Medical Education 1986,zo, 356365
Ten questions to ask when planning a course or
curriculum
R. M. HARDEN
Centrefor Medical Education, University of Dundee
Summary. This brief practical aid to course or
curriculum development cannot replace educa-
tional qualifications o r experience, but it does
examine ten basic questions, any of which may
be all too easily neglected. These are: (I) What
are the needs in relation to the product of the
training programme? (2) What are the aims and
objectives? (3) What content should be in-
cluded? (4) How should the content be orga-
nized? ( 5 ) What educational strategies should be
adopted? (6) What teaching methods should be
used? (7) H o w should assessment be carried
out? (8) H o w should details of the curriculum
be communicated? (9) What educational en-
vironment or climate should be fostered? (10)
How should the process be managed? Each
aspect is illustrated through the analogy of car
manufacturing.
The ten questions are relevant in all situa-
tions where a course or curriculum is being
planned, including an undergraduate degree
course, a short postgraduate course or a I-hour
lecture.
Key words: * Curriculum; *Education, medi-
cal; Scotland; Teaching/methods; Educational
measurement; Education, medical, undergradu-
ate
Introduction
Though some professionals have attended short
in-service courses in education, most have no
Correspondence: Professor R. M. Harden, Centre
for Medical Education, University of Dundee,
Ninewells Hospital and Medical School, Dundee
DDI 9SY, Scotland.
qualification or formal training in educational
theory and practice. If asked to plan a course,
they will depend on common sense plus three
factors based on experience. These are their
perception of the subject which they are
teaching, the way in which they were educated
themselves and current teaching practice else-
where.
This approach may suffice but it can be
improved by considering the ten questions
discussed here. Whether the end product is an
undergraduate degree course, a short post-
graduate course or a I-hour lecture, a systema-
tic approach encourages timely decision-
making. Bandaranayake (1985) has suggested
that a prerequisite to quality and relevance is a
sound curriculum plan which follows a sequ-
ence of logical steps based on accepted educa-
tional principles. It is certainly easier to modify
a course while it is being planned than it is to
combat problems raised by an inadequately
considered one already in full swing.
The professional’s responsibility for course
development may vary in extent. This article is
intended to be a practical aid for:
- heads of academic departments responsible
for the teaching of their own subject;
- members of teaching staff who may teach
only one course;
- members of curriculum committees with
overall responsibility for overseeing and
planning the work of students in an institu-
tion;
- experienced workers with trainee attach-
ments;
- members of a national committee or board
 Questions for planning a course nv curriculum
charged with setting out policy for their
own discipline.
Before going into practical questions in de-
tail, it is worth examining the concept of
‘curriculum’. In the narrowest form this in-
cludes only content and examinations; learning
is deemed to result from the assembly and
assimilation of a long list of facts (content),
confirmed by assessment in the form of an
examination. A more forward-looking view of
the curriculum puts emphasis on the aims, on
the learning methods and on the subject-matter
sequencing. These five aspects of the wider
curriculum should all influence each other
(Fig. I ) .
Figure I. The wider curriculum.
The purpose of the curriculum is to bring
order, coherence and intellectual discipline to
the transmission of stored human experience.
The following list of ten questions is not
intended to be a step-by-step guide to the
development of a curriculum. However, the
first t w o (needs and aims) must be examined
before considering the other eight in an order
dictated by circumstances. Frequently, consid-
eration of one question may cause a revision of
the response to a previous question.
Because a concrete example is sometimes
easier to grasp than abstract concepts, an
analogy-car production-illustrates each ques-
tion. Just as the factory has an end product-
the car-so the final result from course or
curriculum should be an educated or voca-
tionally trained student. The products differ
but problems of design and production are
shared.
3 57
(I) What are the needs in relation to the
product of the training programme?
For cars, this is largely a matter of deciding
what type is necessary, e.g. a sports car, family
saloon, executive model, or small low-budget
utility vehicle. In other words, the market
helps determine the product.
Some would argue this aspect has been
neglected in medical education, and that doc-
tors have been trained in a way inappropriate to
meeting community needs. The extent to
which the training of hospital-based physicians
o r family practitioners better meets community
needs is a matter of debate. Many graduates
choose to work in the rarified atmosphere of
hospitals-the ‘ivory towers’ of medicine-
rather than in general practice. That choice may
reflect conditions of service, job opportunities
and financial rewards hut it is also influenced
by attitudes acquired during training. Some
areas-the ‘Cinderella specialties’-have been
largely neglected in undergraduate education.
High-technology ‘star’ subjects such as cardiol-
ogy have been presented in a more attractive
light than other areas such as rheumatology,
psychiatry and the care of the elderly or the
terminally ill. There is some evidence that too
little emphasis has been placed on ‘bedside
manners’, comprising attitudes and interper-
sonal skills.
The need to produce doctors to serve the
public accompanies t w o others in any medical
school-the production of teachers and of re-
searchers. H o w should these three needs be
balanced? Do all doctors need to be trained in
the skills required for carrying out research in
their own area of practice? Where should future
priorities lie in relation to research? Political as
well as medical answers must be sought to such
questions.
A number of approaches may be used to
identify needs as a step in curriculum planning
(Dunn et a l . 1985).
(a) T h e wisemen approach
In this traditional approach, professors or
other senior teachers describe what they believe
are the needs. They may express these views
jointly as members of a committee or panel or
358
independently through textbooks and other
publications. The Delphi technique, a method
relying on the judgement of an expert panel of
‘wise men’, has been used in curriculum plan-
ning to obtain a consensus opinion (Miller
1974).
(b) A study of errors in practice
A study of errors in practice suggests needs
not met by existing curricula. Information can
be obtained from studies designed for this
purpose or from available data held by medical
defence societies. One study has shown that
human error was a factor in from 65 to 87% of
anaesthetic deaths and i t suggested that studies
of such errors can provide information for
designing and evaluating changes in training
methods (Cooper et al. 1978).
(c) Critical incident studies
In this technique qualified individuals are
asked to describe medical incidents that hap-
pened to them or that they observed which
reflected good or bad medical practice (Flana-
gan 1954).
(d) Task analysis of established practitioners
Here, the work carried out by a doctor is
observed and the tasks carried out by him or
her are recorded.
(e) Analysis of morbidity and mortality statistics
Information about the needs in the commun-
ity can be obtained from a study of the
morbidity and mortality statistics.
cf) Study of star performers
In this approach an analysis is made of the
important skills and competencies needed in the
profession as delineated by doctors identified as
being star performers.
(g) Analysis of existing curricula including syllabi
and examinations
Evidence about what is currently raught can
R. M . Harden
be obtained by studying the syllabi from a
sample of medical schools.
(h) Views of recent graduates
Graduates may be asked to identify areas of
practice which were covered in the curriculum
and areas which were not adequately repre-
sented. Wright et al. (I979), for example,
undertook a survey of 600 randomly selected
doctors on what should be taught to under-
graduates.
Where needs are examined in curriculum
planning this is done most commonly using a
‘wiseman’ approach. However, more attention
is now being placed on a multifaceted approach
in which a number of the approaches are used.
(2) What are the aims and objectives?
Meanwhile, back in the world of industry, the
manufacturer has considered the needs for cars
and must now choose the aims and objectives
for his own factory. He decides not to cater for
all market sectors. Some are better met by
more specialized plant. Some show insufficient
demand to justify a production run. Many
could be satisfied by post-production modifica-
tion of a standard car. He chooses, therefore, to
produce a family saloon, designed to allow
subsequent changes in specification.
In medical education this is akin to a standard
undergraduate curriculum which is to be fol-
lowed by postgraduate specialty training. A
medical school may decide that its major aim is
to produce doctors who are able and motivated
on qualification to meet the community’s needs
while also being capable of continuing their
education. Alternatively, the decision might be
taken to produce basic doctors who are unable
to work in any branch of medicine without
further formal vocational training as postgradu-
ates. The curriculum objectives will specify in
detail what the student should be able to do
after completing the course.
Figure z illustrates the general relationship
between needs and objectives. Area A repre-
sents identified needs matched by course objec-
tives. Needs which are identified but are not
met by objectives occupy area B, while area C
shows objectives which do not reflect identified
 Questionsfor planning a course or curriculum
B A C
Figure 2. General relationship between needs and
objectives.
needs. For a perfect course, the circles would
overlap completely and only area A would be
visible. However, this is not always possible as
one course or curriculum seldom meets all
needs. For example, in the development of a
distance-learning course for general practition-
ers, the needs were clearly specified by groups
of general practitioners. Some of these could
Table I . Examples from the Undergraduate Prog-
ramme Objectives, Faculty of Medicine, University
of Newcastle, New South Wales (Engel 1980)
It is proposed that the educational programme be
designed.to ensure that, at its conclusion, the gradu-
ate demonstrates
( 5 ) that he accepts medical education in its full sense
is a lifelong activity and that he is prepared to
invest time in the maintenance and further
development of his own knowledge and skills,
over and above the pursuit of higher profession-
al qualifications
a critical appreciation of the techniques, proce-
dures, goals- and results of biomedical research
including, in particular, an understanding of the
scientific method, the reliability and validity of
observations and the testing of hypotheses
the ability to adopt a problem-solving approach
to clinical situations
that he is willing and able to take responsibility,
under supervision, for the management of a
defined range of common acute and chronic
clinical conditions
the ability to plan and interpret a programme of
investigations appropriate to the clinical prob-
lem presented by the patient, with due regard
for patient comfort and safety and for economic
factors
that his approach to all patients reflects the
attitude that the person who is ill is more
important than the illness from which he suffers
his awareness of the role of the physician in
healthiwelfare professional teams and his wil-
lingness to work co-operatively within such
teams
his understanding of the importance of the
doctor/patient relationship in ihe provision of
medical care at all levels
3 s9
not be dealt with easily within the course
constraints and were more appropriate as sub-
jects for interdisciplinary workshops with other
health-care team members or in discussions
with colleagues. In some instances, the identi-
fied needs could not be translated into course
objectives because insufficient answers or solu-
tions to the problems were available.
McAvoy (1985) has reviewed the choice and
use of educational objectives in medical educa-
tion and Carter (1985) has suggested a tax-
onomy designed to meet the needs of profes-
sional education. An example of the aims for an
undergraduate medical programme are given in
Table I (Engel 1980).
(3) What content should be included?
In the case of a car, three wheels are .essential.
Four are more usual. A spare wheel is expe-
dient. Front windscreen washers are manda-
tory, whereas a rear washer is useful. A radio is
now becoming a standard fitting, though the
necessity is debatable.
The choices are less clear-cut in medical
education. For example, what anatomical
knowledge is required? Should the behavioural
sciences be studied? Is the topic of medical
ethics appropriate to an undergraduate curricu-
lum? Should all students have obstetric experi-
ence? New topics such as care of the terminally
ill, alcoholism, oncology and information tech-
nology compete in the medical curriculum with
more traditional subjects such as anatomy,
pathology and surgery. Once the decision on
the inclusion of a subject is reached, the ques-
tion of extent or depth of coverage must then
be determined.
Content gains admission in a course by
satisfying any of four criteria.
(a) It directly contributes to the course objec-
tives. For example, students must learn during
the course how to use a sphygmomanometer if
as a doctor they have to be able on completion
of the course to measure the patient’s blood
pressure.
(b) It is a ‘building block’ which equips the
students with skill or knowledge needed to
tackle a later Dart of the course. For examole.1 ,
knowledge of;he normalanatomy and physiol-
ogy of the heart may be relevant to an under-
3 60 R . M . Harden
standing of the clinical features of patients with
heart disease, and knowledge of the pharmacol-
ogy of the drugs which act on the nervous
sysem may help doctors in their choice of
analgesics.
(c) I t allows students to develop intellectual
abilities such as critical thinking. For example,
cxperimental work in the biochemistry labora-
tory may be designed to inculcate in students a
critical approach to facts and an acceptance of
the scientific model for clinical investigation.
Project work might have as its objectives the
development in students of skills of critical
thinking and information retrieval.
(d) It aids the understanding of other subjects
on the course. For example, the introduction of
radiology as part of a course on anatomy might
provide the doctor or student nurse with a
better understanding of the applications of
anatomy to the functioning of the normal
living body.
(4) How should the content be organized?
Once the car’s components are determined, the
manufacturer must decide how to assemble the
parts and in what order. Inclusion alone does
not guarantee accessibility. For example, radio
controls would be of little use on the rear-
window shelf and an underslung spare wheel is
subject to corrosion and dirt. It may also be
Table 2 . Examples of subjects taught in each year of the course in two
curricula
Curriculum
Year A B
I Anatomy, physiology,
biochemistry
2 Anatomy, physiology,
biochemistry,
statistics
3 Pathological sciences
4 Clinical methods,
medicine, surgery,
behavioural sciences
5 ENT, dermatology,
ophthaln~ology,psychiatry,
obstetrics, paediatrics
more efficient to complete the engine after,
rather than before, fitting the body shell.
In medical education, should the basic scien-
ces provide a foundation for the study of
medical disciplines followed finally by dis-
ordered function of the body? O r is it better to
work back from disordered function, explain-
ing it in terms of deviation from the normal?
Should subjects be covered in a particular
order? For example, should psychiatry be in-
troduced before, during or after the study of
general medicine?
When can the minor specialties (such as
otolaryngology, ophthalmology and dermato-
logy) be fitted in? Should they wait until the
final year, once students have mastered general
medicine and the other major specialties? O r
should they come up earlier, with more time
allowed to convert theory into practice? Should
the teaching of a subject be arranged in a short
intensive block or spread over a longer period
alongside other subjects?
Last but not least, which teachers or depart-
ments should be responsible for covering each
subject?
An example of t w o different sequences for
subjects included in an undergraduate medical
curriculum is shown in Table 2 . The same
content is contained in both curricula but the
order in which the subjects are covered differs.
For example, in curriculum A students are not
Curriculum
Clinical methods,
anatomy, physiology
Anatomy, physiology,
biochemistry,
behavioural sciences
Pathological science,
medicine
Medicine, ENT,
dermatology, psychiatry,
ophthalmology,
community medicine,
statistics
Medicine, surgery,
obstetrics, paediatrics
 Questionsfor planning a course or curricuhm
introduced to clinical methods until year 4,
while this is covered in year I in curriculum B,
and statistics is covered in year 2 in curriculum
A but is not timetabled until year 4 in curricu-
lum B.
(5) What educational strategies should be
adopted?
Car manufacturing is dominated by one
strategy-the assembly line, where each work-
er is responsible for very few components and
works in isolation. Other strategies have been
claimed, however, to offer advantages. At
Volvo, for example, each group of workers is
responsible for building whole cars to comple-
tion.
In education, the choice is more complex.
Six of the major issues have been identified
(Harden et al. 1984) and are summarized here.
This has been referred to as the SPICES model
for curriculum planning. Each issue covers a
continuum-the teacher’s choice of position on
all six scales will depend on circumstances and
subject.
(a) Student-centredheacher-centred
The first encourages student involvement in
the curriculum and emphasizes the students and
what they learn; the other depends more on the
teachers and emphasizes what is taught. In a
student-centred approach students can choose
when they will study, their pace of study, the
method of study and what they will study.
(b) Problem-soloing/inf~rmation-gathering
In a problem-based approach students ac-
quire their knowledge and skills through tack-
ling problems. In the information-gathering
approach the emphasis is on the presentation of
information.
(c) Integrated (multidisciplinavy)/specialty
(discipline)
In integrated teaching the emphasis is on
bringing different subjects together. It empha-
sizes body systems (e.g. respiratory or gastro-
intestinal) rather than the disciplines of medi-
24
361
cine, pathology, etc. The latter concentrates on
traditional disciplines (e.g. biochemistry or
surgery).
(d) Community-basedlhospital-based
In the community-based approach teaching is
centred on the community, e.g. a health centre,
whereas in the hospital-based approach it is
centred on the main teaching hospital.
(e) Electivelstandard
In elective programmes, students have a
small core and for the remainder of the time
choose which aspects of the subjects, or even
which subjects, they wish to study. In a
standard curriculum all students are directed to
study the same areas and there are no elective
periods in the curriculum.
I f ) Systematic (planned)/apprenticeship
(opportunistic)
In a systematic curriculum, the teaching and
learning experiences are planned and recorded,
whereas in the apprenticeship model students
follow the work of one department or doctor,
or experience the work in the community as it
presents.
(6) What teaching methods should be used?
In car manufacture the main choice is the
degree of automation, i.e. hand assembly,
machine tools or robots. A mixture of methods
may be deemed appropriate.
Education presents two decision areas-
student grouping and use of teaching tools.
Both profoundly influence the student’s experi-
ence and therefore the likelihood of satisfying
curriculum objectives.
(a) In the first area of student grouping the
choice includes
- whole class teaching;
- classes divided into smaller groups of seven
or eight students; or
- individualized learning where students work
on their own.
The large lecture still has a place, but small-
3 62 R . M . Harden
group teaching is often more appropriate, e.g.
when more student-teacher interaction is re-
quired or in demonstrating a procedure or
technique. The two techniques require greatly
different teaching skills (Walton 1973). The
benefits of independent learning include allow-
ing students more choice in pace, timing and
method.
A combination of methods may be used. For
example, an endocrinology course at the Uni-
versity of Dundee includes all three approaches.
An introductory lecture provides an overview,
framework and vocabulary. The students then
devote z weeks to individual study using
various learning resources. During this period
they are given the opportunity to meet a
teacher in small groups and see clinical exam-
ples of the condition under study. Finally, the
students in small groups meet a tutor to
identify problems and tackle them through
problem-solving exercises.
(b) The second decision with regard to
teaching methods relates to the choice of tool.
The full range of educational tools might seem
a little daunting and includes slides, audiotape,
film, videotape, overhead projector, printed
text, computers, simulators, models, exhibi-
tions and patients.
The use of slides and tape/slide programmes
has been discussed in previous ASME Medical
Education Booklets (Evans 1981; Graves &
Graves 1979).
Some tools are best suited to a particular
educational context but most can be used in all
settings. For example, during a lecture, compu-
ters can be used to present a simulated prob-
lem, a small group can work through a compu-
ter program sharing experiences or conclu-
sions, and computers can provide a valuable aid
to independent learning. Where the objective is
to acquire problem-solving skills rather than to
acquire information, computer-assisted learn-
ing can be particularly useful.
The choice of teaching tools is important and
educational technology, as noted in the annual
report of the Council for Educational Techno-
logy (CET), cannot be ignored in curriculum
development (CET 1985). The educational
value of a method is dependent as much on
how the method is used as on the choice of
method. A good tape/slide programme is
almost always better than a bad lecture and vice
versa.
The choice of method should reflect:
- the course aims and objectives;
- the availability of local facilities; and
- staff experience in the various techniques.
(7) How should assessment be carried out?
Car manufacturers incorporate varying degrees
of quality control. During construction, checks
may be made that the correct components have
been fitted in a satisfactory way. Finally, the
functioning of completed cars may be com-
pared against a specification.
In education, both the student and the course
should be assessed. Four aspects of student
evaluation merit particular discussion (Harden
19794.
(a) Assessment techniques
Again, quite a range exists. A number, as
indicated, have been the subject of earlier
ASME Medical Education Booklets.
Multiple choice questions (Harden 1979b;
Lennox 1974)
Essay questions
Short answer questions
Patient management problems (Harden
1983; Marshall & Fabb 1981)
Modified essay questions (Knox 1975)
Oral examinations
Traditional clinical examinations (Stokes
1974)
Objective structural clinical examinations
(Harden & Gleeson 1979)
Reports by tutors or supervisors
The most appropriate method or methods
should be selected. As with the teaching
methods this will depend on the course aims
and objectives, the local facilities available and
the experience of local staff.
(b) Choice of assessor
Should the assessor be external or simply the
person responsible for the course? What degree
of self-assessment should be present? If once
qualified students are to take responsibility for
their own education, that process should begin
 Questions for planning a course or curriculum
even before qualification. This can be added to
formal assessments which determine pass or
failure on a course.
(c) Timing
Should assessment be continuous (in-course
assessment), end-of-course or a mixture?
(d) Standards
Should the assessment be norm-based or
criterion-referenced. The aim of criterion-
referenced assessment is to determine whether
the students have achieved a specific standard
of competence or not-the criterion-i. e. the
aim is to separate the students into two groups,
those who have achieved the standard and
those who have not. In norm-referenced assess-
ment the purpose is to distinguish between the
performance of different individuals, i.e. to
rank the candidates into an order on the basis of
their scores in the examination.
The second aspect of assessment is the assess-
ment of the course or curriculum. Curriculum
evaluation is discussed in the ASME booklet by
Gale & Coles (1985). It is as well to remember
that student ‘failure’ may reflect a curriculum
deficiency and that rectifying faults in the
curriculum can ‘improve’ student performance.
Taken alone, student achievement of course
objectives may provide a misleading measure
of the effectiveness of a course. The students’
achievement may be despite the teaching rather
than because of it. For example, in one ex-
amination students performed exceptionally
well in questions related to the topic covered
by one lecturer. The cause was not the high
quality of his lectures but the r e v e r s e t h e
lecturer’s performance was so poor that the
students were forced to remedy this by an
extensive study of books. Only by analysis of
the teaching process can such findings be
discovered. Thus illuminative evaluation tech-
niques may give more insight into the curricu-
lum than examination of the end product. The
students too may assist in course assessment by
designing and completing their own evalua-
tion. This frequently provides useful feedback
though the results may require cautious inter-
pretation.
363
(8) How should details of the curriculum
be communicated?
As part of the planning for the production of a
car, details of its specifications have to be
communicated to those responsible for manu-
facturing and to potential buyers. This can be
achieved through manufacturing work-sheets,
instruction manuals and publicity leaflets.
Details of the curriculum have to be com-
municated to staff responsible for teaching and
to the students for whom the curriculum has
been designed. Most commonly this is done
through syllabi and timetables. These are
methods of communicating the list of subjects
covered and when they are taught rather than
the curriculum itself. Another approach is the
presentation of the aims and objectives of the
courses. There are other possibilities and
perhaps the most exciting is the use of concept
mapping (Van der Spuy et al. 1982). While
other approaches described in this booklet have
been tried and tested, the use of concept
mapping as a method of communicating curri-
culum content has yet to be fully explored.
Pask (1976) has demonstrated how complex
subject matter can be broken down into its
basic conceptual elements and how these con-
cepts can be related one to another. A diagram
of the relationships between concepts can then
be developed which represents the subject mat-
ter area. This has the potential of being used as
a tool to communicate about the curriculum to
staff and students.
(9) What educational environment or
climate should be fostered?
Important to the productivity and quality of
the final product in the car factory is the
ambience in the factory-is it supportive and
encouraging to workers to be industrious or
lazy? Does it foster a careful or a careless
approach to the job? Does it encourage the
workers to cooperate with each other or not?
Just as important is the climate of the educa-
tional environment (Genn & Harden 1986) and
this may have profound effects on the students’
behaviour and performance and on the out-
come of the curriculum. Does the environment
encourage scholasticism, propriety, social
3 64 R . M . Harden

/
Undergraduate

Committee

---
IHCoUrse
Sub- committee
Early -years Committee HDepartments

Figure 3. An example of a committee structure for a medical course

awareness and cooperation between students?
It is possible, using available instruments, to
measure the climate of the educational environ-
ment in an institution (e.g. does it foster
cooperation or competition between students?)
and to influence the climate in line with the
aims and objectives of the school.
(10)How should the process be managed?
Should the car factory have an overall mana-
ger? Who plans production? What relationship
exists between managers and shopfloor work-
ers? How is customer feedback to be treated?
In educational management, who is to be
responsible for planning, implementation and
monitoring? How can change or innovation be
brought into the curriculum? What is the role
of the head of department, the course teachers
and any curriculum or course committee that
has been established? How can different courses
relate in such a way that the overall objectives
of the school or institution are achieved?
Should responsibility lie with named indi-
viduals or with committees? Who should be
represented on the committees? What is the
role of the students themselves in the manage-
ment process? Should they be represented on
any course or curriculum committees?
Different approaches to these problems can
be adopted. As an example, the committee
I
structure in relation to the undergraduate curri-
culum at Dundee Medical School is summa-
rized in Fig. 3 . The Undergraduate Medical
Education Committee is responsible for estab-
lishing and deciding policy in relation to the
curriculum. This is approved by the Faculty
Board, which consists of professors, elected
representatives and students. The Later- and
Early-Years Sub-committees are responsible
for the details of timetabling and implementing
the programme. Responsible to these commit-
tees are the course committees and departments
teaching on the course.
Conclusions
All teachers concerned with planning a course
or curriculum should consider the ten questions:
( I ) What are the needs in relation to the
product of the training programme? (2) What
are the aims and objectives? (3) What content
should be included? (4) How should the con-
tent be organized? ( 5 ) What educational
strategies should be adopted? (6) What tcaching
methods should be used? (7) How should
assessment be carried out? (8) How should
details of the curriculum be communicated? (9)
What educational environment or climate
should be fostered? (10) How should thc pro-
cess be managed? This list of questions does
not provide a linear progression. All ten ques-
 Questionsfovptanning a course or curriculum
tions are worthy of detailed consideration, but
the order in which this is done can be varied.
Do not hesitate to revise the answers to earlier
questions in the light of responses to the later
questions.
What must be avoided is any confusion
between:
Needs and aims. Not all needs may be re-
flected in the aims and objectives of the
course or curriculum. Some needs may
be more appropriately considered in rela-
tion to other courses or other phases of a
vocational training programme. How-
ever, look again at the course if there is a
serious mismatch between the needs in
the community and the objectives of the
course.
Educational strategies and teaching methods.
Strategies such as problem-based learning
and integration require consideration
separately from teaching methods such as
small-group teaching and the use of
learning resource material.
Content selertion and content organization. Deci-
sions about what should be covered in
the course should be distinguished from
decisions about the order in which it is
covered and who should cover it.
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