Physical Quantities

- Properties that can be quantified by measurements

- Scalar and Vector quantities
o Scalar quantities are quantities that provide size and magnitude
o Vectors deals with both magnitude and direction; often drawn with an arrow over it
 Parallel = two or more vectors have the same direction.
 Antiparallel = two or more vectors have opposite directions
o Magnitude of ⃗ G = G = |⃗G|
 The magnitude of a vector quantity is a scalar quantity but a vector ≠ scalar
 Vector magnitudes can never be negative

Vector Addition and Subtraction

- Resultant vector = total sum of vectors being added

- Polygon Method (Graphical)
o Place vectors from head to tail. Then draw a line that connects the tail of the first vector
to the head of the last vector; this line is your resultant
o Limited accuracy
- Parallelogram Method (Graphical)
o Place both vectors at the same initial point and complete a parallelogram using the two
vectors. The diagonal of the parallelogram is your resultant
o Limited accuracy
- Component Method (Graphical)
o Most accurate method of adding vectors
o Any vector can be represented with an x-component and a y-component
o Trigonometry is used to find the components of a vector.
o Vector components can be positive or negative depending on the angle

o Resultant =√ ¿¿ ; θ=ta n
−1
( ΣΣ xy )
- Vectors obey the commutative and associative laws of addition
- Addition of antiparallel vectors = zero

VECTOR ADDITION USING UNIT-VECTOR NOTATION

Unit vector = has a magnitude of 1 with no units

o i = +x, j = +y, k = +z
o G = Gxi + Gyj + Gzk : VECTOR
⃗
 ⃗ G x = Gxi
 ⃗ G y = Gyj
 ⃗ G z = Gzk
o G= √ G2x +G2y +G2z : SCALAR
o In two dimensions,
 H=⃗
⃗ F +⃗ G
H =( F x i+ F y j ) + ( G x i+G y j )
⃗
H =( F x +G x ) i+ ( F y +G y ) j
⃗
H =H x i+ H y j
⃗

H= √ H 2x + H 2y; θ=ta n
−1
( Hy
Hx )
o In three dimensions

H=⃗
⃗ F +⃗
G
H =( F x i + F y j+ F z k )+ ( G x i+G y j+G z k )
⃗

H =( F x +G x ) i+ ( F y +G y ) j+ ( F z +G z ) k
⃗

H =H x i+ H y j+ H z k
⃗

H= √ H 2x + H 2y + H 2z ; θ=co s
−1
( HxH ) , etc .
Vector Multiplication

- G has a magnitude of |c|⃗

Multiplying a vector by a scalar. If c is scalar, the product of c⃗ G
- Multiplying a vector by another vector
o Dot Product = scalar product
 ⃗ F∙⃗G =FG ∙ cosΦ=GF ∙ cos Φ ¿ G ⃗∙⃗F
 If vectors are perpendicular (90), the product is 0
 i∙ i= j∙ j=k ∙ k =1
 ⃗ F∙⃗G=F x Gx + F y G y + F z Gz ; dot product of two vectors is equal to the sum of
products of their respective components
o Cross Product = vector product
 ⃗ F∙⃗G=⃗ H
 magnitude of ⃗ H =H=FG ∙ sinΦ
 Direction of ⃗ H is perpendicular to the plane of ⃗
F ∧⃗G
 F ∙ G= H = −G ∙ F
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
 Vector product is anticommutative
 Vector of parallel and antiparallel vectors is 0
 Vector product of any vector with itself is 0
o i∙ i= j∙ j=k ∙ k =0
 i∙ j=− j ∙i=k
j ∙ k=−k ∙ j=i
k ∙ i=−i∙ k = j
 F∙⃗
⃗ G=⃗
H
 H x =F y G z −F z G y
 H y =F z G x −F x G z
 H z=F x G y −F y G x
MECHANICS

- Branch of physics that deals with motion and related concepts of force and energy

KINEMATICS

- How objects move

- Any measurement of position, distance, or speed must be made with respect to a reference
frame (point of view)
o set of reference points that uniquely fix the coordinate system and standardize
measurements within that frame
- to describe the motion of an object, we must know its position at all times
o DISPLACEMENT: ∆ x=x final −x initial; meters (m)
- To describe how fast the motion of an object is
distance
o AVERAGE SPEED =
elapsed time
x final −xinitial ∆ x
o AVERAGE VELOCITY ( v́ )= =
t final −t initial ∆ t
o meters per second (m/s)
o INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
 How fast an object is at a particular interval/instant in time
 Average velocity of an object over an infinitesimally short time interval
∆x
 v= lim
∆t→0 ∆t
 Instantaneous velocity = instantaneous speed
 If velocity is the same all throughout; v́=v
∆x
 If velocity accelerates and/or decelerates; slope=
∆t
v initial + v final
 If velocity accelerates constantly; v́= or kinematics
2
- ACCELERATION
o How rapidly the velocity of an object is changing
v final−v initial ∆ v
o AVERAGE ACCELERATION á= =
t final−t initial ∆ t
∆v
o INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION a= lim
∆t→0 ∆ t
o If motion and acceleration are in the same direction; speed is accelerating
o If motion and acceleration are in the opposite directions; speed is decelerating
 the +/- sign does not indicate acceleration or deceleration but rather direction
KINEMATICS EQUATION

Variables:

- Displacement (x)
- Acceleration (a)
- Final velocity (v)
- Initial velocity (v0)
- Time elapsed (t)

v=v 0 + at

1
x= (v ¿¿ 0+ v)t ¿
2
1
x=v 0 t + a t 2
2

v 2=v 02 +2 ax

Free Fall Motion

- Downwards motion with constant acceleration (acceleration due to gravity) where air resistance
is neglected
- a = (-) 9.8 m/s2 ; always a downwards pointing vector
- displacement is denoted as y or ∆ y

Kinematics in Two Dimensions

- let r be the resultant of two vectors (vector x and vector y)

o DISPLACEMENT: ∆ r =r final −r initial
r final −r initial ∆r
o AVERAGE VELOCITY ( v́ )= =
t final −t initial ∆ t
∆x
o INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY v= lim
∆t→0 ∆ t
o Definition for acceleration and instantaneous acceleration remain the same as for one
dimensional kinematics

Projectile Motion
 - Two-dimensional motion under the influence of gravity; objects near the surface of the earth
will accelerate downwards at 9.8 m/s 2
- Constant acceleration in two dimensions ( x and y)
o a y =−9.8 m/s 2; constant on the earth’s surface
o a x =0 since v x =v 0 (velocity is constant)

Dynamics

- Effect of force on object’s motion

- Force
o Push or pull
o Interaction between two objects or its environment
o Contact Force = force that involves direct contact
o Noncontact Force = force that does not involve direct contact
- Mass
o Measurement of the amount of stuff in an object
o Quantity of matter

Laws of Motion = three important laws that deal with force and mass

1. Law of Motion or Inertia

a. An object continues in its state of rest or uniform velocity in a straight line unless
compelled to change by a net force
i. Net force = vector sum of all forces acting on an object
1. Σ F
ii. Inertia = tendency of an object to remain in rest or motion along a straight line
1. Inertial reference frame = law of inertia is valid
2. Non-inertial reference frame = law of inertia is invalid
3. Mass is the measure of an object’s inertia = measure of the object’s
resistance to change
a. Mass is not equal to weight; weight is the force exerted on the
object by gravity
2. Force = mass x acceleration
a. When a net external force acts on an object of mass, acceleration is directly
proportional to the net force and has a magnitude that is inversely proportional to the
mass. The direction of the acceleration is the same as the direction of the net force
i. Free body diagram – diagram that represent an object and forces that act on it
3. Whenever a force is exerted on an object, the object exerts an equal force in the opposite
direction
a. All forces occur in pairs and there is no such thing as an isolated force
Types of Forces

- Fundamental forces
- Nonfundamental forces
- Theory of Everything = theoretical framework that aims to unify all four forces

Gravitational Force
o Acceleration due to gravity is caused by a net force
o Law of Universal Gravitation
 Every particle exerts an attractive force on every particle. The force that each
particle exerts on other particles is directed along the line joining the particles
m 1 m2
 F=G ; G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2 (universal gravitational constant)
r2
 m = mass of the particle
 r = distance between the two particles
 Weight
 Gravitational force that the earth pulls on the object; always
downwards towards the center of the earth
 W = mg
mE m2
o W =G
r2
mE
o g=G 2
= 9.8 m/s2
r

Normal Force ( F N )
o Component of the force a surface exerts on an object; component force that is
perpendicular to the surface
Apparent Weight
o Weight of an object is the reading of the scale
o Σ F=ma
 FN + ( -W) = ma
 FN = W + ma
 FN = mg + ma
Friction
o When an object is in contact with a surface, there is a force acting on that object. The
component of this force that is parallel to the surface is the frictional force
o Kinetic friction opposes the object’s motion and causes it slow down and stop
 Static friction
 When two surfaces are NOT sliding across one another
 Keeps an object at rest
MAX
 fs≤fs ; f sMAX =μ S F N
o μS = coefficient of static friction
 Kinetic Friction
  Frictional force that acts between a moving object and the surface it is
in contact with
 Magnitude does not depend on the contact area; friction depends on
the material the surface is made, its condition, and other such variables
 f k❑=μk F N
o μk = coefficient of static friction
 Static frictional force increases as the applied force increases until it reaches its
maximum. Then the object starts to move and kinetic frictional force takes over
 ON AN INCLINED PLANE
 μS =t anθmax = maximum angle just before the object slides

TENSION
o Force transmitted by ropes and cables
o A massless rope will transmit tension undiminished from one to another
o If the rope passes around a massless frictionless pulley, the tension will be transmitted
to the other end of the rope undiminished

MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM

- Equilibrium is when a body is at rest (static) or moving with constant velocity (dynamic) in an
inertial reference frame; an object is in equilibrium when it has zero acceleration.
- Since acceleration is 0, all component vectors of acceleration is also zero; since acceleration is
zero, the component net force is also 0
o 1st Condition of EQUILIBRIUM; 𝞢F = 0
 Sum of all forces acting on a system must add up to zero for a system to be at
rest
 Since the net force is = 0, the component vectors must each be equal to zero,
𝞢Fx = 0, 𝞢Fy = 0, 𝞢Fz = 0,
 𝞢F = 0
F1 + F 2 + F 3 = 0
F1 + F 2 = - F 3

ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS

o TORQUE
 It is the counterpart of force in rotational dynamics
 Torque depends on the magnitude of the force, on the point where the force is
applied relative to the axis of rotation and on the direction of the force
 Magnitude of applied force times lever arm (Torque=Force× lever arm );
measured in (N)(m) or (dynes)(cm)
 Lever arm = perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force
to the axis of rotation
 Counterclockwise rotation = + torque; clockwise rotation = - torque

o 2ND condition of EQUILIBRIUM

  Sum of the torque due to all external forces acting on the body , with respect to
any specific point, must be zero
 A rigid body is in equilibrium if it has zero translational acceleration and zero
angular acceleration
 Rotation will depend on the direction of the force applied (+:counterclockwise;
-:clockwise)
 𝞢torque = 𝞢torque clockwise + 𝞢torque counterclockwise = 0
 If an axis is in equilibrium, it is in equilibrium with respect to any axis
o CENTER OF GRAVITY
 Where weight is considered to act at a definite point; point at which its weight
can be considered to act when the torque due to the weight is being calculated
 Point where the sum of gravitational forces (weight) of the object acts on it
 If mass is distributed evenly and symmetrically, the center of gravity
must lie on the axis of symmetry
W 1 x 1+W 2 x 2 +W 3 x3 +… m 1 x1 +m 2 x 2 +m 3 x 3 +…
 x cg = = ;
W 1 +W 2 +W 3+ … m 1 +m 2+ m3 +…
W y +W 2 y 2+ W 3 y3 + … m1 y 1+ m2 y 2+ m3 y 3 +…
 y cg = 1 1 =
W 1 +W 2+W 3+ … m1 +m2+ m3 + …
 Center of mass = sum of mass of an object acting on it
o Center of mass = center of gravity, if and only if, the
acceleration due to gravity is equal across the body of the
object

Stability and Balance

- Stable Equilibrium = if the forces on an object are such that they tend to return to its
equilibrium position
- Unstable Equilibrium = if the forces tend to move the object away from its equilibrium point
- Neutral Equilibrium = if the object remains in its new position
- An object in stable equilibrium may become unstable if it is tipped so that its center of gravity is
outside the pivot point. Once it lands, it will be stable again
- An object whose center of gravity is above its base of support will be table if a vertical line
projected downward from the center of gravity falls within the base of support

Work, Energy, and Power

WORK

- Work ( W ) =F ∙ d=d ∙ Fcosθ ; expressed in joule (J)

- Work – what is accomplished when a force on an object and object moves through a distance
- For a constant force in a straight-line displacement work is the product of the magnitude of the
force multiplied by the magnitude of displacement (scalar)
o If d = 0 then W = 0, regardless of the amount of F exerted
 o If the F exerted is perpendicular to the d traveled, then no work is done (W = 0)
o Work can be positive or negative depending on whether the exerted force component
points in the same direction of displacement (+) or in the opposite direction (-)

Kinetic Energy & Work-Energy Theorem

- When a net force does work => effort is the result – change in kinetic energy
- Relates work to the change in kinetic energy
- DERIVATION

GIVEN F=ma ,
W =mad
1 2 2
GIVEN ad= ( v −v )
2 f 0
m 2 2
W= ( v −v )
2 f 0
1 1
W = m v 2f − m v 20
2 2
1 2
- GIVEN Kinetic Energy ( KE )= m v
2
1 1
W = m v 2f − m v 20=K Ef −K E0=∆ KE
2 2
- When a net external force does work on an object, the kinetic energy of the object change and
work is the difference between the initial and final magnitude of kinetic energy
- Work-energy theorem may be derived from any direction of the force relative to the
displacement; force may vary from point to point along a path that is curved and this theorem
still remains valid
- A moving object has kinetic energy because work is done to accelerate the object from rest to a
certain speed – an object with kinetic energy can perform work if it is allowed to push or pull on
another object
- Work-energy theorem deals with the work done by the net external force. The work energy
theorem DOES NOT apply to the work done by an individual force
o If the work done is positive, kinetic energy increases
o If the work done is negative, kinetic energy decreases
o If the work done is zero, kinetic energy remains the same

Work done by the force of gravity:

( W ) =F ∙ d=d ∙ Fcosθ
W gravity =mgcos 0 ∙(hi−hf )
W gravity =mg(hi −hf )
- Valid for any path taken between initial and final height, not just for straight-down paths
Gravitational Potential Energy

W gravity =mg (hi −hf )

W gravity =mg hi−mgh f
- work done by gravity is equal to the difference of mgh
- Potential energy = mgh = gravitational potential energy
o Gravitational potential energy is the energy that an object with a specific mass has by
virtue of its position relative to the surface of the earth (scalar)
P EG=mg(hi−hf )
Conservative Force

- When work done on a moving object is independent of the path between an object’s initial and
final position
- When it does no net work on an object moving around a closed path – starting and finishing
point are the same.

Nonconservative Force

- If work done on a moving object between two points depends on the path of the motion
between the points

*Conservative and nonconservative forces act simultaneously on an object

Work can therefore be written as:

W =W conservative force +W nonconservative force

Applying Work-Energy Theorem:

1 1
W conservative force +W nonconservative force = m v2f − m v20
2 2
Assuming that the only conservative force acting is the gravitational potential energy:

W nonconservative force = ( 12 m v − 12 m v )−( mgh −mgh )

2
f
2
0 i f

1 1
=( m v − m v )+(mg h −mgh )
2 2
W nonconservative force f 0 f i
2 2
W nonconservative force =∆ KE +∆ PE
- Work done by nonconservative forces acting on an object is equal to the change in kinetic and
potential energy

CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

According to work and work-energy theorem: An object can possess kinetic energy and gravitational
potential energy
The sum of kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy = total mechanical energy E=KE+ PE

Expressing work of nonconservative force in terms of mechanical energy:

W nonconservative force =∆ KE+∆ PE

W nonconservative force =K E f −K E 0 + P E f −P E 0

W nonconservative force =( K E f + P E f )−( P E 0+ K E 0)

W nonconservative force =Ef −E0

Suppose that the net work done by the nonconservative forces is zero; sum of change in energy is
zero; there are no conservative forces:

W nonconservative force =Ef −E0

0=Ef −E0

E f =E 0

( K E f + P E f ) =(P E0 + K E0 )
1 1
m v 2f + mgh f = mv 20 + mgh0
2 2
If only the conservative forces are acting, the total mechanical energy of a system neither increases nor
decreases in any process; it stays constant – it is conserved

Principle of the conservation of mechanical energy = total mechanical energy is conserved when the
net work done by nonconservative forces is zero

POWER

- Rate at which work is done; expressed in J/s or Watts (scalar)

Work W
Power= =
Time t
- Applying the work-energy theorem
Change∈ Energy
Power=
time
- 1 horsepower = 550 (foot)(pounds)/second = 745.7 watts
- Power is also needed for acceleration and for moving against the force of gravity
- Power can also be expressed as the work done when a constant net force points in the same
direction as the displacement
W Fcos 0 ∙ d Fd
P= = = =Fv
t t t
IMPULSE-MOMENTUM THEOREM

Impulse = the product of the average force and time of contact in a collision

o ⃗J = F́ ∙ ∆ t
o Vector quantity with the same direction as the force (unit: N ∙ s)
o Magnitude of Force is inversely proportional to time interval; more force, less time, and
vice-versa
o A large impulse produces a large response (large velocity) but the more massive the
object the less velocity it has after leaving the origin of the applied force. Therefore,
mass and velocity play a role in an object’s response to an impulse (linear momentum)

Linear Momentum = the product of an object’s mass and velocity

o ⃗p=m∙ v́
o Vector quantity with the same direction as the velocity (unit: kg ∙ m/s )

Impulse-Momentum Theorem

Given velocity and time, the acceleration of an object is represented as:

⃗ ⃗v f −⃗v 0
á=
∆t
Applying Newton’s second law of motion, Σ F́=m∙ á :

Σ⃗
F́=m ( ⃗v ∆t−⃗v )= m ⃗v ∆−mt ⃗v
f 0 f 0

(Σ ⃗
F́ )∙ ∆ t=m ⃗v f −m ⃗v 0
⃗J =∆ ⃗p

When a net force acts on an object during a time interval, Impulse = change in momentum

During a collision, the net force cannot be directly measured, using the I-M theorem, we can use the
change in momentum and the given time interval to evaluate the value of the net force.

Conservation of Linear Momentum

In a system of two objects, two types of force act on the system: internal force and external forces. In
this system, during the collision of the two objects, the force exerted by object C to object T and the
force exerted by object T to object C are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction (internal forces).

F C→ T =−⃗
⃗ FT →C

The force of gravity also exerts on the objects through their weights (external forces)

Object 1:

(W C + ⃗
F́ C →T )∙ ∆ t=mC ⃗v fC −mC ⃗v 0 C
Object 2:

(W T + ⃗
F́T →C )∙ ∆ t=m T ⃗v fT −mT ⃗v 0 T
Adding the two equations:

( W C + W T + ⃗F́ C →T + ⃗F́ T → C ) ∙ ∆ t=(m ¿ ¿ C ⃗v ¿ ¿ fC +mT ⃗v fT )−(mC ⃗v 0 C +mT ⃗v 0 T )¿ ¿

( ∑ of External Forces+ ∑ of Internal Forces ) ∙ ∆t= ⃗P f − ⃗P 0
F C→ T =−⃗
Since ⃗ FT →C , ⃗
F C→ T + ⃗
F T → C =0 . Therefore, sum of internal forces = 0 (a consequence of
action-reaction)

( ∑ of External Forces ) ∙ ∆ t= ⃗P f − ⃗P0Suppose that the sum of all external forces in a system is equal to
zero (isolated system)

0=⃗
Pf − ⃗
P0⃗
Pf = ⃗
P0(m ¿ ¿ C ⃗v ¿ ¿ fC +m T ⃗v fT )=(m C ⃗v 0 C +m T ⃗v 0 T )¿ ¿This is the principle of the
conservation of linear momentum; total linear momentum if an isolated system remains constant
(conserved). An isolated system is one for which the vector sum of the average external forces acting
on the system is zero

When no external force acts in a system, the total momentum if the system remains constant in time

Conservation of linear momentum applies to system containing any number of objects, regardless of
the internal forces, provided the system is isolated

Collision in One Dimension

- The total linear momentum is conserved when two objects collide, provided they constitute an
isolated system
- However, the total kinetic energy is GENERALLY not conserved because some of the kinetic
energy is converted to other forms of energy and the work needed deforms the objects involved
- Elastic Collision
o Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved
o P0 A + ⃗
⃗ P 0 B= ⃗
P fA+ ⃗
P fB
o KE 0 A + KE 0 B =KE fA + KE fB
- Inelastic Collision
o Momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not
o P0 A + ⃗
⃗ P 0 B= ⃗
P fA+ ⃗
P fB
o KE 0 A + KE 0 B =KE fA + KE fB + ENERGY
- Perfectly Inelastic Collision
o Momentum is conserved, kinetic energy is not, and the two objects stick together after
the collision, so their final velocities are the same
o ⃗v f (m ¿ ¿ C+ mT )=(mC ⃗v 0 C +mT ⃗v 0 T )¿
Collison in Two Dimensions
 x-component

- (m ¿ ¿ C ⃗v ¿ ¿ fCx +m T ⃗v fTx )=( mC ⃗v 0Cx + mT ⃗v 0 Tx) ⃗

Pfx =⃗
P0 x ¿ ¿
y-component
- (m ¿ ¿ C ⃗v ¿ ¿ fCy +m T ⃗v fTy )=(m C ⃗v 0 Cy +m T ⃗v 0 Ty ) ⃗
Pfy =⃗
P0 y ¿¿

Fluid Mechanics

Fluids – materials that can flow; includes gases and liquids

Mass Density = mass per unit volume

m
- ρ=
V
- Density depends on the nature of the material; It is the mass of the substance that enters into
the definition of density
- Gases have small densities due to the molecules being relatively far apart

Relative Density

- ratio of density of an object over the density of a standard or reference

ρsubstance
- RD=
ρreference
o If RD > 1, substance will sink
o If RD < 1, substance will float
- If the reference is water, it is referred to as specific gravity

Pressure – magnitude of force acting perpendicular to a surface divided by the area over which the force
acts

F
- P= ; expressed in N/m2 or Pascals (105 Pa = 1 bar; 1 psi = 6894.76 Pa)
A
- NOT A VECTOR

Fluids exert pressure in all directions. A static fluid always produces a force perpendicular to any surface
it is in contact with

There is enough air above the earth’s surface to create a pressure at sea level:

Atmospheric pressure at sea level = 1 atm = 1.013 x 10 5 Pa (14.70 psi)

Pressure and Depth in a Static Fluid

 - When a fluid is at rest in a container, all portions of the fluid must be in static equilibrium – with
respect to the observer
- All points at the same depth must be at the same pressure

Since the fluid is in equilibrium:

ΣF=0
The three forces acting on the fluid are the top face, bottom face and its weight at depth h; let F = PA

P2 A−P1 A−mg=0

P2 A=P1 A +mg

mg
P2=P1 +
A
m
From ρ= , ρV =m; V = A x h
V
ρAgh
P2=P1 +
A
P2=P1 + ρgh

If the pressure P1 is known at a higher level, the larger P2 can be calculated by adding the increment
ρgh; we assume that the density is the same at any vertical distance i.e. the fluid is incompressible
- However for gases, the lower layers are compressed markedly by the weight of upper layer
which is why its density varies with vertical distance

Pressure Gauges

- Mercury Barometer
o Measures atmospheric pressure
o Invented by Evangelista Torricelli
o A tube, closed at one end, is filled with mercury and inverted onto a dish of mercury
with the open end submerged in mercury. The closed end of the tube nearly becomes a
vacuum (empty), so its pressure can be taken as zero ( P1=0 ). The pressure at the
bottom of the mercury column is the same as the pressure exerted on the pool of
mercury on the plate which is the atmospheric pressure ( P2=Patm ).
o The atmospheric pressure can be determined from the height of mercury in the tube

P2=P1 + ρgh
Patm =0+ ρgh
Patm =ρgh
P atm
=h
ρg
h=0.760 m=760 mm
 - Open-Tube Manometer
o Open-tube refers to the fact that one side of the U-tube is open to atmospheric pressure
( P1=Patm )
o The tube contains a liquid (mercury) and its other side is connected to a container
whose pressure is measured ( P2 ¿
P2=P1 + ρgh
P2=Patm + ρgh
o When pressure in the container is equal to atmospheric pressure ( P2=Patm ), liquid level
in both sides of the U-tube are the same
o When pressure in the container is greater than atmospheric pressure, the liquid in the
tube is pushed downward on LS and upward on RS; if pressure is less than atmospheric,
vice-versa
P2−Patm = ρgh
P2−Patm : gauge pressure
P2 : absolute pressure
If P < Patm = h is negative (-)
If P > Patm = h is positive (+)

Pascal’s Principle

- Change in pressure applied to a confined fluid is transmitted undiminished to all parts of the
fluid and the enclosing walls

P1=P2

F1 F 2
=
A1 A2

- If A2 is larger than A1 a large force F 2can be applied to Obj 2, starting with a smaller force at
A1

Buoyant force

- upward force exerted by fluids to immersed objects; exists because fluid pressure is larger at
greater depths
- With an immersed object, the pressure on top generates a downward force on the surface area
of the object and similarly the pressure on the bottom generates a stronger upward force

F B=P 2 A−P 1 A=( P ¿ ¿ 2−P 1) A ¿

Since P2−P1= ρgh

F B= ρghA

F B= ρVg
F B=mg

Archimedes’ Principle = any fluid applies a buoyant force to an object that is partially or completely
immersed in it

Magnitude of buoyant force (F B )=Weight of displaced fluid (W d .fluid )

F B=m d .fluid g

Expressing mass in terms of density:

F B= ρV d . fluid g

The effect of the buoyant force depends on its strength compared to the other forces

- If the buoyant force is strong enough to balance the force of gravity, an object will float in a fluid
- An object is in equilibrium when it floats; if the buoyant force were not large enough, the object
would sink
- Even of an object sinks, there is still a buoyant force acting on it
Volume of displace fluid = volume of the submerged object

Net Force on the object is the difference between the Buoyant force and the gravitational force (
ΣF=F B −W )

Fluids in Motion

- Fluid flow can be steady or unsteady

o Steady = velocity of the fluid particles at any point in time is constant
o Unsteady = velocity at a certain point in the fluid changes as time passes
o Turbulent = an extreme unsteady flow which occurs when there are sharp obstacles or
bends
- Fluid flow can be compressible or incompressible
o Compressible = density can change (usually gases)
o Incompressible = density remains constant (usually liquids)
- Fluid flow can be viscous or nonviscous
o Viscous = does not flow readily; an energy dissipating process.
o Nonviscous = flows readily; no dissipation of energy.
- Ideal Fluid = an incompressible, nonviscous fluid; motion is steady and moves without
turbulence
- Streamlines = used to represent the trajectories of the fluid particles; a line drawn in fluid such
that a tangent to the streamline at any point is parallel to the fluid velocity at that point.

Equation of Continuity

- Water velocity increases when the cross-sectional area it travels is reduced

 - If a fluid enters one end of a pipe at a certain rate, then the fluid must also leave at the same
rate, assuming that there are no places between the entry and exit points to add or remove fluid
- Mass flow rate = mass of fluid per second that flows through a tube
∆ mn
mass flow rate at position n= =ρ n An v n
∆t
- Since no fluid can cross the sidewalls of the tube, the mass flow rate at any two positions must
have the same value; mass flow rate also has the same value everywhere on the tube. The
equation of continuity is an expression of the conservation of mass as the fluid flows
ρ1 A 1 v 1=ρ2 A 2 v 2
- For an incompressible fluid, its density does not change during flow
A 1 v 1= A 2 v 2
Av=Volume rate(Q)
Bernoulli’s Equation

- For steady flow: the speed, pressure, and elevation of an ideal fluid are related by this equation
- Deriving from the work-energy theorem where initial energy is represented with 2 and final
energy is represented with 1,

W nc =E 1−E2= ( 12 m v + mg y )−( 12 mv +mg y )

2
1 1
2
2 2

1 1
( P −P ) V =( 2 m v +mg y )−( 2 m v + mg y )
2 2
2 1 1 1 2 2

1 2 1 2
( P2−P1 ) = 2 ρ v 1 + ρg y 1− 2 ρ v 2−ρg y 2
1 1
P2 + ρ v 22 + ρg y 2=P1+ ρ v 21+ ρg y 1
2 2

Assuming the pipe is completely horizontal with no change in height,

1 1
P2 + ρ v 22=P1 + ρ v 21
2 2
o If the velocity of the fluid is high, the pressure is low
o If the area of the fluid is small, the velocity of the fluid is higher

Torricelli’s Theorem

- Using Bernoulli’s Equation to find the speed of a fluid leaving a through a spigot from a tank,
(initial speed = 0 and Pressure & Density is constant)
1
ρg y 2= ρ v 21 + ρg y 1
2
1
g y 2= v 21 + g y 1
2
v1 =√ 2 g ( y 2− y 1 )

*Bernoulli’s equation ignores the effects of friction and the compressibility of the fluid

Viscosity
 - The flow of a viscous fluid has the smallest velocity at the walls and the highest velocity at the
center
- Viscosity is measured from the relation of the magnitude of the tangential force required to
move a fluid layer at a constant speed when the layer has an area and is located at a
perpendicular distance from an immobile surface
ηAv
F=
l

Poiseuille’s Law

- A fluid whose viscosity is η, flowing through a pip of radius R and length L, has a volume flow
rate Q given as
π R 4 ( P2−P1 )
Q=
8 ηL

Temperature and Heat

Temperature

- Physical quantity which expresses the degree of hotness or coldness of a system

o Atoms and molecules of matter are in constant motion which translates to kinetic
energy
o Internal/Thermal Energy = Molecular PE + Other Kinds of Molecular Energy

Heat

- The energy that flows and is transferred from a hot object to a cold object
- If two systems have an exchange of heat and reach the same temperature, the systems are said
to be in thermal equilibrium
- Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics = two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third system are in
thermal equilibrium with each other
Thermal Expansion = expansion due to a change in temperature due to an increase in internal energy

- Linear Expansion
o Increase in any one dimension of a solid
o A change in one dimension is proportional to the change in temperature ( ∆ L ∝ ∆T )
o A change in one dimension is also proportional to the original dimension ( ∆ L ∝ L0 )

∆ L=α L0 ∆ T

α =coefficient of linear expansion

- Hole Expansion
o When a solid object with a hole expands, the hole expands as well
o The hole expands because every linear dimension of an object all change the same way
when the temperature increases
o The atoms move apart and the hole increases as well
- Area Thermal Expansion = expansion in two-dimensions
o γ =coefficient of area expansion
- Volume Thermal Expansion = expansion in volume
o β=coefficient of volume expansion

V =L03 ∆ L=α L0 ∆ T
dV =3 L02 ∙ dL dL=α ∙ L0 ∙ dT

3 L2 ∙ dL=V 0 ∙ β ∙ dT ∆ V =V 0 ∙ β ∙ ∆ T
dV =V 0 ∙ β ∙ dT
3 L2 ∙ α ∙ L0 ∙ dT =L03 ∙ β ∙dT
3 α =β
∆ A= A0 ∙ γ ∙ ∆ T
dA= A 0 ∙ γ ∙ dT
A=L02
dA=2 L0 ∙ dL

2 L0 ∙ dL= A 0 ∙ γ ∙ dT
2 L0 ∙ α ∙ L0 ∙ dT =L02 ∙ γ ∙dT
2 α =γ

- Anomalous Thermal Expansion of Water

o Water from 0 – 4 °C decreases in volume with increasing temperature. In this range, its
coefficient of volume expansion is negative
- Thermal Stress
o A force needed to prevent a solid object from expanding or contracting
o Young’s modulus:
 F
=−Yα ∆ T
A
 If ∆ T is - , the thermal stress is +; a tensile force and stress are needed to
maintain the length
 If ∆ T is + , the thermal stress is -; a tensile force and stress are needed to
maintain the length

Internal Energy = sum of all molecular energy

- The change in temperature of a material is proportional to its mass and change in temperature
Q=mc ∆ T
- Specific heat ( c ) = amount of heat required to raise the material’s temperature by one unit
mass; expressed in J/kg∙K
- Molar Heat Capacity = expresses heat capacity in terms of moles (J/mol ∙K)

Calorimetry

- When you isolate a system, no energy or mass can flow into or out. The energy exchange
happens inside the isolated system only until it reaches thermal equilibrium: the energy is
conserved
ΣQ=0
It is also possible that if heat flows to an object, the temperature does not change, this is when phase
change occurs

- The heat required for a substance to undergo phase change without a change in temperature is
called latent heat
- Latent Heat of Fusion or Heat of Fusion (J/kg)
o Heat required per unit mass to change from solid to liquid (and vice-versa)
- Latent Heat of Vaporization or Heat of Vaporization
o Heat required per unit mass to change from liquid to gas (and vice-versa)
- The heat supplied or removed in a phase change depends on the Latent Heat (L) and the mass
Q=± mL
o Q is negative when condensing or freezing (Heat is lost)
o Q is positive when evaporating or melting (Heat is gained)

Heat Transfer

- Convection
o Process in which the heat is transferred from one place to another by the mass motion
of a fluid
o The flow of the fluid is called a convection current; hot fluid rises and cold fluid sinks
o If the convection current is done by a pump/fan, it is called a force convection
 o If the flow is natural, it is called natural/free convection
o The heat current due to convection is directly proportional to the surface area. Heat
current due to convection is found to be approximately proportional to 5/4 power of the
temperature difference between the surface and the main body of the fluid.
o Natural convection depends on viscosity; as viscosity increases, rate of heat flow
decreases
o Forced convection increases the rate of heat transfer
- Conduction
o Process in which heat is transferred directly through a material with any mass
movement of the material playing no role in the transfer
o Hot regions are higher in kinetic energy
o Materials that can conduct heat are called thermal conductors; materials that conduct
heat poorly are called thermal insulators
o The heat (Q) conducted during a time (t) through a bar of length or thickness (L) and
cross sectional area (A); k = thermal conductivity
kA ( T H −T C ) t
Q=
L
Q kA ( T H −T C )
Power=H= =
t L
o If the temperature varies in a nonuniform way along the length of the rod, generalize
the temperature gradient (dT/dx) by introducing a coordinate x along the length. The
negative sign indicates that heat always flows in the direction of decreasing
temperature
dT
H=−kA
dx
o Thermal properties of materials, particularly when considered as insulation, are
specified by thermal resistance (R) or R-value
L
thermal resistance (R)=
k
kA ( T H −T C ) A ( T H −T C )
H= =
L R

1 k
= =thermal conductance(C )
R L
H=CA ( T H −T C )

- Radiation
o Process in which heat is transferred using electromagnetic waves; all systems emit
energy on the form of electromagnetic radiation
 o The radiant energy (Q), emitted in a time (t) by an object that has a Kelvin temperature
(T), a surface area (A), and an emissivity (e).
 Emissivity is the ratio of what an object radiates to what the object would
radiate if it were a perfect emitter
 Emissivity value is from 0 (perfect reflector) to 1 (good absorber); a good
emitter is also a good absorber
Q=eσ T 4 At
H=eσ T 4 A
o An object can simultaneously emit and absorb radiant energy . When an object has a
higher temperature than the environment, it emits a net power (rate).
H= [ eσ T 4 A ] emit −[eσ T 4 A]absorb =eσ (T 4 −T 04 ) A

Electric Force

Electricity

- Atoms consist of a relatively massive nucleus that contain particles called protons and neutrons,
surrounding the nucleus is a cloud of orbiting particles called electrons
o Mass of a proton = 1.673 ×1 0−27 kg
o Mass of a neutron = 1.675 ×1 0−27 kg
o Mass of an electron = 9.11 × 10−31 kg
 - Electric charge is an intrinsic property of protons and electrons; a proton has a positive charge, and an
electron has a negative charge while a neutron has no electric charge
- The magnitude of the charge on a proton is exactly equal to the magnitude of the charge of an electron
o e=1.60 ×1 0−19 C or coulombs
- Atoms are normally found with equal numbers of protons and electrons resulting to it being electrically
neutral since the sum of the charges is equal to zero
- Charges are built upon an object by the addition or removal of electrons. Thus, any charge of magnitude q
is an integer multiple of e
q=Ne
Charged Objects and Electric force

- When electrons are transferred, the body that gains the electrons acquires an excess of negative charge
while the body that loses electrons has an excess of positive charge; the charges become separated
- In the process of charge separation, no electrons or protons are created or destroyed; when an electron is
transferred, a proton is left behind. Since both have equal magnitudes of charges but with opposite signs,
the algebraic sum of the two charges is zero and the transfer does not change the net charge of a system.
- Law of Conservation of Electric Charge = during any process, the net electric charge of an isolated system
remains constant (conserved)
- Electrically charged objects exert a force on one another: opposite charges attract each other; similar
charges repel each other. Due to this, the electric force can alter the motion of an object (F = ma) by
contributing to the net external forces acting upon it

Conductors and Insulators

- An electric charge can not only exist on an object but also move through an object
o Electrical Conductors = substances that readily conduct electric charge
o Electrical Insulators = substances that conduct electric charge poorly
- The difference between a conductor and insulator is related to atomic structure
o In a conductor, valence electrons detach from the parent atom and freely moves throughout the
material; the free electrons move readily from the negative to the positive and a flow of charge
occurs between two oppositely charged bodies
o In an insulator, there are few free electrons, and most are bound to the atom; there is very little
flow of charge between two oppositely charged bodies

Charging by contact and by induction

- Charging by contact = process of giving one object a net electric charge by placing it in contact with an
object that is already charged
o When a negatively charged object is placed in contact with a neutral object, excess electrons
transfer onto the neutral object. Once the electrons are transferred, they repel one another and
spread out over the object’s surface, transferring a charge to a neutral object. Similar
observations hold true with a positive charge
 - Charging by induction = process of giving one object a net electric charge without touching the object
with a charged object
o When a negatively charged object is brought close to a neutral object, the free electrons in the
neutral object move away from the negative charge. As a result, the neutral object has a positive
charge in the region near the charged object and a negative charge in the region away from the
charged object. The charged region are induced by the repulsive force of the rod and the free
electrons. Similar observations hold true with a positive charge

Coulomb’s Law

- The electric force that stationary charged objects exert on each other depends on the amount of charge
of the objects and the distance between them; the greater the charge and the closer they are, the greater
the force
- The electric force, attractive or repulsive, acts along the line between the charges and whether it is
attractive or repulsive, the force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction; it is attractive if the
charges are opposite and repulsive if the charges are the same
F=k ¿ q 1∨¿ q2 ∨ ¿2 ¿
r
- The magnitude of the electrostatic force (F) exerted by one point charge ( q 1) on another point charge (q 2)
is directly proportional to the magnitude of both charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance (r) between them
o The proportionality constant (k) can be expressed in terms of ε 0 (permittivity of free space):
1
k= =8.99 ×10 9 ( N ∙ m2)/C 2
(4 π ϵ 0)
ϵ 0=8.85 ×10−12 C2 /( N ∙ m2)
o The equation only gives the magnitude of the electrostatic force but not the direction
- The net electric force on a point charge when there are more than two point charges on the system is the
vector sum of all the electric forces acting on the point charge

Electric Field

- The electric field (E) that exists at a point is the electrostatic force (F) experience by a small test charge ( q 0
) placed at that point divided by the charge itself
F
E=
q0
o The electric field is a vector and its direction is the same as the force on a positive test charge
o Test charge = a charge with a very small magnitude that it does not alter the locations of the
other charges
- It is the surrounding charges that create an electric field at a given point; any charge placed at the point
interacts with the field and experiences a force
- The electric field produced by a point charge (q) can be obtained in terms of Coulomb’s law and it shows
that the electric field does not depend on the test charge

¿ q∨¿ q0∨ ¿2
F r
E= =k =k ¿ q∨ ¿2 ¿ ¿
q0 q0 r
o If the point charge is positive, the electric field is directed away from the point charge
o If the point charge is negative, the electric field is directed towards the point charge
Parallel Plate Capacitor

- A device that consists of two parallel metal plates, each with an area of A. a charge +q is spread uniformly
over one plate while a charge of -q is spread uniformly over the other plate. An electric field points from
the positive plate to the negative plate in the region between the plates. The magnitude of the electric
field between the plates:
q σ
E= =
ϵ0 A ϵ0
Electric Field Lines

- A “map” of the electric field created by an electric charge showing the lines of force; they are lines drawn
to show the direction of the electric field, beginning from the point charge and radiating outward/inward
- Electric field lines area always directed away from positive charges and towards negative charges. Field
lines radiate in three dimensions, and an infinite number of lines could be drawn; the number of field lines
drawn is proportional to the magnitude of the charge
- The electric field is stronger in regions where the field lines are close together and weaker where the lines
are more spread out; the number of field lines per unit area passing perpendicularly through a surface is
proportional to the magnitude of the electric field
- In regions where the electric field lines are equally spaced, there is the same number of lines per unit area
everywhere, and the electric field has the same strength at all points.

Shielding

- At equilibrium under electrostatic conditions, any excess charge resides at the surface of a conductor.
Thus, the electric field is zero at any point within a conducting material
- Conductors shield any charge within it from electric fields created outside the conductor
- The electric field just outside the conductor is perpendicular to the surface

Gauss Law

- The electric flux through a Gaussian surface is equal to the net charge enclosed by the surface, divided by
the permittivity of free space
Q
Σ ( E cos Φ ) ∆ A=
ε0
- Gaussian Surface = a hypothetical closed surface of any arbitrary shape
- Electric Flux = product of the electric field and the surface through which it passes

E=k ( rq )=( 4 π1ε )( rq )= ε qA

2
0
2
0

q
Electric flux=EA=
ε0

Electric Potential Energy and the Electric Potential

Electric Potential Energy

- An electric field exists between two oppositely charged plates and a test charge placed in between will
experience an electric force that is directed towards the negative plate. As the charge moves, work is
done by the electric force which is equal to the difference between the electric potential energy of the
charge at two points
W AB =EPE A −EPE B
- The path which the test charge moves from is of no consequence because the electric force, is
conservative; thus, the work would still be the same

Electric Potential Difference

- Since the work done by the electric force depends on the test charge, work can be expressed on a per-
unit charge basis
W AB EPE A EPE B
= −
q0 q0 q0
- The electric potential or potential (V) at a given point is the electric potential energy of a small test
charge situated at that point divided by the charge itself; The electric potential energy and electric
potential are NOT the same
EPE
V=
q0
The work done by the electric force when a test charge moves from point A to B and the potential
difference between the points can be related as:
EPE B EPE A −W AB
V B −V A = − =
q0 q0 q0
EPE −W AB
∆ V =∆
( )
q0
=
q0
Neither the potential nor the potential energy can be determined in an absolute sense since it only their
difference which are measurable in terms of work
o The potential difference is measured in volts and is often referred to as a “voltage”
- A positive test charge accelerates from a region of high electric potential towards a region of lower
electric potential; a negative charge accelerates from a region of lower potential towards a region of
higher potential
- A “volt” also appears as part of a unit that is used to measure the energy of an atomic particle. The energy
unit is called the electron volt (eV)
o One electron volt is the magnitude of the amount by which the potential energy difference of an
electron changes when the electron moves through a potential difference of one volt
1 eV = 1.6 0 ×10−19 J
Electric Potential Difference created by Point Charges

- Given a positive point charge, assume two locations at different distances from the point charge. At any
position between the two locations, an electrostatic force of repulsion acts on a positive test charge.
When the test charge moves, work is done by the electric force. Since the distance can vary, the force also
varies, and the work done is not the product of the force and the distance between the points. However,
work can be found by integration, such that:
kq q 0 kq q0
W AB = −
rA rB
- The potential difference between the two locations can now be determined by substituting the expression
for W AB
−W AB kq kq
V B −V A = = −
q0 rB r A
Assuming that one of the locations is so far, such that the limit of the distance is infinitely large, one of the
terms becomes equal to zero
kq
V=
r
The potential is not referred to in any absolute sense but rather stands for the amount by which the
potential differs from the potential at an infinite distance away; it is the potential difference with the
arbitrary assumption that the potential at infinity is zero
- When the point charge is positive, the potential difference is also positive; conversely, when the point
charge is negative, the potential difference is also negative

Equipotential Surfaces and their relation to the Electric Field

- An equipotential surface is a surface on which the electric potential is the same everywhere; the easiest
of which is a surface that surrounds an isolated point charge
o Wherever the distance is the same, the electric potential will be the same, and the equipotential
surface must be spherical
o The larger the distance, the smaller is the potential of the equipotential surface
- The net electric force does no work as a charge moves on an equipotential surface; the electric force still
does work when a charge moves between equipotential surfaces
- The electric field created by any charge or group of charges is everywhere perpendicular to the associated
equipotential surfaces and points in the direction of decreasing potential
o If the electric field is not perpendicular to the equipotential surface, there would be a component
of the electric field that is parallel to the surface which would exert a force on a test charge,
perform work, and cause a potential difference. However, this cannot hold true if the surface is
assumed to be equipotential
o Since the electric field just outside a conductor is perpendicular to the surface, the surface of a
conductor is an equipotential surface
- A quantitative relation exists between the electric field and equipotential surfaces, such that in a parallel
plate capacitor. The electric field between the plates is perpendicular; an equipotential surface must be
parallel to the capacitor plates, to be perpendicular to the electric field. The work done by the electric
force as a positive test charge moves from the positive to the negative plate:
W =F ∆ s=q0 E ∆ s
Therefore, potential difference between the capacitor plates can be written in terms of the electric field:
W ∆V
E= =
q0 ∆ s ∆ s
 - This quantity is referred to as the potential gradient, which gives the component of the electric field along
the displacement but it does not give the perpendicular component

Capacitors and Dielectrics

- A capacitor consists of two conductors of any shape placed near each other without touching; a dielectric
is an electrically insulating material placed between the plates
- A capacitor stores electric charge and each plate carries a charge of the same magnitude. Because of the
charges, the electric potential of the positive plate exceeds that of the negative plate. When the charge on
each plate is doubled, the potential difference also doubles by the proportionality constant or the
capacitance
q=CV
o Capacitance reflects the ability of the capacitor to store a charge, a larger capacitance allows
more charge to be put into the plates for a given potential difference
- If a dielectric is inserted between the plates, the capacitance can increase markedly because of how the
dielectric alters the electric field between the plates
o When a dielectric is inserted, the electric field can cause the electrons to shift position within the
material, making one end slightly negative and the opposite end slightly positive. The negative
ends are attracted to the positive plate and the positive ends are attracted to the negative plate,
resulting to the molecules orienting themselves end to end. Because of the end-to-end
orientation, one of the surfaces of the dielectric becomes positively charged, and the other
becomes negatively charged
o Due to surface changes on the dielectric, not all the field lines on plates pass through the
dielectric. Thus, the electric field inside the dielectric is weaker than that of an empty capacitor;
this reduction of the electric field is described by the dielectric constant (k)
E0
k=
E
 The dielectric constant depends on the nature of the material
- The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is affected by the geometry of the plates and the dielectric
constant of the material between.
E0 V
E= =
k s

q= ( k εs A ) V
0

k ε0 A
C=
s
Electric Circuits

Electromotive Force and Current

- Electromotive force = the maximum potential difference

- In a circuit, the energy source creates an electric field within and parallel to the wire, directed from the
positive towards the negative terminal. The electric field exerts a force on the electrons in the wire and
respond by moving; the flow of charges is known as the electric current. The current is the amount of
charge per unit time that crosses an imaginary surface
∆q
I=
∆t
- Direct Current (DC) = if the charges move around a circuit in the same direction at all times; Alternating
Current (AC) = when the charges first move away and then switch to the opposite direction
- Conventional current = the hypothetical flow of positive charges through metal wires in a circuit;
realistically. It is the electrons that flow though the wires in a circuit. The conventional current has the
same effect as that of the movement of negative charges

Ohm’s Law

- Resistance = the ration of the voltage applied across a material to the current through the material; when
a small current results from a large voltage, there is high resistance to the moving charge.
V
R=
I
When the resistance is constant, the relation is referred to as Ohm’s law
- Resistor = the extent that an electrical device offers resistance to the flow of charges

Series Wiring

- A circuit connected in series means that the devices are connected in such a way that there is the same
electrical current through each device
I =constant
- The voltage supplied by the battery is divided between the resistors in the series circuit; the voltage
across all the resistors in series is the sum of the individual voltages across each resistor
V =V 1+V 2 + ⋯=IR 1+ IR2 +⋯=I ( R 1+ R 2+ ⋯ ) =I Req
The equivalent resistance is represented as:
Req =R1 + R2 +⋯
Parallel Wiring

- A circuit in parallel means that the devices are connected in such a way that the same voltage is applied
across each device
V =constant
- For any number of resistors wired in parallel, the total current from the voltage source is sum of the
currents in the individual resistors
V V 1 1 1
I =I 1+ I 2 +⋯= + + ⋯=V
R 1 R2 (
+ +⋯ =V
R1 R2 Req ) ( )
The equivalent resistance is represented as:
 1 1 1
= + +⋯
R eq R1 R2

Capacitors in Series and in Parallel

- In Parallel
o When capacitors are connected in parallel, they have the same voltage across their plates.
However, the capacitors contain different amounts of charge
V =constant
q=q 1+ q2 +⋯=C 1 V +C 2 V + ⋯=V ( C 1+ C2 +⋯ )=C eq V
The equivalent capacitance is represented as:
C eq=C 1 +C2 + ⋯
o Capacitors in parallel simply add up together to give an equivalent capacitance which contrasts
the behavior of resistors in parallel, which combine as reciprocals. The reason for this difference
is that the charge on a capacitor is directly proportional to the resistance
o The equivalent capacitor not only stores the same amount of charge but also the same amount
of energy
- In Series
o When capacitors are connected in series, regardless of their capacitance, all contain charges of
the same magnitude on their plates
q=constant
o The equivalent capacitance for circuits in series can be determined by observing that the voltage
is shared by the capacitor
q q 1 1 1
V =V 1+V 2 + ⋯= + + ⋯=q
C1 C2 (
+ + ⋯ =q
C 1 C2 C eq ) ( )
The equivalent capacitance is represented as:
1 1 1
= + +⋯
Ceq C 1 C2
o Capacitance in series combines as reciprocals and do not simply add together like resistor in
series do; the equivalent capacitance in series stores the same electrostatic energy as the sum of
energies of the individual capacitors