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Q. LATITUDE?
Latitude of a place is the arc of meridian or the angle at the centre of the contained between the equator
and the parallel of latitudes through that place.
Q. LONGITUDE?
Longitude of a place the arc of the equator or the angle at the poles contained between the prime meridian
and the meridian rough the place.
Q. AZIMUTH?
It is the direction of a celestial objects from the observer, expressed as the angular distance from the north
or south point of the horizon to the point at which vertical circle passing through the objects intersects the
horizon.
Azimuth and Elevation are the two coordinates that define he position of a celestial body
Q. ALTITUDE?
I t is the apparent height of a celestial object above horizon measured in angular distance

Q. GHA?
GHA of a celestial body is the arc of the equinoctial or angle at the celestial poles contained between the
celestial meridian of Greenwich and that of the Body, measured westward from Greenwich.
Q. LHA?
LHA of a Body is the arc of the equinoctial or the angle at the celestial poles contained between the
observer’s celestial meridian and the celestial meridian through the Body, measured westward from the
observer.

Q. DECLINATION?
This is the angular distance of a body north or south from the celestial equator, measured along a great
circle passing through the celestial poles.

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Q. CIRCUMPOLAR BODY?
For a body to be circumpolar, the body should always be above the rational horizon, i.e. the body should not
set.
Condition required for a body to be circumpolar-
●LAT+DECL>900 (for the body not to set)
●LAT and DECL should be the same name.

Q. EXPLAIN METHOD OF CALCULATING COMPASS ERROR?

Compass error can be determined by the following methods:
At Sea (celestial observations)
1.Amplitudes (Sun, Moon)
2.Azimuth (Sun, Moon, Stars and Planets)
3.Polaris
Coastal area (terrestrial observations)
4.HSA
5.Transit Bearing
6.Leading light
Q. HOW TO TAKE COMPASS ERROR FROM LEADING LIGHT?
○ Leading light 0000 Brg. Obs. Brg. = 0000
│ Gyro Brg. = 0000
○ C. Error = Nil
(Inside the channel)
⌂ Hdg. 0000
Q. HORIZONTAL SEXTANT ANGLE
It is the angle subtended on the vessel by two shore objects. It is observed by holding the sextant
horizontally, moving the arm so that the reflected image of one object is seen on the second object. The
angle is then measured is horizontal sextant angle.
When the horizontal angle between two terrestrial objects is known, a circle of position can be obtained
which is drawn on the chart. The intersection of this position circle with another position circle or position
line will fix the position of the ship.
PRINCIPAL OF HSA:- In a circle angle made by any segment at the centre is double the angle made at any
point of the rest of the segment.

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If we need to steer a certain true course from the position obtained by HSA problem then donot use the
compass error obtained by HSA method. To change true to compass co. use a new compass error obtained
by variation and deviation (obtained by ships head).
ADVANTAGE OF HSA: - 1. Even if compass error is unknown, the position of vessel can be obtained by taking
compass bearing of two objects.
2. HSA can be obtained from any part of the ship. For obtaining HSA being on the bridge is not required.
DISADVANTAGE OF HSA: - 1. Three objects chosen should be well separated in order to have a good fix.
2. If the third object lies on the position circle obtained by 1st two objects then we shall not get position as
there will be no intersection.
Q. VERTICAL SEXTANT ANGLE
It is the angle subtended at the vessel by a light house or any object ashore. The sextant is held vertically, the
top of the selected object is brought to the foot of it by the sextant and the angle is measured.
It is one of the methods of finding position of a vessel. Taking the bearing of a terrestrial object and
obtaining the distance off the that object by means of a VSA.
DISTANCE OFF IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO HEIGHT UPON VSA.
WHERE H IS HEIGHT OF OBJECT.
DISTANCE OFF= H/VSA*1.854(IN METRES.)
Ship’s position can also be found by taking vertical sextant angles of two or more suitable objects which in
turn will give you the distance the vessel is off those objects. In other words, each observation will give a
position circle and where the two position circles cut each other will be the position of the ship.
It is very useful when a ship has to pass a certain safe distance off a light house or an off-laying danger.
Q. HOW TO TAKE COMPASS ERROR FROM HSA?
Q. POSITION LINE
The position line is the line on which the ship is most likely to be located. A bearing of a terrestrial object is a
position line as the ship could be anywhere on that line. Since the distance from the object is not known, we
cannot fix the position. However, it also must be noted that the bearing of a celestial object is not the
position line as you would learn in the appropriate module, the position line in that cases is a line
perpendicular to it. It is a position circle but for our purpose, the radius of the circle is so large that a tangent
to the bearing can be accepted as a position line. There is more than one method of obtaining position lines.
Suppose you have found out the distance off an object, the arc of the circle with the radius, as the distance
off becomes a position line. (Geometrically a position arc)
Q. POSITION FIXING BY HORIZONTAL SEXTANT ANGLE (HSA):
This method of position fixing is more suitable for ships at anchor or mooring, where accurate position
determination is required and sufficient time is available. This method is based on the geometry theorem
that angle subtended by any arc at the centre of the circle is twice the angle subtended at the
circumference.

In above figure A, B & Care three identified charted shore objects. Using a sextant, measure a horizontal
sextant angle (HSA). Between A and B let it be Ө₁ and between B & C Ө₂.
Step 1. Join A & B and B & C by straight lines.

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Step 2. Calculate the complement of the horizontal angle between A and B i.e. (90 — Ө₁). Plot it through A
and again through B on the side towards the observer, giving intersection at point D. Similarly calculate and
plot complement of HSA between B & C and plot the same through ‘B & C on the side towards the observer,
giving intersection at point E.
Step 3. Using AD or BD as radius draw a circle with D as centre and also draw another circle using EB or EC as
radius with E as centre. Position arcs AOB and BOG are part of position circles and the vessel lies on the
intersection of the arcs at 0, as clearly ship cannot be on land at other intersection.
Advantages of horizontal sextant angle fixes,
1. It is more accurate because sextant can be read more accurately as compared to compass.
2. HSA fixes are free from compass error.
3. HSA can be taken from any part of the ship from where all the objects are visible. However, HSA fixes
suffers from few drawbacks such as minimum 3 objects are required on or near a same straight line and
more time is required for obtaining a fix.
Q. COMPASS ERROR DETERMINATION BY HSA
This method of position fixing can even be used for finding out compass error (gyro/standard) by joining the
obtained fix on chart with any of the observed object by straight line and comparing this bearing on the chart
with visually observed bearing.
Hence, even if compass error is not known three observed compass bearings of three objects can be used to
obtain angle between objects and plotted as HSA in the similar manner. Compass error is obtained by
comparing observed bearing and bearing obtained from the chart by joining the fix and object.
EXAMPLE:
Let’s consider, by using azimuth circle I have taken 03 Brg. (2860,3550 and 0450) of 03 objects.
1.Difference between 1st and 2nd Brg. (3550 ~ 2860) =700
So, HAS = (900 -700) =20O
2. Difference between 2nd and 3rd Brg. (3550 ~ 0450) =500
So, HAS = (900 -500) =40O
Now find the fix by plotting on chart and determine true Brg. Of 1st object is 2820.
Gyro Brg. = 2850
True Brg. = 2820
Gyro Error=0030 (H)
Comp. Brg. = 2840 (Magnetic)
True Brg. = 2820
Comp. Error=0020 (H)
Variation = 0010 w (from chart)
Deviation = 0010 w.
Note:
H: west and L: east
If difference between Brg.’s is less than 900 then HAS = (900 -difference) and it lies in between the ship
position and line connected the objects.
If difference between Brg.’s is more than 900 then HAS = (difference-900) and it lies outside of ship position
and line connected the objects.
Q. POSITION FIXING BY VERTICAL SEXTANT ANGLE (VSA).
In this method vertical sextant angle subtended by the object of known height (usually a lighthouse) is
measured using a sextant, which gives distance off or position circle from the observed object. If more than
one Vertical Sextant Angles (VSA) of nearby objects are observed simultaneously giving at least two position
circles, intersection of such position circles will give the fix at the time of observation.
This again is not a very popular position fixing method used at sea as there are better and quicker methods
of position fixing available. It is used in hydrographic surveys extensively. However, knowledge of these
methods will prepare you for adverse situations, when usual methods of position fixing may not be available
to you. You shall also be ready FOR solving it in the examinations without confusion. Remember index error
needs to be applied.
This method of position fixing may suffer from the inaccuracy due to changing heights of observed objects
from sea level caused due to tidal variations. Though these are difficult to calculate accurately the error that

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is likely to be caused is negligible and it is preferable to use the heights given the chart ad they are.
Method is found suitable for passing off- lying danger at a safe distance by sailing along an arc maintaining
the pre-determined safe vertical sextant angle. Thus, any increase in the angle subtended at the observer
indicates that the vessel is getting closer to the danger.

In the figure O is the observer on a ship and B is the base of a lighthouse at water level. L is the location of
Lantern of the lighthouse.
By using principles of trigonometry, we know that BL = BO tan Ө.
As the angle Ө is small we can also say that BL = BO Sin Ө
i.e. Height = dist. X Sin Ө
You are aware that at small angles, sine of an” its angle is the same as radian. The value of one radian is 57°
17’45″= 3438 minutes.
Ө° = Ө / 57.3 radians

Therefore,

Simplified this will become:

For objects in meters the formula becomes:

EXAMPLE:

1.First take Brg. Of light house

2.Draw a tangent to the bottom of the light house from ship DR position, so the angle between the line is the
VSA (let here ꝋ=150)
3.From the light house draw a circle of radius as d= (h x 10854)/ (ꝋ x 60’) =……. NM
4.The circle is the position circle of the ship, and the intersection point is the Fix of the ship.
Q. RUNNING FIX WITHOUT CURRENT:
This method of position fixing is used when there is only one terrestrial object available for observing i.e., a
lighthouse, light vessel whose position is known, without any means for measuring the distance from the
object i.e. Radar out of order etc.

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Running fix method uses the technique of transferring a position line. In this method, a position line is the
observed bearing. Provided all conditions such as current, tide & wind etc. and the engine speed and course
steered remains unchanged between the observations, the Position lines can be transferred for the short
duration without much loss of accuracy.
In the below figure, AB is the first observed bearing (position line). At the time of observation, the vessel lay
somewhere along this line If the vessel was steaming a course for a known period of time provided. all
meteorological factors, engine speed, Course etc. remain unchanged, Line AB can be made to run for that
period along the course steamed to A’ B’. Thus, the vessel should now lie somewhere along A’ B’ which is a
transferred Position line. (TPL).
We shall explain the method best, with the help of illustration given below:
While steering a course of 0700 (T) “A” Lt bore 014° (T) @1000 hours, and the same light bore 304° (T) @
1030 hours, find the ship’s position at 1000 hours and @ 1030 hours. Speed by ship’s log 12 knots.

Follow the steps given below:

Step 1. Lay A B true bearing of Lt House @ 1000 hours i.e. 014°(T)
Step 2. Lay A C true bearing of Lt House @ 1030 hours i.e. 304° (T)
Step 3. AB being the position line @1000 hours, your vessel lies along this line. Take any point along AB, say,
“D”. (Arbitrary position should be taken as close to DR as possible to minimize plotting error.)
Step 4. From D plot your true course being steered i.e. 0700 (T) and mark distance covered by your vessel
between the interval of observations, 1000 hours to 1030 hours i.e. DE = 6 miles
Provided there were no changes in ship’s speed, course and prevailing meteorological conditions, position
line of 1000 hours can be transferred through E without any loss of accuracy.
Step 5. Transfer position line AB through E i.e. A’ B’. Intersection of two position lines drawn is the ship’s
position ‘F’ at 1030 hours. Now, if ship’s course is traced backward through F, we get intersection “G”. This
was the ship’s position at 1000 hours.
You may now ask as to what is the maximum duration for which a position line can be transferred. As stated
earlier if speed and course other factors affecting the progress remain unchanged position lines theoretically
can be transferred over a larger interval of time.
However, under normal circumstances a position line should not be transferred when navigating in the
coastal waters for more than three hours.
Q. RUNNING FIX WITH THE CURRENT:
In case of simple running fix problem explained earlier ship’s, speed and course are assumed unchanged
during the interval between the observations. But in case of tidal areas where steady current of known
strength and direction is experienced between the observations, following method is used for obtaining a fix.
In our earlier illustration, of running fix, if vessel also experienced a tidal stream as setting 285 degrees at 3.5
knots, the working would be as follows:

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Working is similar up to step 4.

Step 5. Draw set & drift vectors for 30 minutes through E up to F, i.e. 285 deg true and 1.75 Miles for interval
of 30 minutes between 1000 hours and 1030 hours.
Step 6, Transfer Position line AB through F, intersection of A’B’ and AC at •G is the fix at 1030 hours and on
tracing the course made good i.e. DF backward through G we get fix at 1000 hrs.
Notice in this method course steered is not traced backward through ‘G’ instead course made good DF is
drawn through ‘G’, to obtain position at 1000 hours.
You may wonder as to when and where am I really going to use these methods of position fixing in this era of
satellite position fixing.
It just takes one complete black out or. A small accident or malfunctioning of system to spoil all the position
fixing systems onboard and that is the time you need to put all your skills to use, for obtaining ship’s position
accurately with limited means available to you. These position-fixing methods were devised in an era when
such failures were common. They are not uncommon now either!
Q. THREE POINT BEARING
Again, if you have no modem methods available and you have only one conspicuous object, it is possible to
obtain a lot of information from three observations of the same object.
This is a very good method for obtaining course made good, using three observations of the same object
taken at a known interval of time and therefore a known distance run between the observations.
Though there are various methods of calculating course made good, this method requires three bearings of
only one object. Thus, making it a very quick plotting method especially in coastal regions where the
navigator I cannot afford to spare much time for plotting and needs to know accurately the course being
made good by his vessel especially in cases of non-availability of RADAR/ARRA /GPS etc.
Information needed is 3 bearings of any object taken at known interval of time and the distance steamed
between those observations. This method is better illustrated stepwise as follows:

Step 1. Lay all three bearings AB, CB and DB through the observed object towards the sea.
Step 2. Through the observed object ‘IT, draw a line perpendicular to the middle bearing.
Step 3. On this line, mark the distance steamed between 1st and 2nd observation and the distance steamed
between 2nd and 3rd bearing on their respective side of the middle bearing BE, BF.

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Alternatively, instead of marking distances on the perpendicular line you may even mark the ratio of time or
distance i.e. duration of 15 minutes and 45 minutes between the observations can be marked as 1:3.
Distance steamed between observations of 4 miles and 16 miles can be marked as 1:4 using any suitable
scale.
For this purpose, longitude scale is a very convenient scale as it is a constant scale and as we are not
addressing the actual distances but their ratios.
Step 4. Draw lines parallel to the middle bearing i.e. EG & FH from the points obtained in step 3 on the either
side of observed object till they meet first and third bearing and mark these two points ‘G’ and ‘H’ on the
respective bearing.
Step 5. Join the points obtained in Step 4. GH is then the course made good between first and third bearing.
Primarily, this is not a position fixing method, however, if prevailing set is known fixes can be obtained at the
time of 1st and 3rd bearing using running fix with current method as illustrated below:
Before proceeding further, please revise your running fix method again
Information needed is three bearings taken of a navigational object at a known interval of time or distance
steamed between observation and set of the current.

Step 1. Draw bearing AB, CB, DB through observed object towards the sea.
Step 2. Through B draw EF perpendicular to BC.
Step 3. Mark off EB & BF distance run between bearings or time or their ratio using a suitable scale on their
respective sides.
Step 4. Through F & E draw FG & EH parallel to BC
Step 5. Join GH, being the course made good between the observations.
Step 6. Through ‘G’ draw course steered and mark ‘at the distance steamed between the time interval of
first and third bearing.
Step 7. Through J draw the direction of set experienced during the observation and extend it till it meets
course made good at K.
Step 8. Through K draw A’B’, parallel to AB (transfer bearing AB through K) being the transferred position line
at the time of third observation. Mark the intersection of A’B’ and DB (third observed bearing) ‘L.’
Step 9. ‘L’ is the ship’s position at the time of third bearing observation. Transfer GH through `L’ in reverse
direction, from intersection of transferred course made good and first bearing gives you ship’s position ‘M’
at the time of first observation.
Step 10. JK is the drift experienced during the interval between first and third observation.
Q. DOUBLING THE ANGLE ON THE BOW FOR OBTAINING THE DISTANCE OFF.
In the figure ‘C’ is a lighthouse being observed. When taking first bearing, the time and log reading is noted
down, the observer continues to observe the light-house till the observed bearing becomes double in value
on the bow (relative bearing on port or starboard bow). Time and speed log are noted to calculate distance
steamed between these two observations.

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AC — first bearing of light

BC — Second bearing of light
AD — Course steered between observations.
AB = BC = Distance run between first and second observations
BC — Distance from the light at the time of second observation
In this illustration, initial relative bearing on port bow was the ∠BAC = Ө° and at the time of second
observation relative bearing a bow ∠CBD = 2Ө.
Distance steamed between first and second observation is the distance from observed object, (in this case
lighthouse) because triangle ABC is isosceles triangle with AB = BC.
This method gives distance from the object observed at the time of second observation. It does not help in
predicting or planning distance off in advance.
Q. FOUR POINT BEARING ON THE BOW FOR KNOWING THE DISTANCE OFF.
The procedure is similar to doubling the angle on bow. When angle on bow is equal to four points, (i.e.
11.25° x 4 = 45°) note down time and log and continue to observe the object till the angle on the bow
becomes 90° (11.25° x 8 = 90°). Distance from the object shall be the distance steamed between first and
second observation.

AC = first observation, when angle on the bow is 45°.

BC= second observation, when angle on the bow is 90°. AB = BC.
This method also suffers from the disadvantages that distance from the object is only known when ship is
already off that position.
Q. SPECIAL ANGLES ON THE BOW.
We use this process for estimating the distance abeam, at which the ship is going to pass any observed
object. Special angle method of estimating distance gives the distance abeam from the object in advance,
enabling us to take a decision regarding safe passing distance etc.
Unlike doubling the angle on the bow or four-point bearing methods, if certain pairs of angles (table A) are
observed on the bow and time and log is noted, distance off When abeam can be estimated.
A pair of selected angles are observed on the bow whose cotangent value gives difference of one, thus the
distance steamed between two observations will be the distance off, when vessel is abeam the target.

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AD = ship’s course steered

AC = first relative bearing such as ∠ BAC= Φ (any special angle from table A)
BC = second relative bearing such as ∠ DBC = Ө (paired special angle with first angle on the bow)
From figure
Cot Ө = BD/DC ———–(1)
Cot Φ = (AB+BD) / DC= (AB/DC) +(BD/DC)
From (1) and (2)
Cot Φ – Cot Ө = (AB/BC) +(BD/DC) — (BD/DC) = (AB/DC)
Cot Φ – Cot Ө = (AB/DC)
If AB = DC
AB/DC = 1
Hence, Cot Φ – Cot Ө =1
A good number of pairs will fulfil this requirement. More frequently used pairs are given in Table A.
Q. RANGE OF NAVIGATIONAL LIGHTS
Visibility range of any navigational lights can be defined in three following ways.
1. Geographical range
2. Luminous range, and
3. Nominal range
Q. GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE
Geographical range is the maximum distance at which a light can be seen considering the height of the light
and height of the observer’s eye, due to curvature of the earth surface. This range in sea miles can be
directly obtained from the table provided in the Admiralty list of lights. Geographical range can also be
calculated by using visible horizon formula given below:
Due to curvature of earth’s surface visibility, range of lights depends upon various factors i.e. the height of
the light, height of the observer’s eye, intensity of the light and the prevailing visibility.
●Higher the observer, larger is the visible horizon.
●Higher the location of light, larger is the visible horizon.
●Higher the intensity of light, farther it is visible.
●Better the atmospheric visibility, farther the visible range.
Imagine yourself onboard a large tanker. During your loaded passage, your height of eye will be less as
compared to the height of eye on ballast voyage. Hence, will see lights much later as compared to ballast
voyage. Similarly, lighthouses located on higher islands or taller structures would also be visible much earlier
as compared to the lights of less height. In addition to the height and intensity of the light, atmospheric
visibility also governs the visible range of any light.
Step 1. Find out the height of the lighthouse from chart or Admiralty list of lights and fog signals and
calculate the range of visible horizon of the light using following expressions.
Distance of visible horizon = 1.15 x √ h (h = height of light house or observer in Feet)
Distance of visible horizon = 2.095 x √ h (h = height of light house or observer in Meters).
Step 2. Calculate height of eye (HE) of the observer (HE corresponding to draft is displayed on the bridge)
and calculate the range of visible horizon for the observer using formula given in step 2
Step 3. Add range of visible horizon for observer and that of lighthouse. This sum gives you the maximum
range at which the observer and the lighthouse will be in the line of sight.

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This range is called as geographical Range
Q. LUMINOUS RANGE
Luminous range is the maximum distance at which a light can be seen in the prevailing visibility conditions
due to the intensity of light alone. This range does not consider the curvature of earth, elevation of light, and
observer’s height of eye.
Luminous range diagram is provided in the Admiralty list of lights and fog signals and from the table
luminous range can be worked out for any light of known intensity in candelas.

Luminous range diagram See diagram in the Admiralty List of Lights

Q. NOMINAL RANGE
It is the maximum range at which a light can be seen in the prevailing visibility of 10 nautical miles, or It is the
luminous range of any light in the meteorological visibility of 10M.
Ranges marked in charts and in list of lights are normally luminous or nominal ranges. To know the type of
the range, reference should be made in the special remark column of list of lights or cautions given on the
navigational charts. in the absence of any information, for all practical purposes ranges marked on the chart
are taken as luminous range.
Thus, the maximum range at which a light will be visible will either be geographical or luminous range
whichever is less.
It is necessary to calculate both ranges to determine the visible range of the light.
Example – 2
Assuming your height of eye is 16m, calculate at what range will the light be sighted. Elevation of light is 20
m. Other details are the same as in example 1 Follow me:
Step 1. Calculate visible horizon of the observer and of lighthouse as explained earlier or using geographical
range tables from list of lights.
Step 2. Calculate geographical range of the lighthouse by adding both the ranges.
Step 3. Compare charted range and the calculated geographical range A light will be seen at the lesser of the
two ranges.
The geographical range is sometime more than the charted range. This is because though the elevation of
light and observer’s height of eye gives a larger range insufficient power of the light rates the charted range
at a lower range. Such lights cannot normally raised or dipped.
Some lights have a very large luminous range but their geographical range is limited due its height. The loom

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of these lights can be seen at very large distances but they are raised at the rising distances only.
Q. RAISING AND DIPPING OF LIGHTS
A light is raised when it is seen on the horizon from the bridge of a ship for the first time. A light is dipped
when the light is seen for the last time on the horizon from the ship as the ship goes away from the light.
Rising and dipping distances of the light are the maximum visible ranges. We can calculate these distances
using formulae or range tables. Rising and dipping bearings and distances can give us reasonably accurate
fixes. However, positions thus obtained must be used with caution, as distances off (rising or dipping
distances) may not be very accurate.
Q. HOW TO TAKE COMPASS ERROR FROM TRANSIT BEARING?
○ Gyro Brg. = 0450 Magnetic Brg. = 0460
0
↙ True Brg. = 046 True Brg. = 0460
○ Gyro Error = 0010 (L) Compass error= Nil
Gyro Brg. ↗ True Brg.
⌂
Q. WHY WE CALCULATE SUNRISE AND SUNSET?
Because at that time the celestial body is on horizon and can use amplitude angle for position line which is
much simpler than other calculation.
Also, the regulation for switching on Navigation light is at sunset.so, to find out actual time of switching
navigation light we calculate sunset.
Procedure:
1. DATE: LAT: LONG: (From GPS)
2. From Almanac LMT Sunset/Sunrise =
LONG in time {E (-)/W (+)} =
GMT =
Local time (ZT) =
SMT (Sun set/rise) = (SMT: Ship Mean Time)
Q. HOW YOU WILL CALCULATE COMPASS ERROR BY POLARIS?
1. First i will take sextant altitude of Pole Star, note down DR position, UTC time and check I.E. of sextant.
2.From UTC date and time using GPS/Sat-C.
3.Using Nautical Almanac: GHA (Ꝩ) Aries =
Increment =
GHA (Ꝩ) =
Long. (E/W) (+/-) =
LHA (Ꝩ) =
So, DR LAT. =
4.Sextanat altitude =
I.E (+/-) =
Observed Altitude =
DIP (H.E) (-) =
Apparent altitude =
Total correction (+/-) =
True Altitude =
a0= (By using LHA from Almanac)
a1=
a2=
SUM =
(-) 10 (due to refraction)
Observed Latitude=
5.True Azimuth=
Compass Azimuth=
Compass Error=
Variation = (from chart)
Deviation=

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Q.HOW TO FIND COMPASS ERROR BY AZIMUTH METHOD?
AZIMUTH SUN
1. DATE: TIME: OBJECT:
DR LAT: DR LONG: BEARING:

2.Using Nautical Almanac: GHA (Ꝩ) Aries = Declination=

Increment = (d=) +/- =
GHA (Ꝩ) = Declination (corrected)=
Long. (E/W) (+/-) =
LHA (Ꝩ) =
3.A= Tan Lat/Tan LHA=
B= Tan decl./Sin LHA=
C= (A +/- B) =
4.Tan Az=1/C x Cos Lat
So, Az = S/N ‘X’ E/W
5. True Brg. = True Brg. =
Gyro Brg. = Magnetic Brg. =
Gyro Error = Compass error=
Variation =
Deviation =
NOTE:
●Sign of ‘A’ is always opposite to Lat when LHA lies (900-2700)
●Sign of ‘B’ is always same as Decl.
●C; if A&B are same name (+), if different name (-) and take sign of bigger value.
●Az; prefix as ‘C’ and suffix ‘W’ (LHA: 00-1800) or ‘E’ (LHA: 1800-3600)
FOR STAR: GHA (Ꝩ) Aries =
Increment =
GHA (Obs.) =
SHA (*) =
GHA (*) =
LONG =
LHA (*) =
All other procedure same as sun
FOR MOON: GHA Moon =
Increment =
‘V’ correction =
GHA (Observed)=
LONG =
LHA =
All other procedure same as sun
Q.HOW TO CALCULATE COMPASS ERROR BY AMPLITUDE?
It can only be done when Sun is on the celestial horizon, meaning only at sunrise or sunset.
Step1: Observe the Sun’s Brg. on celestial horizon by azimuth circle, note down time of observation.
Step2: Find time in GMT (UTC to be taken as time of observation, as it is the GMT)
Step3: Find Decl =
d=
Decl (corrected)
So, LAT =
Step4: Sin Amplitude = Sin Decl/Cos Lat
So, Amplitude = E/W “X” S/N
NOTE: If Brg. between (00-1800) take “E” or Brg. between (1800-3600) take “w” as Prefix. Suffix same as decl.
Step5: True Amp. =

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True Az= True Az=
Gyro Az= Compass Az=
G/E C/E
Q. WHY YOU TAKE SUN HALF DIAMETER WHILE TAKING AMPLITUDE?
The Sun and Moon present visible disc to the observer. It is not possible to measure the altitude of their
centre, as it is difficult to judge their exact center by sight. Therefore, we measure the altitude of either their
upper limb or lower limb, to which we apply half the apparent diameter of the body to obtain the altitude of
their centres.
It is obvious that the semi-diameter should be added to an altitude of the lower limb and subtracted from
the altitude of the upper limb to obtain the altitude of the body.
The SD of the Sun is tabulated, once for every 03 days, in the daily pages of the Nautical Almanac. For Moon,
it is tabulated for each day.
The SD varies from 15.8’ at the beginning of July when the Sun is at Apogee to 16.3’ at the beginning of
January when the Sun is at Perigee.
Q. EXPLAIN POSITION FIXING METHOD OF SHIP?
Terrestrial
1. GPS
2. Three Brg.
3. Brg. & Range
4. Two Brg.
5. Echo Sounder
6. Parallel Indexing
7. Radar Fix
8. HSA
9. VSA
10. Double angle on the bow
Celestial
1. Celestial Fix by using Sextant-
●Lat by- Polaris, Ex-meridian Altitude, Meridian passage
●Long by-Intercept method, Chronometer method.
Q. BY ANY METHOD FIX YOUR SHIP POSITION AT SEA?
(A)Latitude by meridian altitude.
1.LMT MAR. PASS = D H M S Decl.=
Long in time (+/-) = d (+/-) =
GMT Decl. corrected =
2.Sextanat altitude =
I.E (+/-) =
Observed Altitude =
DIP (H.E) (-) =
Apparent altitude =
Total correction (+/-) =
True Altitude = (Named same as Az)
3.MZD= (900-T. alt= MZD; named opposite to T. alt.)
Decl.=
Obs. Lat=
Note: If MZD and Decl are of same name so add and retain the name. If opposite names, subtract the
smaller from bigger value and then name of the bigger.
4.Now draw the PL (1)
(B)Long by Intercept method
1 & 2 same as before and calculate T. Alt.
3.TZD=900-T. Alt =
4.P= (If LHA lies 1800-3600; P=3600-LHA and If LHA lies 00-1800; P=LHA)
5.Cos CZD= Cos P x Cos Lat x Cos Decl – Sin Lat x Sin Decl

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6.CZD ~ TZD = Intercept. (If TZD<CZD; Intercept towards Az or If TZD>CZD Intercept away from Az)
7. T. Az by A B C method.
8. Draw PL (2)
(C)
1.Now from DR with intercept I will get 2nd PL. On this PL from any position I will follow my Co. and SPD up to
the time of MAR. PASS.
2.Now transfer this PL to new position
3.Draw 1st PL for MAR. PASS.
4.The point of intersection is my Fix.
Q. TYPES OF CHART
A) For navigation purpose according to projection charts are 03 types-
1. Marketor projection:
-with rectangular canvas
-rhumb line appears as a straight line
2. Gnomonic projection
-used for the navigation on the great circle
3. Stereographic projection
-used for navigation in the polar regions.
B) Navigation charts according to scale:
Broadly charts are classified into two section namely-
1. The large scale
2. The small scale
Navigational charts are published in following scales:
1. Main chart series- 1:50000 – 1:100000
2. Harbour chart series- 1:5000 – 2.25000
3. Coastal chart series- 1:200000 – 1:350000
4. General chart series- 1:700000 – 1:10000000
Q. WHAT COLOUR ARE USED IN CHARTS AND WHY?
There are five major colours used in coastal charts
1. Buff: Chartographers use a dull yellow to show most landmass on NOAA nautical charts. This land remains
visible at low tide or high tide.
2. Gold: Dark Gold inside the Buff colour on nautical chart indicates harbours that offers sailboat repairs.
3. Green: Green tinted area on NOAA nautical charts denotes dangerous shoals such as rocks, sand bars or
coral heads near a beach. At high tides these hazards remain hidden. Mariner should stay clear of any tinted
green area or wait until low tide to attempt to pass close to green tinted shoal.
4. White: Indicates deeper water
5. Blue: Blue denotes shoal water. Darker tints of blue indicate shallow water, lighter tints indicate deeper
water.
Q. Fl WRG 4s 21m 18-12M?
●Flashing different colour (White, Red, Green)
●Duration Flash and Eclipse 4 second (2+2/3+1/1+3)
●Elevation of light 21 m
●Nominal range White light 18 NM
Green light 12 NM
Red light in between (18 -12) NM
●Use:
-White light to show the safe area within a channel or fairway,
-Also mark the limit of deep-water channel.
-Also used for showing the location of deadly danger, warn the mariner of lands in the way.
●Indication:
White sector is in the middle of the safe channel
Red indicate the port edge of the channel for vessel approaching the light source
Green indicates the starboard edge of the channel foe vessel approaching light source

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A vessel that is sailing in safe water and then see the red/ green colour of the light has to make an alteration
of course to come to the coverage of white light.
Q. WHAT IS ANTI-PIRACY CHART AND OTHER ANTI-PIRECY GUIDELINE ONBOARD?
Anti-piracy chart is that contains security related information to mariners for the geographical area of this
chart. It also includes the details of reporting schemes and reginal contacts as well as general, security advice
and is to be used in conjunction with standard nautical charts and publications.
A new chart Q6099 published for gulf area which giving all the information about-
1. Whom to report
2. Time of reporting
3. Report to which channel
The chart showing Red circle mark indicates:
1. From where ships are already hijacked
2. Navigation in or near high risk area
3. Voluntary reporting requirements
4. Initial reports
5. Position, course and speed reporting
6. Recommended action in event of suspected or actual piracy attack
7. Meteorological information
8. Standard ship message format
Other publication and guide line onboard:
1. BMP4 (Best Management Practice)
2. ALRS Vol. -6
3. Annual summery of NTM
4. IMO marine safety committee’s circular
5. Relevant Nav. Warnings and EGC broadcast.
Q. WHAT IS CITADEL?
CITADEL is the secured internal master station against piracy attack:
●Must have facility for communication
●Facilities for power supply
●Maximum three days food and water
●Sanitation Facility

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