positivism ascribes to a more liberal view of dualism and
objectivism. The post-positivist acknowledge that the researcher does influence the
research but at the same time they also maintain that objectivity can be maintained in
the research procedure. They also maintain that the researcher and the participants are
independent of each other but the researcher is not an expert or a superior authority
who can manipulate the participants as he/she wishes. Rather, within this
epistemological stance the “...researcher is seen as a learner who has to be flexible,
open minded, self-reflexive and self-critical.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP The post-positivist
epistemology recognizes that the knowledge it produces is not absolute and nor is it
universally applicable rather it contextually and tentative. And so “...while
objectivity remains a regulatory ideal, knowledge cannot be absolutely true and is,
instead, only an approximation of reality.(objectivist modified
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
epistemology)”
 Constructivism/Interpretativism:- The constructivism / interpretativism position
assumes multipe realities. Unlike the positivist there is no one objective reality ‘out
there’. Rather, reality is created or constructed as a result of the interaction between
the researcher and the participant. Furthermore, the co-created reality is shaped by the
historical, social and cultural context of the researcher and the
participants. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP The epistemological imputes here is not focused on
knowledge as a thing in itself, rather it aims at understanding how humans map
meaning in their lives. This perspective provides a strong ‘rationale for the use of
qualitative research methods.’ ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Methods such as grounded theory,
participatory research, and consensual qualitative research are some of them.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Usher, “A Critique of the Neglected Epistemological Assumptions of Educational Research,”
13.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Tekin and Kotaman, “The Epistemological Perspectives on Action Research,” 84.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Emily J. Perl and Denise F. Noldon, “Overview of Student Affairs Research Methods:
Qualitative and Quantitative,” New Directions for Institutional Research 2000, no. 108 (December 1, 2000): 41.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
17
 Critical-ideology: - The critical- ideological perspective generates knowledge with

the aim to challenge and change the power structures that exists in society. This is
accomplished with both the researcher and the participant (or co-researchers as
known in critical-ideology) working together. Unlike the positivist or the post-
positivist, knowledge is not to be discovered by scientific inquiry but is to be
acquired through ‘critical discourse and debate.’ Furthermore, research is not
undertaken simply to satisfy our intellectual curiosity but it must serve as a ‘tool to be
used in the on-going process of practical transformation of society.’ ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
2.2.3 Axiology
Axiology, in the research paradigm, essentially refers to ‘the philosophy of values’. It is a

term that has been derived from the Greek word axios, and has a Latin equivalent valere
which means “to be strong” or to be worthy.” Axiology is an umbrella term that includes
concepts “...like truth, utility, goodness, beauty, right conduct and
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
obligation.” In other words refers to how values influence or not influence
our research procedure. Just like our ontological and epistemological assumptions become a
launch pad for our research, axiology also serves as the reason for our action. However some
scholars remain sceptical whether axiology can even be considered as a part of the research
paradigm. For example Morgan argues that axiology in reality does not fit within the sphere
of ‘philosophy of knowledge’ since it deals with issues that traditionally come under the
branch of philosophy known as ethics and aesthetics. Though he agrees that values and ethics
have a key role to play in research, his argument is that it does not relate to ‘the nature of
reality’ in the same line as ontology and epistemology. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Though Morgan has a
valid point in stating so, we do need to recognise that our values will shape how we define
reality. For example, a value system that does not affirm human dignity will approach the
issue of euthanasia differently than the one that recognizes the intrinsic value that human life
has. And so Heron and Reason have rightly criticed Guba and Lincoln by adding a fourth
dimension, that is, axiology to their account of ontology, epistemology and methodology.
Their rationale is that “The axiological question asks what is intrinsically valuable in human
life; in particular, what sort of knowledge, if any is intrinsically valuable.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
And so axiology is an equal and pivotal aspect within the inquiry paradigm.
 Positivist: - The positivist position is derived from that of natural science and
it postulates that there is one objective reality which can be discovered
through standardized and rigorous methods/measurement. In such a
worldview value has no or very limited place, as a researcher is able to
observe, gather data, analyse it and presents his findings without his own
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Fossey et al., “Understanding and Evaluating Qualitative Research,” 720.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
David R. Hiles, “The SAGE Encyclopaedia of Qualitative Research Methods,” ed. Lisa Given,
Axiology (Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, August 19, 2008), 52.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
D. L. Morgan, “Paradigms Lost and Pragmatism Regained: Methodological Implications of
Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Methods,” Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1, no. 1 (January 1,
2007): 58.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
John Heron and Peter Reason, “A Participatory Inquiry Paradigm,” Qualitative Inquiry 3, no. 3
(January 9, 1997): 2.
18
values system coming in play. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP In such a system knowledge

is an end in itself.
 Post-Positivist:- The post-positivist position is similar to the positivist affirm
that there is one reality though the researcher may not be able to comprehend
it in it totality. This position recognizes that the values of the researcher may
influence the study, but by minimizing his/her own values or bias it is
possible to achieve objectivity. Values are recognized but an effort is made
to minimize the impact of these values by various methods such as peer
review and standardized procedure.
 Constructivism/Interpretativism: - Axiology is crucial in this paradigm. In
fact, everything is seen through the ethical lens of what is right and wrong.
The researcher is constantly engaged in self-reflection, analysing how
his/her values are impacting the study. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Furthermore, the
researcher acknowledges and describes his values and may even attempt to
bracket them. He/she does not eliminate them. Since the ideas that a
constructivism / interpretativism research takes place in close proximity with
the participants to understand how they construct their lived experience, it
would be impossible for the researcher to do away with his own value
system.
 Critical-ideology: - If for the constructivism / interpretativism researcher
axiology is crucial, then for a researcher working from critical-ideological
perspectives axiology is foundational, as critical theory itself is value laden
and focuses on emancipation as the goal of all knowledge. Furthermore, in
this paradigm, value bias are not only recognized but also acknowledged that
these values will influence the research. No experience whether of the
researcher or of the participant is value free. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
2.2.4 Methodology
Methodology in the simplest sense is a question of how the researcher is going to collect the
research data. Thus obviously, “Methodology emerges from ontology, epistemology and
axiology and address the question of how we gain knowledge.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP To gain a
better understanding of what we mean by methodology it might be helpful to first
differentiate it from the word ‘methods’. Both these terms are often used interchangeably but
in essence they are quite distinct. “Methodology is the study of or science of
method.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP In other words we refer to methodology when we are discussing the
rationale for a particular method.
 Positivism: - As stated above the methodology stems from the other three
aspects of the inquiry paradigm. The positivist’s position is one of that in
which objective reality knowable through the use of proven scientific
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Duffy and Chenail, “Values in Qualitative and Quantitative Research,” 29.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Fischer, Qualitative Research Methods for Psychologists, 413.
19
procedure. It is but natural that the positivist’s methodology will be that which
follows experimental methods which include verification of hypothesis and
manipulation of one or more variables. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Post-Positivism:- Unlike the positivists stance the post positivist researcher
recognizes that his own subjectivity can influence the outcome of the
research. In light of this a post-positivist methodology strives to engage in
data collection in a systematic and rigorous manner so as to minimise the
researcher bias. Furthermore the conclusion or the findings of a post-positivist
methodology takes into account that there might be alternative and competing
explanations for the same phenomena. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Constructivism/Interpretative: - This paradigm affirms that meaning is co-
constructed by the researcher and participants. Unlike the positivist/post-
positivist stance where reality is seen as an objective entity and must be
discovered, in constructivism / interpretative perspective reality is interpreted
rather than discovered. This necessitates that the methodology be one where
the researcher is immersed in the life and culture of the participants. In other
words this methodology is dialogical and interactional rather than linear or
simple cause and effect description. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Critical- ideological: - The critical-ideological methodology is marked by its
focus to speak against the power struggles prevalent in the society. This
methodology is geared towards identifying, examining and revealing
inequities and other societal characteristics that keep people constrained and
oppressed. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP A key aspect of this methodology is that at the end
the marginalized and ostracized must be emancipated.
3. Qualitative Approaches and their significance for Pastoral Counseling

The previous section, dealing with the various paradigms and their corresponding four
philosophic anchors has clearly demonstrated the complexity and variety that qualitative
research entails. What makes qualitative research even more complex is that each paradigm is
valid in its own right and each has its own criteria for conducting a research. In light of this, it
is important for researchers to have a clear understanding as to the paradigms from which
they are operating for this will then determine the course and outcome of the research. To
demonstrate how the qualitative approaches to inquiry flows out of the research paradigm and
philosophical underpinnings, the researcher will highlight five commonly used approaches
based on Creswell’s classification. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP These are narrative research,
phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography and case study. Furthermore these
approaches will also be discussed in the light of pastoral counseling. Pastoral counseling
within the scope of this paper is defined as “a focused form of pastoral care geared toward
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Heron and Reason, “A Participatory Inquiry Paradigm,” 15.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Duffy and Chenail, “Values in Qualitative and Quantitative Research,” 27.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Wallace, “The Use and Value of Qualitative Research Studies,” 28.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Creswell, Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design, 53.
20
enabling individuals, couples and families to cope more constructively with crises, losses,
difficult decisions, and other anxiety-laden experiences.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
3.1 Narrative Research

Narrative approach like most of the other qualitative approaches is an umbrella term
encompassing a variety of methods. Narrative is simple a story told in a clear chronological
order that connects events in a coherent manner for a focused audience. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
These stories serve as windows into the lives of the participants through which the researcher
is able to gain a better understanding of their life and their experience.
3.1.1 What is it?

Creswell defines narrative as a “spoken or written text giving an account of an event/action or
series of events/actions, chronologically connected.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Narrative researchers
primarily focus on individuals and their stories to understand the larger issues and topics. For
example how a death or divorce is experienced by individuals. Their life stories then throw
light on deeper social issues as to how a person copes with tragedy, what is his support
system, the psychological and social impact of the event and so on. Mattingly and Garro have
rightly observed that “...narrative mediates between an inner world of though-feeling and an
outer world of observable actions and states of affairs.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Within the context of
qualitative research narrative approach is an important approach. Since qualitative research
aims at uncovering the meaning people attach to their lives, and their experience; stories and
narratives can serve as a crucial tool to accomplish this.
Narratives are not simply facts and figures that are reported but often when people
narrate some event or experience they attach meaning to it. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP So a wife who has
undergone wife battering in sharing her experience will also narrate her anger or shame or her
sense of helplessness. Thus, narratives expose how a person interprets his/her own life
situation. It is important for a researcher that while he is attending to the story, he/she must
also keep in mind the cultural and social situation of the story-teller since their response and
their narration are conditioned likewise.
3.1.2 How to conduct a Narrative Research?
Creswell in summarising the research step as propose by Clandinin and Connelly has
suggested the following procedure. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Understand what narrative research has to offer and then in the light of that ask
yourself, can your research question be best answered by narrative analysis method.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Howard J. Clinebell Jr Trustee and Bridget Clare McKeever, Basic Types of Pastoral Care and
Counseling: Resources for the Ministry of Healing and Growth, 3rd Edition (Abingdon Press, 2011), 9.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Cigdem Esin, “Narrative Analysis Approaches,” in Qualitative Research Methods In
Psychology: Combining Core Approaches: From Core to Combined Approaches, ed. Nollaig Frost (England:
McGraw-Hill International, 2011), 93.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Cheryl Mattingly and Linda C. Garro, Narrative and the Cultural Construction of Illness and
Healing (University of California Press, 2000), 1.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Esin, “Narrative Analysis Approaches,” 94.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
21
 Engage in field work. Having established the usefulness of narrative analysis the next
step is to select one or more individuals and get acquainted with their life stories or
life experiences. This requires the researcher to spend considerable amount of time
with the participants gathering not just firsthand information but also looking at other
sources like talking to relatives, family members, studying documents such as letters,
diaries etc.
 Stories always have a background, a context which gives them meaning and makes
them relevant. A researcher must be able to place these stories in their proper context
to truly appreciate their meaning.
 Build a framework to make the story coherent and relevant. This reworking on the
stories told by the participants is known as ‘restorying’. Often when stories are told
they may be told chaotically. A researcher is then required to build links, and connect
common points and build a proper story line.
 Reformulation is a key aspect of narrative analysis. What this implies is that the
researcher involves the participants to engage in presenting the story as they would
like it to be presented.
3.1.3 Relevance for Pastoral Counseling
Narratives or stories are a key component of pastoral counseling. A person telling his own
life story is opening up his life and in the process is building a rapport with the pastoral
counsellor. How well the pastoral counsellor is able to decipher the open meaning and the
hidden meaning in these stories will largely depend on his counseling skills. Often when
people share their experiences, what is required is not just listening and responding to the
content but also responding to the feeling and meaning of what is communicated. This is
similar to what narrative researcher do.
David Hodge writing about spiritual assessment in relation to qualitative research
methods emphasises the importance of narrative analysis. He states that spiritual assessment
of a client in the context of counseling requires the pastoral counsellor to build a “spiritual
histories.” just like family history is complied for medical reasons. He states that these
spiritual histories can be formulated when the client is encouraged to narrate his/her spiritual
journey. And quoting Pruyser he further states “...listening to clients stories with the goal of
understanding how their narratives relate (to their spiritual journey) will help us to understand
their problems in a deeper way.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
3.2 Phenomenological Research
Phenomenology in simple terms refers to the study of phenomena. A phenomenon is the

appearance of things, or things as they appear in our experience, or the ways we experience
things, thus the meanings things have in our experience. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP ‘Phenomena’ is a
very broad term which may include a number of aspects that are experienced in the course of
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
David R. Hodge, “Spiritual Assessment: A Review of Major Qualitative Methods and a New
Framework for Assessing Spirituality,” Social Work 46, no. 3 (January 7, 2001): 205.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
David Woodruff Smith, “Phenomenology,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed.
Edward N. Zalta, Winter 2013., 2013, accessed August 20, 2014,
http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2013/entries/phenomenology/.
22
a human life. They may be events, situations, experiences or concepts. All these things that
we encounter and experience constitute a ‘phenomena’.
3.2.1 What is it?
Unlike the narrative analysis which focuses on a single person, the phenomenological
research describes the meaning for several individuals; meaning as is encountered in the
world. The focus of this approach is to return to the things themselves, as they appear to us
and simultaneously it is also requires us to ‘bracket’ what we think we know about them.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
The idea here is to understand the experiences of the participants as
described by them. These experiences are known as ‘lived experiences’. There are two
approaches to phenomenology. One proposed by Van Manen called ‘Hermeneutical
phenomenology’ and the other by Moustakes termed as Transcendental or psychological
phenomenology. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
The roots of phenomenological research go back to Edmund Husserl (1913-1962). His

intention was to “...faithfully conceptualize the processes and structures of mental life, how
situations are meaningfully lived through as they are experienced with nothing added and
nothing subtracted.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP The clause ‘nothing added and nothing subtracted’
implies that the researcher must very deliberately put aside his/her own prejudices and
preconceived ideas about the phenomena being studied. This process is known as bracketing.
Only when this bracketing takes place can the researcher truly see/experience
events/situations that the participant is describing.
3.2.2 Characteristics of Phenomenology

Morrow, Carrie and Abrams, citing Wertz presents four distinctive characteristics of
phenomenology which help us to unpack this approach more easily. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Unlearning: - Phenomenology research requires that we approach the subject

with an open and unbiased mindset. How does one achieve this? According
to Husler, this can be achieved by a discipline that he terms as ‘Epoches’.
Phenomenology advocates two kinds of epochés. The first one demands that
the researcher brackets or puts aside all the scientific knowledge related to
the phenomena under study. And the second epoché requires the researcher
to put aside his own naive understanding of the phenomenon. In other words
it is an exercise to unlearn your previous assumptions before you attempt to
learn anything new. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Kathy Charmaz and Linda M. McMullen, Five Ways of Doing Qualitative Analysis:
Phenomenological Psychology, Grounded Theory, Discourse Analysis, Narrative Research, and Intuitive
Inquiry (Guilford Press, 2011), 125.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Susan Morrow, Carrie Castaneda and Elizabeth Abrams, “Counseling Psychology Research
Methods: Qualitative Approaches,” in Qualitative Research Methods in Psychology, ed. Nollaig Frost, vol. I
(Maidenhead; New York: Open University Press, 2011), 98.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
23
 ‘Intuition of essence’:- Wertz describes this process wherein the researcher

approaches the phenomenon from various vantage points to examine every
possible facet of the phenomenon. The purpose for doing this is to separate
the essential aspects from the non essential. In doing so, the researcher is
able to “distinguish essential features from those that are accidental or
incidental. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 ‘Intentionality and Intentional analysis: - “Intentionality denotes the
transcendental quality of consciousness, that consciousness is something
(beyond itself).” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP And so intentional analysis is an analysis or
a reflection to gain insight into the ‘how’ and ‘what’ of the experience.
 Life-world/ Lived world: - The fourth characteristic that Wertz identifies is
the idea of how a human being views himself/herself. That unique
perspective which sets that individual apart from the others yet recognizing
that they share a commonality with others . And in doing so, also recognizes
that his/ her experiences are unique and yet shared. For example, the grief of
an individual is unique as no one can truly and fully understand the depths of
his/ her sorrow yet this grief is a shared phenomenon as others also
experience it. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
3.2.3 Phenomenological Procedure

Phenomenological research does not attempt to interpret data or look for meanings in the data
rather it simply strives to make the essence of a phenomenon known. In line with this,
Morrow, Carrie and Abrams suggest that the followings steps need to be taken to conduct a
phenomenological research. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Research question: -“Any research methodology must be consistent with the

epistemological position of the research question.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP If what is
required is an in-depth exploration of personal lived experience and how people
make sense of these experiences and events, then one can be sure that
phenomenological research method is adapted for such a study.
 Self-Reflection:- Having established the validity of the method, it is crucial that the
researcher recognizes his/her own knowledge, bias and assumptions about the
phenomenon. In fact this self reflection can be a part of the study, so the readers are
well aware of the researcher’s context and purpose.
 Identify participants: - The researcher then needs to identify participants who have
experienced the said phenomenon or are experiencing it.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Methods: Qualitative Approaches,” 98.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Charmaz and McMullen, Five Ways of Doing Qualitative Analysis, 126.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Methods: Qualitative Approaches,” 98.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid., 98–99.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Pnina Shinebourne, “Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis,” in Qualitative Research
Methods In Psychology: Combining Core Approaches: From Core to Combined Approaches, ed. Nollaig Frost
(England: McGraw-Hill International, 2011), 53.
24
 Gather data: - The main tool for gathering data is through in-depth interviews as the
researcher is trying to uncover the essence of the phenomenon. This requires
extensive information and a good knowledge about the participants and their context.
 Data analysis: - Marking the patterns and themes that emerge as the data is analysed.
These themes and patterns then provide a foundation for writing the essence of the
participant’s experience.
 Composite description: - The final step is to write a composite description that
presents the essence of the phenomenon.

Phenomenological research was born out of a philosophical system of thought; nevertheless
its methodological approach and its underlining purpose i.e. an interest in the unconscious
and the perception of the world ‘has great relevance for the social science in general and for
psychology in particular.’ ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Within the context of pastoral psychology,
phenomenology has much to contribute. Because phenomenology as an approach focuses on
understanding what the client is experiencing and empathizing with that experience with a
non-judgemental attitude. This is done when the researcher brackets his own prejudices. This
can be of great help in relating with and building a rapport with the client. There are three
chief components of phenomenology that can be correlated to counseling. These are:-
 Bracketing: - One of the key components of client centred therapy is un-

conditional positive regards for your client. This is possible only as the
counsellor learns to suspend or at least deliberately put aside his/her own
assumptions and prejudices. This putting aside of our own perspective to
experience the clients situation, in phenomenology language is known as
bracketing. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP This not only enables the client to feel safe and
develop a rapport with the counsellor but it also enables the counsellor to
look at a situation or person with a fresh perspective. So often our rigid
outlook and our tendency to stereotype people hinder the counseling
procedure.
 Describing: - The second skill in phenomenological research is description.
As the researcher brackets his own assumption and belief he/she begins to
focus more clearly on the participant. A researcher has a greater clarity as to
what the participant is describing and the researcher is able to make clear
what may be hidden. Similarly in counseling situation when a counsellor is
able to bracket his/her own, assumption he /she is in a better position to not
only be aware of the clients situation but also be sensitive to his/ her
responses and reactions. A counsellor may recognize when he/she is losing
interest in what the client is saying or is getting upset or, in counseling
terms, is experiencing counter –projection. Being aware of this, a counsellor
is better able to describe how both the client as well as the counsellor has
been affected in this counseling relationship. Joyce and Sills describe this
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Phil Joyce and Charlotte Sills, Skills in Gestalt Counselling & Psychotherapy (Thousand Oaks:
SAGE, 2014), 17.
25
process as ‘tracking’ that is the “unfolding movement of phenomenological

process over time.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Horizontalism: - Within the paradigm of phenomenological research
everything is considered equally important. There is no hierarchy of
meanings, everything is potentially as important as anything else. Thus the
term horizontal. Joyce and Sills have rightly observed that “Horizontalism is
achieved most naturally if we are bracketing successfully and confining our
interventions to descriptions of ‘what is’. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
In addition to the above aspect Joyce and Sills also provide a framework to understand how
phenomenology influences clinical application ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP . A summary of this is
provided below:-
Phenomenology approach encourages the counsellor to listen without judgement; this installs
a sense of acceptance in the lives of the clients and helps them move towards healing.
Secondly the method models and promotes the raising of awareness in the client. Rather than
dwell on the past or be fearful of the future he/she is able to focus on the ‘now’. Thirdly it
cover both for the counsellor but more importantly for the client the particular ways in which
he/she constructs meaning of his/her existence and the related issues. Fourthly, it models that
counseling is going to be a shared investigation.
Phenomenology as a research method may be quite philosophical and sometimes difficult to

comprehend but as one analyses its basic tenets there is much that pastoral counseling can
learn and adopt.
3.3 Grounded Theory Research

Grounded theory research emerged more as a counter response to the prevalent theory
verification method that was dominated in social science. The proponents of this theory
Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss were of the opinion that researchers need a method that is
circular rather than linear. They suggested that research method must be one in which the
researcher can oscillate between data and theory to refine the findings/result of the study.
Grounded theory precisely seeks to accomplish this. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
3.3.1 Understanding Grounded Theory

As stated above, grounded theory emerged as a method where in the researcher could move
from data to theory, the end result being that new theories would emerge as result of this
continuous interaction between data and theory. So, essentially this method facilities in the
process of “theory discover or theory generation.” And since this was achieved through
interaction between data and theory, the proposed theory would be naturally grounded in data
and thus the description as ‘Grounded theory’. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Creswell defines grounded
theory as “...a qualitative research design in which the inquirer generates a general
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid., 19.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid., 20.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid., 23.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Antony Bryant and Kathy Charmaz, “The SAGE Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research
Methods,” ed. Lisa Given, Grounded Theory (Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, August 19, 2008), 375.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
26
explanation (a theory) of a process, action or interaction shaped by the views of a large

number of participants.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
3.3.2 Central features

As the name suggests this method is grounded in data. In others a word, the starting point of a
researcher is not pre-defined theories, rather it is the data that is collected. Grounded theory
as an approach has a number of distinct features; in this section three will be discussed.
 Iterative study design:- An iterative study design implies that there is a circular
pattern in which there is constant interchange between the data collected, data
analysis and the analysis then guides the data collection for the next stage. This
process goes on “...until no new concepts could be identified and a powerful but
parsimonious explanation could be proposed.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Theoretical sampling: - In a grounded theory, a researcher constantly interacts with
the data. Questions are asked, comparisons are made and opposite are scrutinized. As
a result of this constantly checked against emerging theories. In the light of this
process data is data collection is done again so that the participants can either confirm
or challenge an emerging theory. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Constant Comparison Methods: - Constant comparison method is a central aspect of
grounded theory. As stated earlier, in grounded theory data collection and data
analysis takes place simultaneously. As this progress issues of interest are noted in the
data after which they are compared with other examples for similarities and
differences. Through this process of constant comparisons, the emerging theories are
constantly refined as a result the description that is produced by this method is very
rich and informative. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
3.3.3 Conducting Grounded Theory Research
As already stated the purpose of Ground theory research is to build rather than test theories.
Also as the name suggests it is a method that is grounded in data and therefore data place a
pivotal part in this approach. Following steps have been proposed by Strauss and Corbin and
a summery is presented as put forward by Creswell. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Suitability: - Grounded theory generates theories rather than test pre-defined

theories. In the light of this, the researcher first and foremost needs to determine
whether this approach is suitable for his study. In other words does it answer his
research question?
 Inquiry: - In the next step the researcher engages with the participants to
comprehend their experience and identify the steps of this experience. After
having established that the individuals have experience about the said phenomena.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Kathleen Wells, “The Strategy of Grounded Theory: Possibilities and Problems,” Social Work
Research 19, no. 1 (January 3, 1995): 34.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Maykut and Morehouse, Beginning Qualitative Research, 52.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Wells, “The Strategy of Grounded Theory,” 35–36.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Creswell, Research Design, 66.
27
The researcher then begins to ask questions that uncover the core phenomena.
Having uncovered the core phenomena the researcher then explores the various
dimensions associated with the core phenomena. Such as what influences this
phenomenon, what strategies are employed while dealing with it and how does it
affect the participant.
 Data Collection: - In the approach the aim is to collect as much information as
possible. The general tool used in data collection is in-depth interviews but other
documents are also collected.
 Data Analysis: - Data analysis procedus through various stages. Beginning with
open coding the researcher forms categories of information about the phenomenon
that is under study. The next step is axial coding where the researcher assembles
the data in new ways to understand more about the phenomenon in its totality.
 Storyline: - Here the researcher connects the categories. To bring a sense of
coherence to his findings.
 Substantive theory: - The final result is the emergence of a theory. This theory is
the result of a process called memoing which involves the researcher writing
down ideas about the evolving theory throughout the process of open, axial and
selective coding.
3.3.4 Relevance for Pastoral Counselling

According to Kathy Charmaz grounded theory as a qualitative approach is suitable for almost
any kind of research study. Since this approach cuts across disciplines, it can be widely
adopted in education, nursing and organizational studies. In regard to the discipline of
psychology, she further states “...grounded theory offers systematic approaches for
discovering significant aspects of human experience that remain inaccessible with traditional
verification methods.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Pastoral counselling can greatly benefit from this
research approach. Following are some of the aspects.
 Individuality of the client: - Grounded theory’s starting point is that we must begin
with an open mind and have no preconceived notions of what we are studying.
Within the context of pastoral counselling what this implies is that we recognize that
every individual we deal with is unique is his own right. So for example when
dealing with an addict, we must recognize that he is a unique individual shaped by
his own context and background. We may have a lot of knowledge about addiction
and various theories that tell us why people give in to addiction but we must learn to
put that aside and begin with the information (data) that the client shares with us.
His experience becomes the starting point of counselling not some bookish theories
on addiction. Kathy has rightly observed that in a counselling process we “...start
with the individual case, incidents or experience and develop progressively more
abstract ...categories.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Kathy Charmaz, “Grounded Theory,” in Rethinking Methods in Psychology, ed. Jonathan A.
Smith, Rom Harre, and Luk Van Langenhove (Thousand Oaks: SAGE, 1995), 30.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid., 28.
28
 Attachment and detachment: - A grounded theory procedure requires a researcher to

completely immerse himself/herself in the data collected. A researcher needs to
know the data inside out to generate theories. Within the context of pastoral
counseling a counsellor is also required to fully identify with the client, as one of the
key skills required in counselling is empathy, stepping into the others shoes. But in
identifying with the others we must never lose touch with our selves, otherwise we
will be lost in the issues of the client. We must be able to maintain that healthy
distance, where in we identity but do not get carried away by the situation of the
client. Dourdouma and Mortl in writing about the skills of a grounded theory
researcher highlight this danger when they state “...good interpretation involves
living inside and outside of the (participants) experience and monitoring of the
degree of fit between the two aspects.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
3.4 Ethnography
Ethnography has its origin in anthropology. The term means “portrait of a people” and it is
a methodology that aims at describing people and their culture. The criteria being that those
who are being studied must have something in common. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Ethnography is
often taken up as a research method either to become familiar with the phenomenon prior to
the research work or to study interactions with a particular group or setting. And so an
ethnographer is one who enters a community and lives as a part of that community immersed
in their way of life and culture to understand their life style.
3.4.1 What is Ethnography?

The term ethnography is derived from a Greek word ethnos which means people or folks and
graphis which means writing. So the term ‘ethnography’ refers to a description or a portrait of
a group of people and their way of life. According to Atkinson and Hammersley ethnography
describes forms of social research that focus on the following aspects ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Exploring the nature of a particular social experience

 Gathering and using unstructured data
 Using a relatively small number of participants
 Interpreting the meaning of human behaviour.
Similarly Creswell defines ethnography as “a qualitative design in which the researcher

describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviour, beliefs and
language of a culture-sharing group.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
3.4.2 Types of Ethnography

Ethnography research can be subdivided into a number of types such as ‘life history’ that
focus on an individual’s life taking into consideration in context and background. Then there
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Anna Dourdouma and Kathrin Mörtl, “The Creative Journey of Grounded Theory Analysis: A
Guide to Its Principles and Applications,” Research in Psychotherapy: Psychopathology, Process and Outcome
15, no. 2 (February 17, 2013): 98.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Hancock, An Introduction to Qualitative Research, 4.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Lisa A. Suzuki et al., “Ethnography in Counseling Psychology Research: Possibilities for
Application.” Journal of Counseling Psychology 52, no. 2 (2005): 206.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
29
is ‘memoir’ which is typically a report of an ethnographer’s journey in the field. ‘Narrative

ethnography’ is another sub division of ethnography that focuses on the lives of participants
and includes the ethnographers own experience. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Apart from these we also
have auto-ethnography, applied ethnography etc. In this paper the researcher will present two
popular forms of ethnography, as described by Creswell ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Realist ethnography: - A traditional way of engaging in ethnography is where the

researcher approaches the study (observation) in an objective manner. The stance of
the ethnographer is that of a passive observer. The reporting is done in a third person
dispassionate manner. The aim is to collect objective data that is collected through
standardized tools with the idea that personal bias, political goals and judgement will
not influence the study.
 Critical ethnography: - As opposed to the realist, this ethnography is more concerned
with the phenomenon that is under study. Ethnographers from this camp view their
positions not just as observers and reports but also as emancipators. They are critical
towards the power-system that oppress and marginalises people in society. So this
form of ethnography is value laden and seeks to empower people and challenge status
quo rather than just observe and report. This form of ethnography is more popular that
the previous one.
3.4.3 Steps to conducting ethnography

Ethnography has a method is quite flexible, nevertheless following are some of the steps that
broadly define how ethnographic research is carried out.
 Topic selection: - The ethnographer starts by establishing his research question. There
are various ways in which he/she may do this. The research question may emerge out
of the researchers own interest or it could be the result of a community or institutions
wanting to do some research on a particular community. A topic selected or the
research question may also be an attempt to fill in a knowledge gap in the previous
ethnographical studies. While selecting a topic or a question a researcher must also
engage in self –examination as to what he/she wants to achieve from this study. This
will then determine the course of the research. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Data Management: - Ethnography seeks to get as much as information about the
participants as possible. This enables the researcher to get full and clear picture of the
life-style of the participants or the community. This implies that in the process a large
amount of data is collected. Data collection methods may be field notes, interviews,
direct observation and even artefacts collected from the community. A researcher has
to develop ways and means by which he/she can not only manage data but also
organize it in a proper way so that it helps in the ongoing interpretation.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Suzuki et al., “Ethnography in Counseling Psychology Research,” 207.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Peggy Miller, Julie Hengst, and Sa-hua Wang, “Ethnographic Methods: Application from
Development Cultural Psychology,” in Qualitative Research in Psychology: Expanding Perspectives in
Methodology and Design, ed. Paul Marc Camic, Jean E. Rhodes, and Lucy Yardley (Washington, DC:
30
 Synthesis of Ethnographic data: - “A principle challenge facing ethnographic

researchers is how to weave together the various sources (e.g., archival,
observational, interview, artefacts) and domains (e.g., cognition, behavioural
effective) of cultural information that they have gathered.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Apart
from this they also need to work out how they will involve the community or the
participants to interpret the data. At the end of the day the researcher must be able to
present a clear rationale for the conclusion that they will draw from this study.
Furthermore the researcher must also consider how and when he/she will bring the
research to a closure.

Ethnography, as a research approach, is very time consuming and demands a great level of
commitment from the researcher to live immersed in the study. Along with this, the fact that
the counsellor cannot engage in participative observation leads to the application of this study
being limited. But nevertheless ethnography is used in the counselling circles and Mcloed has
cited various ethnographic studies done in the field of psychology and
psychotherapy. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Following are some of the key aspects of ethnography which
can be further form the dynamics of pastoral counseling.
 Beyond the therapy: - Counsellors are often caught up with what happens during the
counseling sessions. They do implicitly try to understand the client’s life in totality
but no serious effort is made to grasp his life outside the counseling session. On the
other hand ethnography is viewing a person as he/she is immersed in his/her life
context. Counsellor could learn much from the ethnographical
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
perspective.
 Cross-cultural applicability: - Globalization has results in people moving from their
traditional place of work to urban areas for a livehood. Both ethnography and
counseling discipline recognizes the impact of a community on an individual and his
well-being. The changing scenario of people’s lives has made it imperative for
counsellors to engage in ethnography if they want to be relevant to the ground-
reality of their client. As Suzuki has rightly commented “...ethnographically
informed methods of research have great potential to enable counseling
psychologists to implement aspects of this qualitative venue to enhance the
contextualization of research addressing the needs of diverse
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
populations.”
3.5 Case studies

There is no general consensus among scholars whether case study is a methodology or a
strategy or a data collection tool. Through case study it is possible to capture in-depth and
rich information of individual(s) or a given group. Case study due to its flexibility and
versatility is able to employ a wide range of data collection techniques.
American Psychological Association, 2003), 226.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
McLeod, Qualitative Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy, 107.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid., 117.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
31
3.5.1 Understanding Case Study

As stated above case study is understood by different scholar in different ways. According
Berg, case study can be defined as “...a methodological approach that incorporates a number
of data gathering measures.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP In contrast to Willig it is the particular unit of
analysis that becomes the defining point of case study. She states that “...case study is not
itself a research method... (a case study is not characterized) by the methods used to collect
and analyse data, but rather by its focus upon a particular unit of analysis: the
case.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP On the other hand Borland views case study as an analysis module of
qualitative research and defined case study as “... an in-depth analysis of a single
organization, system, family, event and so on or multiple cases wherein all the possible
internal and external relationships are considered :describing all possible relationships within
the system.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP But the most comprehensive definition comes from Creswell
who balances the various aspects of case study and defines case study as “...a qualitative
approach in which the investigator explores a bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded
systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple
sources of information and reports a case description and case- based
themes.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
3.5.2 Types of Case studies

The versatile nature of case study method makes an apt tool to study individual units as well
as community units. Case studies can broadly be divided into the following three categories.
 Intrinsic Case studies: - These are those case studies which stand by themselves.
What this implies is that these case studies are unique in themselves. The
researcher interest in this type of case study is “because they are interesting in
their own right.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP In such cases the researcher is not looking to
study or analyse any general phenomena but is interested in the peculiarities of
that particular case.
 Instrumental Case Studies: - Unlike intrinsic case studies, instrumental case
studies are meant to study theoretical explanations and not individual peculiarities.
In an instrument case study, the theoretical question is more important than the
case itself. The case only serves as a background or foundation which helps the
researcher to understand the phenomenon of interest. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Collective case studies: - In this method there is one area of interest, but various
cases are selected to represent this one issue. The idea is to understand the same
issue or concern from various vantage points. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Berg, Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, 225.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Berg, Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences, 229.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
32
3.5.3 Procedure for Conducting a Case Study

Various scholars propose different ways in which case study can be conducted. For a
systematic and concise understanding the following steps have been adopted from Raya Fidel
article ‘The Case Study Method: A Case study’. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
 Preparation: - The first step in case study is for the researcher to acquaint
himself/herself with the subject matter to be investigated. This is done by literature
review, any prior study, experiments and surveys. Further, a researcher could also
talk to other experts for a greater in depth knowledge.
 Subject selection: - The researcher then needs to select his/her subjects. That is, those
cases which demonstrate the phenomena that is of interest. , the researcher must
choose whether they want to focus on an individual or a number of people. In other
words the number of units needs to be determined.
 Data Gathering: - In a case study method data is collected extensively and from
various sources. Such as observation, interviews, documents and audiovisual
material.
 Data Analysis: - Data analysis can be holistic or embedded to a specific aspect. In a
case study method, in doing data analysis a researcher keeps the context and setting
in mind.
 Emergence of a model: - Having studied the case whether individual or a group a
researcher then presents his findings to explain or describe about the phenomenon
under investigation.

Case studies have been used by Freud and other who have kept a detailed account of the
therapy sessions and have developed theories based on studies done with cases they were
dealing with. Following are some of areas where pastoral counselling can learn from case
study methodology.
 Building knowledge: - Case study requires an in-depth knowledge of the

individual(s) of selected sample. A case study rather than dealing just with the
obvious and what is front visible attempts to gather information in a holistic manner.
It tries to understand the past to interpret the present. A skill that counsellor often
resort to, to gain a deeper understanding of the clients situations.
 Contextual Information: In a case study the context of the case is very important to
grasp the overall picture. Similarly, in counseling we cannot understand the clients’
situation without first placing him/her in her context. As Mcleod rightly states “Case
study research is highly attuned to the production of contextual
knowledge.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Raya Fidel, “The Case Study Method: A Case Study,” Library and Information Science
Research 6, no. 3 (1984): 277.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
McLeod, Qualitative Research in Counselling and Psychotherapy, 239.
33
4. Implication for Pastoral Counseling: The Promise and Potential of Qualitative

Approach
In the previous section the researcher has presented five major approaches in qualitative
research and has highlighted their significance for pastoral counseling. In this section, the
researcher will present the implications of qualitative research for pastoral counseling
highlighting the promise and potential it holds for pastoral counseling.
4.1 Foundational Impetus

At the heart of it, both qualitative research and pastoral counseling are geared towards
understanding the human situation. As Gilgun rightly states “ ...qualitative researcher focuses
most often on what it means to be human and the meaning that human beings attribute to the
events in their lives.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP So for a qualitative researcher, the focal point of his/her
research begins by gaining an understanding of human being(s). This includes understanding
their experiences, emotions and their perception of reality. A qualitative researcher would
first try to understand the person experiencing the phenomena before he/she seeks to
understand the phenomena itself. Similarly, in pastoral counseling the first step is to
understand the person before we understand his/her problem. In fact this constitutes the first
stage in counselling known as rapport building. Here the focus is not so much on the problem
or on the issue at hand rather it is on the person experiencing the problem or facing the issue.
So, both, qualitative research and pastoral counseling begin by exploring the experience of
the client/participant.
4.2 Uniqueness of Human beings

Another key aspect that ties qualitative research and pastoral counseling is that both
acknowledge the uniqueness or the individuality of human beings. Where quantitative
research is more geared towards generalizations and seeks to make a statement which will be
applicable to a larger population, qualitative researchers approach research from a different
vantage point. They are not attempting to provide ‘universal causal principles’ nor is the
research about ‘yielding parametric information about the population
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
distribution.’ On the contrary, qualitative research limits its focus and
provides rich and in-depth description which will be beneficial to the specific targeted
audience where the research is conducted. Of course, this does not imply that qualitative
research has nothing to offer on a larger scale. It does contribute knowledge in a general way,
but that is secondary in terms of its original purpose. Similarly within the context of pastoral
counseling, the focus is always on the individual seated across. The number of people dealing
with the same issue or struggling with similar problems is inconsequential. For a pastoral
counsellor, that one particular individual is important and worth all the effort required to help
him/her to make constructive changes in his/her life. So, one could say that pastoral
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Jane F. Gilgun, “Qualitative Research and Family Psychology,” Journal of family psychology:
JFP: journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43) 19,
no. 1 (March 2005): 86.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Jeanne Marecek, “Dancing through Minefields : Towards a Qualitative Stance in Psychology,”
in Qualitative Research in Psychology: Expanding Perspectives in Methodology and Design, ed. Paul Marc
Camic, Jean E. Rhodes, and Lucy Yardley (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 2003), 63.
34
counseling is driven by quality of help provided (how one person is helped) and not quantity
(how many are helped).
4.3 Humans-as-Instruments
Qualitative research primarily is an approach that seeks to understand the meaning that
people attribute to their life and experiences. This ‘meaning’ that a qualitative researcher is
trying to decipher is complex and multilayered and often times quite difficult to adequately
capture. In fact qualitative researchers are of the view that no single instrument is adequate
enough to capture the range and diversity of human experience. Furthermore, they are of the
opinion that only a human can capture a human experience. And so the best instrument to
gather data is the ‘human instrument,’ ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP that is, the researcher himself/herself.
For, only a human instrument is capable of modifying, improvising and adapting as the
situation demands. Unlike the standardized instruments used in quantitative research which
are rigid, a qualitative researcher employs a flexible human-as-instrument approach which
enables him/her to capture the true experience of the participant. Since “...human-as-
instrument, is the only instrument which is flexible enough to capture the complexity,
subtlety, and constantly changing situation which is the human experience.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Pastoral counsellors also function on the same premise, for they recognize that human
beings are complex beings. A pastoral counsellor may employ a number of methods to gain
knowledge of the person’s problem. For example he/she may be asked to fill a form or write a
personal biography or describe his/her spiritual history. As informative and useful as these
methods might be nothing can substitute face-to-face interaction with the client. So, within
the scope of pastoral counseling it is recognized that the pastor as a person is more important
that any therapeutic techniques that he/she might employ. Carl Rogers ‘client centred
therapy’ essentially recognized that relationships were more important than any technique
used in therapy. And so, both pastoral counselling and qualitative research emphasise on the
human as instrument aspect, be it for data collection or in a therapeutic relationship.
4.4 Pastoral counselling as Bricolage

Bricoleur is a French word which essentially describes a person who has mastered a number
of techniques and has the ability to employ any one or a combination of those techniques to
perform the required task. It can be defined as “...the ability to draw on different analytic
techniques with which one is familiar, the choice of which to use being situationally
determined.” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP Ponterotto in citing Denize and Lincoln define bricoleur as a
“...Jack of all trades or a kind of do it yourself person (who deploys) whatever strategies,
methods or empirical materials are at hand... (To get the job done)” ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Quantitative inquiry encompasses a number of approaches and these approaches often
overlap each other or the boundaries between them blur. This is because qualitative research
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
A term coined by Lincoln & Cuba to highlight the position a qualitative researcher takes in a
research. This enables the researcher to adapt according to the situation. Ref to Maykut and Morehouse,
Beginning Qualitative Research, 24.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Ibid.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
David Wicks, “Encyclopedia of Case Study Research” (2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks
California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2010), accessed September 30, 2014,
http://srmo.sagepub.com/view/encyc-of-case-study-research/n25.xml.
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
35
aims at uncovering meaning which in itself is not rigid and cannot be strictly
compartmentalized; rather it keeps evolving. Even for the same person a particular event may
be meaningful at a particular time but after some time it may lose its significance. So a
qualitative researcher needs to constantly evolve with the research or the data that he is
encountering. This requires him/her to be flexible enough to move from one stand point to
another or even be willing to combine two approaches. And so in other words whatever skills
are at hand, a researcher must employ them to do justice to the research.
Similarly, a pastoral counsellor who has a number of resources at his disposal must be
flexible enough to recognize what to use when. A pastoral counsellor is in a unique position
to help people because of his training in multiple disciplines. A pastoral counsellor is not only
trained in psychology but also in theology and sociology (Although this may not be an in
depth training, he/she due to his/her ministerial involvements has a fair idea of the ethos of
the society). Apart from this, his/her background also gives him/her access to various
spiritual resources such as rituals, traditions, the use of prayer, scriptures and the community
of believers. So a pastoral counsellor not only depends on his/her biblical training but also on
his/her theological heritage, church rituals and traditions, etc. A skilful and knowledgeable
counsellor will be able to discern which approach to employ, as per the need of the situation.
And so, in this sense, a pastoral counsellor can be described as a bricoleur.
Conclusion
This paper has sought to provide an overview of qualitative research, describing its
complexity and its utility. Various paradigms have been discussed to demonstrate that
qualitative inquiry steams from different philosophical views. It has also been established that
qualitative approach which is intrinsically meaning oriented has much to offer for pastoral
counseling.
In conclusion, the researcher would like to echo the words of Berrios and Lucca, who
have aptly described the need of the hour. That is for counsellors to be more open and to
learn from qualitative research. According to them,
...counsellors should be more exposed to and (be) involved in qualitative research, in
such a way that present and future generations are aware of its relevance to the
profession. (We would like to make the following suggestions for this) (a) Recognise
that instead of one truth, there are multiple realities; (b) Human beings should be
studied in a holistic rather than in a fragmented way; and (c) Systemic or circular
models are more useful than linear models of causality. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP
Reinaldo Berrios and Nydia Lucca, “Qualitative Methodology in Counseling Research: Recent
Contributions and Challenges for a New Century,” Journal of Counseling & Development 84, no. 2 (January
2006): 182.
36
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Significance and Importance of Qualitative Approach in Social Research with

These new [qualitative] methods are not for

No research is conducted in a vacuum. Every research is shaped by the presuppositions of

1. Understanding Qualitative Research

1.2 Characteristics of Qualitative Research

1.2.1 Design Strategies

1.2.2 Data collection Strategies

1.2.3 Analysis Strategies

1.3 The Qualitative and Quantitative Debate

that is ‘designed to answer a research question in terms of numerical

Whether contradictory or as a continuum, these two approaches are distinctive in their

2. Exploring the foundational Paradigms of Qualitative research

No research is conducted in a vacuum. Every research has a starting point, certain

2.1 Research Paradigms and their Components

As Hesse-Biber and Leavy rightly point out

2.1.1.2 Qualitative research and Positivism

Post-positivism originated in anthropological studies in the 20 th century. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP

 Objective and extrinsic reality exists

The above mentioned characteristics highlight a number of differences between positivism

2.1.2.1 Qualitative research and Post-Positivism

2.1.3.1Qualitative research and Constructivism/ Interpretivism

Geisteswissenschaft is another key dimension of constructivism/ interpretivism paradigm that

2.1.4 Critical Theory (Critical-ideological)

 Research from a critical-ideological perspective is always a form of cultural and

2.1.4.1 Qualitative research and Critical ideological

2.2 Connecting the Dots: Paradigms and four philosophical assumptions

Susan Morrow describes a paradigm as a “net” containing the researcher’s ontological,

 Positivist: - This position postulates that reality is objective, identifiable and

created or rather co-created as a result of the interaction that takes place

If ontology is about knowledge, then epistemology is related to how we acquire that

 Positivism: - “According to the positivist, epistemological, science is seen as the way

“The assumption of a positivist/empiricist epistemology leads to an approach

 Critical-ideology: - The critical- ideological perspective generates knowledge with

Axiology, in the research paradigm, essentially refers to ‘the philosophy of values’. It is a

values system coming in play. ADDIN ZOTERO_TEMP In such a system knowledge

3. Qualitative Approaches and their significance for Pastoral Counseling

3.1 Narrative Research

3.1.1 What is it?

3.1.2 How to conduct a Narrative Research?

3.1.3 Relevance for Pastoral Counseling

3.2 Phenomenological Research

Phenomenology in simple terms refers to the study of phenomena. A phenomenon is the

3.2.1 What is it?

The roots of phenomenological research go back to Edmund Husserl (1913-1962). His

3.2.2 Characteristics of Phenomenology

 Unlearning: - Phenomenology research requires that we approach the subject

 ‘Intuition of essence’:- Wertz describes this process wherein the researcher

3.2.3 Phenomenological Procedure

 Research question: -“Any research methodology must be consistent with the

3.2.4 Relevance for Pastoral Counseling

 Bracketing: - One of the key components of client centred therapy is un-

process as ‘tracking’ that is the “unfolding movement of phenomenological

Phenomenology as a research method may be quite philosophical and sometimes difficult to

3.3 Grounded Theory Research

3.3.1 Understanding Grounded Theory

explanation (a theory) of a process, action or interaction shaped by the views of a large

3.3.2 Central features

3.3.3 Conducting Grounded Theory Research

 Suitability: - Grounded theory generates theories rather than test pre-defined

3.3.4 Relevance for Pastoral Counselling

 Attachment and detachment: - A grounded theory procedure requires a researcher to

Marecek, Jeanne. “Dancing through Minefields : Towards a Qualitative Stance in