Chapter 18.

Kinetics of Rigid Bodies in Three Dimensions

Introduction

Rigid Body Angular Momentum in Three Dimensions

Principle of Impulse and Momentum
Kinetic Energy
Motion of a Rigid Body in Three Dimensions
Euler’s Equations of Motion and D’Alembert’s Principle
Motion About a Fixed Point or a Fixed Axis
Motion of a Gyroscope. Eulerian Angles
Steady Precession of a Gyroscope
Motion of an Axisymmetrical Body Under No Force
Three dimensional analyses are needed to determine the forces and moments
on the gimbals of gyroscopes, the joints of robotic welders, and the supports
of radio telescopes.
Introduction
• The fundamental relations developed for the
plane motion of rigid bodies may also be applied
to the general motion of three dimensional bodies.
 
 • H
The relation G = I ω which was used

∑ F = m a
to determine the angular momentum of a
 
∑ M G = HG rigid slab is not valid for general three
18.1 dimensional bodies and motion.
The current chapter is concerned with
evaluation of the angular momentum and
its rate of change for three dimensional
motion and application to effective forces,
the impulse-momentum and the work-
energy principles.
18.1A Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body in Three Dimensions
Angular momentum of a body about its mass center,
 n   n   
H G = ∑ (ri′× vi ∆mi ) = ∑ [ri′× (ω × ri′)Δmi ]
i =1 i =1
The x component of the angular momentum,

∑ [yi (ω × ri′)z − zi (ω × ri′) y ]Δmi

n    
Hx =
i =1

∑ [yi (ω x yi − ω y xi ) − zi (ω z xi − ω x zi )]Δmi
n
=
i =1

= ωx ∑
n
( yi2 + zi2 )Δmi − ω y ∑ xi yi Δmi − ω z ∑ zi xi Δmi
n n

i =1 i =1 i =1

H x = ω x ∫ ( y 2 + z 2 ) dm − ω y ∫ xy dm − ω z ∫ zx dm
+ I xω x − I xyω y − I xzω z
=
− I yxω x + I yω y − I yzω z
Hy =
− I zxω x − I zyω y + I zω z
Hz =
  
Transformation of ω into is characterized by the inertia HG tensor for the body,
 + Ix − I xy − I xz 
 
 − I yx + Iy − I yz 
− I − I zy + I z 
 zx

• With respect to the principal axes of inertia,

 I x′ 0 0
 
 0 I y′ 0=  H x′ I=x′ω x′ H y′ I=y ′ω y ′ H z′ I z′ω z′
 0 I z′ 
 0

The angular momentum H G of a rigid body and its

angular velocity ω have the same direction if, and only if,

ω is directed along a principal axis of inertia.
 The momenta of the particles of a rigid body can be reduced
to:

L = linear momentum

 = m v
H G = angular momentum about G
H x = + I xω x − I xyω y − I xzω z
H y = − I yxω x + I yω y − I yzω z
H z = − I zxω x − I zyω y + I zω z

• The angular momentum about any other given point O is

   
H O = r × mv + H G
The angular momentum of a body constrained to rotate about a
fixed point may be calculated from
• Or, the     angular momentum may be
H O = r × mv + H G
computed directly from the moments
and products of inertia with respect to the Oxyz frame.

 n  
H O = ∑ (ri × vi Δm )
i =1
n  
= [
∑ i
r × (ω × ri )Δmi ]
i =1

+ I xω x − I xyω y − I xzω z
Hx =
− I yxω x + I yω y − I yzω z
Hy =
− I zxω x − I zyω y + I zω z
Hz =
18.1B Principle of Impulse and Momentum

• The principle of impulse and momentum can be applied directly to the three-dimensional
motion of a rigid body,
Syst Momenta 1 + Syst Ext Imp 1-2 = Syst Momenta 2
• The free-body diagram equation is used to develop component and moment equations.
• For bodies rotating about a fixed point, eliminate the impulse of the reactions at O by
writing equation for moments of momenta and impulses about O.
18.1C Kinetic Energy
Kinetic energy of particles forming rigid body,
n
T= 1 mv 2
2
+ 1
2 ∑ Δ m i vi ′2
i =1
n  
= 12 mv 2 + 1
2 ∑ ω × r′i 2 Δmi
i =1

= 12 mv 2 + 1 (I ω 2 + I ω 2 + I ω 2 − 2 I xyω xω y
2 x x y y z z
− 2 I yzω yω z − 2 I zxω zω x )
• If the axes correspond instantaneously with the
principle axes,
T= 1 mv 2 + 1 ( I ω 2 + I ω 2 + I ω 2 )
2 2 x′ x′ y′ y′ z′ z′

• With these results, the principles of work and energy and conservation of energy may be
applied to the three-dimensional motion of a rigid body.
• Kinetic energy of a rigid body with a fixed point,
T = 12 ( I xω x2 + I yω 2y + I zω z2 − 2 I xyω xω y
− 2 I yzω yω z − 2 I zxω zω x )
• If the axes Oxyz correspond instantaneously with the principle
axes Ox’y’z’,
T = 12 ( I x′ω x2′ + I y′ω y2′ + I z′ω z2′ )
Sample Problem 18.1
Rectangular plate of mass m that is suspended from two
wires is hit at D in a direction perpendicular to the plate.
Immediately after the impact, determine a) the velocity of
the mass center G, and b) the angular velocity of the plate.

STRATEGY:
• Apply the principle of impulse and momentum. Since the initial momenta is zero, the
system of impulses must be equivalent to the final system of momenta.
• Assume that the supporting cables remain taut such that the vertical velocity and the
rotation about an axis normal to the plate is zero.
• Principle of impulse and momentum yields to two equations for linear momentum and
two equations for angular momentum.
• Solve for the two horizontal components of the linear and angular velocity vectors.
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Apply the principle of impulse and momentum. Since the initial momenta is zero, the
system of impulses must be equivalent to the final system of momenta.
• Assume that the supporting cables remain taut such that the vertical velocity and the
rotation about an axis normal to the plate is zero.
     
v = vxi + vz k ω = ω xi + ω y j
Since the x, y, and z axes are principal axes of inertia,
   1 2  
H G = I xω x i + I yω y j = 12 mb ω x i + 12 ma ω y j
1 2
• Principle of impulse and momentum yields two equations for linear momentum and two
equations for angular momentum.
• Solve for the two horizontal components of the linear and angular velocity vectors.
1
bFΔt = H x − 12 aFΔt =
Hy
0 = mvx − FΔt = mvz 2

vx = 0 vz = − FΔt m = 121 mb 2ω x = 121 ma 2ω y

  ω x = 6 FΔt mb ω y = − ( 6 FΔt ma )
v = − ( FΔt m ) k
 6 FΔt  
=ω
mab
( ai + b j )
REFLECT and THINK:
• Equating the y components
of the impulses and
momenta and their
moments about the z axis,
you can obtain two
additional equations that
 
v − (FΔt m )k
yield TA = TB = ½W.
• This verifies that the wires
remain taut and that the
initial assumption was
correct. If the impulse were
6 FΔt 
 
= would(aireduce
at G,ωthis + b j ) to a
 mab  1 
H G 121 mb 2ω x i +problem.
two-dimensional
= 12 ma 2
ω y j
Sample Problem 18.2
A homogeneous disk of mass m is mounted on an axle
OG of negligible mass. The disk rotates counter-clockwise
at the rate w 1 about OG.
Determine: a) the angular velocity of the disk, b) its
angular momentum about O, c) its kinetic energy, and d)
the vector and couple at G equivalent to the momenta of
the particles of the disk.
STRATEGY:
• The disk rotates about the vertical axis through O as well as about OG. Combine the
rotation components for the angular velocity of the disk.
• Compute the angular momentum of the disk using principle axes of inertia and noting
that O is a fixed point.
• The kinetic energy is computed from the angular velocity and moments of inertia.
• The vector and couple at G are also computed from the angular velocity and moments
of inertia.
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• The disk rotates about the vertical axis through O as well as
about OG. Combine the rotation components for the angular
velocity of the disk.
  
ω = ω1i + ω 2 j
Noting that the velocity at C is zero,
  
vC = ω × rC = 0
   
0 = (ω1i + ω 2 j ) × (Li − rj )

= (Lω 2 − rω1 )k
ω 2 = rω1 L
  
ω ω1i − ( rω1 L ) j
=
 • Compute the angular momentum of the disk using principle
axes of inertia and noting that O is a fixed point.
   
H O = I xω x i + I yω y j + I zω z k
= xω x
H x I= ( mr ) ω
1
2
2
1

Hy =I yω y =( mL + mr ) ( − rω L )
2 1
4
2
1
  
ω = ω1i − (rω1 L ) j I zω z
Hz = ( mL + mr ) 0 =
= 2 1
40 2

  
H=O
1
2 mr 2ω1i − m ( L2 + 14 r 2 ) ( rω1 L ) j

• The kinetic energy is computed from the angular velocity and moments of inertia.

( )
T = 12 I xω x2 + I yω y2 + I zω z2

= 12 [mr 2ω12 + m(L2 + 14 r 2 )(− rω1 L )2 ]

 r2  2
=T 1
8 mr  6 + 2  ω1
2

 L 
 The vector and couple at G are also computed from
the angular velocity and moments of inertia.
 
mv = mrω1k
   
H G = I x′ω x i + I y′ω y j + I z′ω z k
 1 2 
= 2 mr ω1i + 4 mr ( − rω L ) j
1 2

     r 
ω = ω1i − (rω1 L ) j =HG 1
2 mr 2ω1  i − j
 2L 

REFLECT and THINK:

• If the mass of the axle were not negligible and it was instead
modeled as a slender rod with a mass M axle , it would also contribute
to the kinetic energy
T axle = ½(1/3 M axle L2) ω 2 2 and the momenta
H axle = ½(1/3 M axle L2) ω 2 of the system.
18.2 Motion of a Rigid Body in Three Dimensions

 
∑ F = m a
 
∑ M = HG

18.2A Rate of Change of Angular Momentum

Angular momentum and its rate of change are taken with
respect to centroidal axes GX’Y’Z’ of fixed orientation.
 
Transformation of ω into H G is independent of the
system of coordinate axes.
Convenient to use body fixed axes Gxyz where moments
and products of inertia are not time dependent.

• Define rate of change of change of H G with respect
to the rotating frame,
 ( )Gxyz

HG 





= H xi + H y j + H z k

Then,
 
HG = HG ( )Gxyz  
+ Ω × HG

Ω =ω


18.2B Euler’s Eqs of Motion

 
With Ω =ω and Gxyz chosen to correspond to the
principal axes of inertia,
 
∑ M G = HG ( )Gxyz  
+ Ω × HG
Euler’s Equations:
∑ M x = I xω x − (I y − I z )ω yω z
∑ M y = I yω y − (I z − I x )ω zω x
∑ M z = I zω z − (I x − I y )ω xω y
• System of external forces and effective forces are equivalent for general
three dimensional motion.
• System of external forces are equivalent to the vector and couple,
 
ma and H G .
18.2C,D Motion About a Fixed Point or a Fixed Axis
For a rigid body rotation around a fixed point,
 
∑ M O = HO

= H ( O )Oxyz + Ω × H O
For a rigid body rotation around a fixed axis,
H x = − I xzω H y = − I yzω H z = I zω

( )
   
∑=
MO HO
Oxyz
+ ω × HO
  
(
=− I xz i − I yz j + I z k ω)
   
(
+ ω k × − I xz i − I yz j + I z k ω )
    
( )
= − I xz i − I yz j + I z k α + ( − I xz j + I yz i ) ω 2

∑ x xz yz
M =− I α + I ω 2

∑ y yz xz
M =− I α + I ω 2

∑M z = I zα
If symmetrical with respect to the xy plane,
∑ M x = 0 ∑ M y = 0 ∑ M z = I zα
• If not symmetrical, the sum of external moments will not be zero, even if α
= 0,

∑ M x = I yzω 2 ∑ M y = I xzω 2 ∑ M z = 0

• A rotating shaft requires both static (ω = 0)and dynamic (ω ≠ 0) balancing

to avoid excessive vibration and bearing reactions.
Sample Problem 18.3
Rod AB with mass m = 20 kg is pinned at A to a vertical axle which
rotates with constant angular velocity ω = 15 rad/s. The rod
position is maintained by a horizontal wire BC.
Determine the tension in the wire and the reaction at A.

STRATEGY:

• Evaluate the system of effective forces by reducing them to a vector ma attached at G

and couple H G .
• Expressing that the system of external forces is equivalent to the system of effective
forces, write vector expressions for the sum of moments about A and the summation of
forces.
• Solve for the wire tension and the reactions at A.
MODELING and ANALYSIS:
• Evaluate the system of effective forces by reducing them to
 
a vector ma attached at G and couple H G .

   
H G = I xω x i + I y ω y j + I z ω z k
 =Ix =
mL1
12
2
I y 0= I z 121 mL2
ωx =
−ω cos β ω y =
ω sin β ω z =
0
 
H G = − 12 mL ω cos β i
1 2
 Expressing that the system of external forces is equivalent to
the system of effective forces, write vector expressions for
the sum of moments about A and the summation of forces.
 
∑ A ∑ A )eff
M = (M
      
( ) (
1.732 J × −TI + 0.5 I × −196.2
= ) ( )
J 0.866 J × −2250 I + 649.5 K
 
(1.732T − 98.1) K = (1948.5 + 649.5) K
  T = 1557 N
∑ ∑
F = F ( )
 eff    
AX I + AY J + AZ K − 1613I − 196.2 J =
−2250 I
  
A=− ( 697 N ) I + (196.2 N ) J
•
Gyroscopes are used in the navigation system of the Hubble telescope, and can
also be used as sensors . Modern gyroscopes can also be MEMS (Micro Electro-
Mechanical System) devices, or based on fiber optic technology.
* Motion of a Gyroscope. Eulerian Angles *
A gyroscope consists of a rotor with its mass center fixed in space
but which can spin freely about its geometric axis and assume any
orientation.
From a reference position with gimbals and a reference diameter of
the rotor aligned, the gyroscope may be brought to any orientation
through a succession of three steps:

a) rotation of outer gimbal through φ about AA’,

b) rotation of inner gimbal through θ about BB’,
c) rotation of the rotor through ψ about CC’.
• φ θ ψ : Eulerian Angles

φ = rate of precession
θ = rate of nutation
Ψ = rate of spin
The angular velocity of the gyroscope,
   
 
ω = φ K + θ j +Ψ k
  
with K = − sin θ i + cos θ k
   
ω = −φ sin θ i + θ j + ( Ψ + φ cos θ ) k
   

Equation of motion,

( )

∑ M O = H O Oxyz + Ω × H O
 

   
H O = − I ′φ sin θ i + I ′θ j + I ( Ψ + φ cos θ ) k
   
  

= φ K +θ j
Ω 

∑ M = − I ′ (φsin θ + 2θφ  cos θ ) + Iθ ( Ψ + φ cos θ )

x

∑ M= I ′ (θ − φ sin θ cos θ ) + Iφ sin θ ( Ψ + φ cos θ )

y
2

∑=
Mz I
dt
(
d  
Ψ + φ cos θ )
Steady Precession of a Gyroscope
Steady precession,
θ ,φ,ψ are constant
  
ω = −φ sin θ i + ω z k
  

H O = − I ′φ sin θ i + Iω z k
  
 
Ω = −φ sin θ i + φ cosθ k

  
∑ M O = Ω × HO

= (Iω z − I ′φ cosθ )φ sin θ j
 
Couple is applied about an axis perpendicular to the precession and
spin axes
When the precession and spin axis are at a right angle,
θ = 90°
 
∑ O
M = IΨφ j
Gyroscope will precess about an axis perpendicular to both the
spin axis and couple axis.
Motion of an Axisymmetrical Body Under No Force
Consider motion about its mass center of an axisymmetrical
body under no force but its own weight, e.g., projectiles,
satellites, and space craft.
 
HG = 0 H G = constant

Define the Z axis to be aligned with H G and z in a rotating
axes system along the axis of symmetry. The x axis is chosen
to lie in the Zz plane.
H G sin θ
H x = − H G sin θ = I ′ω x ωx = −
I′
H y= 0= I ′ω y ωy = 0
H G cos θ
=H z H= G cos θ Iωz ωz =
• θ = constant and body is in steady precession. I
ω I
− x = tan γ = tan θ
• Note: ωz I′
 • Two cases of motion of an axisymmetrical body which under
no force which involve no precession:
• Body set to spin about its axis of symmetry,
ωx = Hx = 0
 
ω and H G are aligned and body keeps spinning
about its axis of symmetry.

• Body is set to spin about its transverse axis,

ωz = Hz = 0
 
ω and H G are aligned
and body keeps spinning about the given transverse axis.
 The motion of a body about a fixed point (or its mass center) can be
represented by the motion of a body cone rolling on a space cone.
In the case of steady precession the two cones are circular.

• I < I’. Case of an elongated body. γ <θ and the vector ω

lies inside the angle ZGz. The space cone and body cone are tangent
externally; the spin and precession are both counterclockwise from
the positive z axis. The precession is said to be direct.
• I > I’. Case of a flattened body. γ < θ and the vector ω lies outside the
angle ZGz. The space cone is inside the body cone; the spin and precession
have opposite senses. The precession is said to be retrograde.