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Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) - A Tutorial

Qasim Chaudhari ● January 25, 2017

Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) is one of the most spectrally efficient modulation schemes
available. Due to its constant envelope, it is resilient to non-linear distortion and was
therefore chosen as the modulation technique for the GSM cell phone standard.

MSK is a special case of Continuous-Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CPFSK) which is a

special case of a general class of modulation schemes known as Continuous-Phase
Modulation (CPM). It is worth noting that CPM (and hence CPFSK) is a non-linear modulation
and hence by extension MSK is a non-linear modulation as well. Nevertheless, it can also be
cast as a linear modulation scheme, namely Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (OQPSK),
which is a special case of Phase Shift Keying (PSK). As a borderline case, these relationships
are illustrated in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1: MSK as a special case of both non-linear and linear modulation schemes

At this point, you would be thinking about the following question: How can a modulation be
both non-linear and linear? As we see later in this tutorial, originally MSK is a non-linear

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modulation but a certain depiction of its actual digital symbols known as pseudo-symbols
turns it into an OQPSK representation.

Modulation is a simple topic to understand but owing to the above description, MSK can
sometimes be an intimidating concept. Here, our purpose is to present it in an uncomplicated
manner by building it through the fundamentals.

The starting point is one of the simplest digital modulations possible: FSK.

BINARY FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING (BFSK)

In Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), digital information is transmitted by changing the frequency
of a carrier signal. Naturally, Binary FSK (BFSK) is the simplest form of FSK where the two
bits 0 and 1 correspond to two distinct carrier frequencies $F_0$ and $F_1$ to be sent over
the air. The bits can be translated into symbols through the relations

$$0 \quad \rightarrow \quad -1$$

$$1 \quad \rightarrow \quad +1$$

This enables us to write the frequencies $F_i$ with $i ~ \epsilon ~ \{0,1\}$ as

$$F_i = F_c + (-1)^{i+1} \cdot \Delta_F = F_c \pm \Delta_F$$

where $F_c$ is the nominal carrier frequency and $\Delta_F$ is the peak frequency deviation
from this carrier frequency. Consequently,

\begin{equation}s(t) = A \cos 2\pi F_i t = A \cos\Big[2\pi \big\{F_c \pm \Delta_F\big\}

t\Big]\quad ---- \quad \text{Eq (1)}\end{equation}

where $$0\le t \le T_b$$

Figure 2 below displays a BFSK waveform for a random stream of data at a rate of $R_b =
1/T_b$. Note that we are not distinguishing between a bit period and a symbol period
because both are the same for a binary modulation technique.

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 Figure 2: A Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK) waveform

As is evident from Figure 2 above, the phase transitions at the boundaries of bit transitions
are -- in general -- discontinuous.

MINIMUM FREQUENCY SPACING

Although any two distinct frequencies $F_0$ and $F_1$ can be used for communication
purpose, it greatly helps in receiver design if the two distinct signals are orthogonal to each
other, i.e.,

$$\int \limits _0 ^{T_b} s_1(t) s_0(t) ~dt = 0$$

A question that arises at this stage is the following: how close can the two frequencies $F_0$
and $F_1$ be? Or in other words, what is the smallest possible value of $\Delta_F$? The
reason for asking this question is spectral efficiency. The closer the two frequencies, the
more the number of channels available for other users in the same spectrum.

For a BFSK case,

\begin{equation*} \int \limits _0 ^{T_b} \cos 2 \pi F_1 t \cos 2 \pi F_0 t ~dt = 0\end{equation*}

or

\begin{align*} \int \limits _0 ^{T_b} \cos 2 \pi (F_1 + F_0 )t ~ dt + \int \limits _0 ^{T_b} \cos 2
\pi (F_1 - F_0 )t ~ dt &= 0 \\ \frac{\sin 2\pi (F_1+F_0)t}{2\pi (F_1+F_0)}\bigg |_{0}^{T_b} +
\frac{\sin 2\pi (F_1-F_0)t}{2\pi (F_1-F_0)}\bigg|_{0}^{T_b}&= 0 \\ \frac{\sin 2\pi
(F_1+F_0)T_b}{2\pi (F_1+F_0)} + \frac{\sin 2\pi (F_1-F_0)T_b}{2\pi (F_1-F_0)}&= 0

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\end{align*} Since $F_1+F_0 = 2F_c 1$ while $-1 \le \sin x \le 1$, the first term goes to zero
and we can write \begin{equation*} \sin 2\pi (F_1-F_0) T_b = 0 \end{equation*} which is true
for (remember $\sin k\pi = 0$ for integer $k$) $$2\pi (F_1-F_0) T_b = k\pi$$ From here, the
orthogonality condition can be concluded as $$F_1-F_0 = \frac{k}{2T_b}$$ This also yields
the minimum frequency separation for $k=1$. $$F_1-F_0 = \frac{1}{2T_b} = \frac{R_b}{2}$$
for orthogonal signaling. Thus, the peak frequency deviation $\Delta_F$ can be computed as
$$\Delta_F = \frac{F_1-F_0}{2} = \frac{1}{4T_b} = \frac{R_b}{4}$$

MSK AS CONTINUOUS-PHASE FSK

From the above information, a BFSK signal with minimum tone spacing can be constructed
by replacing $\Delta_F$ by $R_b/4$ in Eq (1) as

\begin{align*}s(t) &= A \cos \Big[2\pi \big\{F_c \pm \frac{R_b}{4}\big\} t\Big], \\ &= A \cos
\Big[2\pi F_c t \pm 2\pi\frac{R_b}{4} t\Big], \quad 0\le t \le T_b \end{align*}
This is a CP-BFSK signal with minimum tone spacing defined over a single bit interval $0 \le t
\le T_b$. There are two more steps to construct an actual MSK waveform.

1.
In a real communication system, the signal is constructed by transmitting a sequence of
bits $b_n$ in succession, where $n$ is the bit index. As we have seen earlier, bits $b_n
~\epsilon~ \{0,1\}$ are converted to symbols $a_n$. $$a_n ~\epsilon~ \{-1,+1\}$$
Then, in the interval $nT_b \le t \le (n+1)T_b$, the above signal can be written as
\begin{align} s(t) &= A \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi\frac{a_n R_b}{4} (t-nT_b)\Big], \quad
nT_b \le t \le (n+1)T_b \end{align} where $n$ is the bit index within a long bit stream
and the second term indicates the underlying baseband message.
2.
Observe in the above equation that the phase continuity is not necessarily maintained
from one symbol to the next. To ensure phase continuity, we must add a phase
component for each symbol as \begin{align*}s(t) &= A \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t +
2\pi\frac{a_n R_b}{4} (t-nT_b) + \theta_n\Big] \\ & \qquad \qquad nT_b \le t \le (n+1)T_b
\quad ---- \quad \text{Eq (2)}\end{align*} For this purpose, the phase at both sides of
$t=(n+1)T_b$ must be equal, as illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Phase on both sides of $t=(n+1)T_b$ must be equal to maintain continuity

Thus, at the instant $t=(n+1)T_b$, the following equation must be satisfied.
\begin{align*} 2\pi \frac{a_n R_b}{4} (t-nT_b) + \theta_n \bigg |_{t=(n+1)T_b} &= 2\pi
\frac{a_{n+1} R_b}{4} (t-(n+1)T_b) + \theta_{n+1} \bigg |_{t=(n+1)T_b} \end{align*} which

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 can be written as $$\theta_{n+1} = \theta_{n} + a_n \frac{\pi}{2}$$ Another way to write
the above recursive relation is \begin{equation*}\boxed{\theta_{n} = \theta_{n-1} + a_{n-
1} \frac{\pi}{2}}\quad ---- \quad \text{Eq (3)}\end{equation*} Assume that $\theta_0 = 0$.
Then, $$\theta_1 = a_0 \frac{\pi}{2}$$ $$\theta_2 = \theta_1 + a_1 \frac{\pi}{2} =
\frac{\pi}{2} (a_0+a_1)$$ In general, $$\theta_n = \frac{\pi}{2} \sum \limits_{i=0}^{n-1}
a_i \quad ---- \quad \text{Eq (4)}$$

When the phase follows this rule during each bit/symbol interval, the phase continuity is
ensured and the resulting waveform is shown for an example sequence in Figure 4.

Figure 4: MSK as Continuous-Phase Binary FSK

Notice how Figure 4 is different than Figure 2 in phase continuity.Below, we plot $\theta_n$
as a function of time in Figure 5 to see how it evolves. One can observe that it indeed
changes values in steps of $\pi/2$ depending on the last data bit.

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 Figure 5: $\theta_n$ evolving with time

MSK AS OFFSET QPSK

First, write Eq (2) assuming $A=1$ as \begin{align*}s(t) &= \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi
\frac{a_n R_b}{4} (t-nT_b) + \theta_n\Big] \\ &= \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi \frac{a_n R_b}{4} t -
\underbrace{na_n \frac{\pi}{2} + \theta_n}_{\Theta_n}\Big]\quad ---- \quad \text{Eq (5)}
\end{align*} Using Eq (3), we can further manipulate $\Theta_n$ as \begin{align*} \Theta_n
&= \theta_n - na_n \frac{\pi}{2} \\ &= \theta_{n-1} + a_{n-1}\frac{\pi}{2} - na_n \frac{\pi}{2} \\
&= \theta_{n-1} + a_{n-1}\Big(+1-n+n\Big)\frac{\pi}{2} - na_n \frac{\pi}{2} \\ &= \theta_{n-1} -
(n-1)a_{n-1}\frac{\pi}{2} + n \frac{\pi}{2} \Big(a_{n-1} - a_n\Big)\\ &= \Theta_{n-1} + n
\frac{\pi}{2} \Big(a_{n-1} - a_n\Big)\quad ---- \quad \text{Eq (6)} \end{align*} Notice that
$\Theta_{n} = \Theta_{n-1}$ when

$a_n = a_{n-1}$ because the second term in Eq (6) becomes zero.

$n$ is even because the second term in Eq (6) is a multiple of $2\pi$ (remember that
$a_{n-1}-a_n$ is $\pm 2$ when not zero).

We conclude that $\Theta_n$ can only change when $a_n \neq a_{n-1}$ and $n$ is odd. In
that case, it will always change by an odd multiple of $\pm \pi$. In summary, considering
modulo-$2\pi$ operations, $$\Theta_n = \begin{cases}
\Theta_{n-1}\pm \pi & a_n \neq a_{n-1}, n~\text{odd} \\ \Theta_{n-1} &
\text{otherwise} \end{cases}\quad ---- \quad \text{Eq (7)}$$ Next, we use the following
identities \begin{align*} \cos (\alpha\pm \beta) &= \cos \alpha\cos \beta \mp \sin \alpha
\sin \beta \\ \sin (\alpha\pm \beta) &= \sin \alpha\cos \beta \pm \cos \alpha \sin \beta \\
\cos (-\alpha) &= \cos \alpha \\ \sin (-\alpha) &= - \sin \alpha \end{align*} to open Eq (5).
\begin{align*} s(t) &= \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi \frac{a_n R_b}{4} t + \Theta_n \Big] \\ &= \cos
2\pi F_c t \cdot \underbrace{\cos \Big(2\pi \frac{a_nR_b}{4}t + \Theta_n\Big)}_{\text{Term 1}}
- \\ &\qquad \qquad \qquad \sin 2\pi F_c t\cdot \underbrace{\sin \Big(2\pi \frac{a_nR_b}{4}t
+ \Theta_n\Big)}_{\text{Term 2}} \end{align*} Now we process both terms one by one.
\begin{align*} \text{Term 1} &= \cos \Big(2\pi \frac{a_nR_b}{4}t + \Theta_n \Big) \\ &= \cos
\Big(2\pi \frac{a_nR_b}{4}t\Big) \cos \Theta_n - \sin \Big(2\pi \frac{a_nR_b}{4}t\Big) \sin
\Theta_n \\ &= \cos \Big( 2\pi \frac{a_nR_b}{4}t\Big) \cos \Theta_n = d_{I,n} \cos 2\pi
\frac{R_b}{4}t\\ \end{align*} because $\Theta_0 = 0$ implies $\sin \Theta_n = 0$, see Eq (7).
Furthermore, $a_n ~\epsilon~\{-1,+1\}$ and $\cos (\pm \alpha) = \cos \alpha$. We have also

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defined $$ d_{I,n} = \cos \Theta_n$$ Similarly, Term 2 can be expanded as \begin{align*}
\text{Term 2} &= \sin \Big(2\pi \frac{a_nR_b}{4}t + \Theta_n \Big) \\ &= \sin \Big(2\pi
\frac{a_nR_b}{4}t \Big) \cos \Theta_n + \cos\Big(2\pi \frac{a_nR_b}{4}t\Big) \sin \Theta_n \\
&= \cos \Theta_n \cdot a_n \sin 2\pi \frac{R_b}{4}t = -d_{Q,n} \sin 2\pi \frac{R_b}{4}t
\end{align*} since $\sin \Theta_n = 0$ as before and $\sin (-\alpha) = - \sin (\alpha)$. Here,
we have defined $d_{Q,n}$ as $$d_{Q,n} = -a_n \cdot \cos \Theta_n = -a_n \cdot d_{I,n}$$
Finally, plugging both Term 1 and 2 into $s(t)$ for the $n$-th bit period, $$s(t) = d_{I,n} \cos
2\pi \frac{R_b}{4}t \cdot \cos 2\pi F_c t + d_{Q,n} \sin 2\pi \frac{R_b}{4}t \cdot \sin 2\pi F_c
t$$ Using the identity $\sin \alpha = \cos (\alpha - \pi/2)$, the above equation can be revised
as \begin{align*} s(t) &= d_{I,n} \cos 2\pi \frac{R_b}{4}t \cdot \cos 2\pi F_c t + d_{Q,n} \cos
\Big(2\pi \frac{R_b}{4}t - \frac{\pi}{2} \Big) \cdot \sin 2\pi F_c t \\ &= d_{I,n} \cos 2\pi
\frac{R_b}{4}t \cdot \cos 2\pi F_c t + \\&\qquad \qquad \qquad d_{Q,n} \cos 2\pi
\frac{R_b}{4}(t-T_b) \cdot \sin 2\pi F_c t\quad ---- \quad \text{Eq (8)}\\ =& d_{I,n} p(t) \cdot
\cos 2\pi F_c t + d_{Q,n} p(t-\frac{1}{2}2T_b) \cdot \sin 2\pi F_c t \end{align*} where $p(t)$ is
a half-sinusoidal pulse shape of period $4T_b$.

The above expression resembles an OQPSK waveform if the bit rate for $d_{I,n}$ and
$d_{Q,n}$ is $R_b/2$ or bit period is $2T_b$, since the time offset in the $\sin$ term must be
half the bit period for OQPSK. So we have to check if $d_{I,n}$ and $d_{Q,n}$ change values
every other symbol.

From the definition, $d_{I,n} = \cos \Theta_n$ and Eq (7) tells that $\Theta_n$ can only
change values for odd $n$. Hence, $d_{I,n}$ is indeed an $R_b/2$ rate stream.

On the other hand, $d_{Q,n}=-a_n \cdot d_{I,n}$. Again, Eq (7) says that $d_{I,n}$ can only
change when $a_n$ changes but that means that $-a_n \cdot d_{I,n}$ stays the same.
Therefore, $d_{Q,n}$ can only change for even $n$ and when $a_n$ changes values.
Consequently, $d_{Q,n}$ is also an $R_b/2$ rate stream.

Since $d_{I,n}$ changes values for odd $n$ while $d_{Q,n}$ does the same for even $n$,
$d_{Q,n}$ is offset with respect to $d_{I,n}$ by $T_b$ seconds, the same amount as $\cos
2\pi \frac{R_b}{4}t$ in Eq (8). Summing up everything so far, MSK can indeed be represented
as an OQPSK waveform. The data rate is the same as in CP-BFSK format since two bits are
being transmitted in two bit periods here as well.

This representation is illustrated in Figure 6.

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 Figure 6: MSK as Offset QPSK

Compare Figure 6 with Figure 4. I did not choose separate blue and red colors in this figure
so as not to confuse $d_n$s with $a_n$s (that can raise a misunderstanding that $d_{I,n}$ is
odd $a_n$s and $d_{Q,n}$ is even $a_n$, which is not correct).

Observe from Figure 6 that $d_{I,n}$ is changing values every two $T_b$s at odd multiples of
$T_b$, while $d_{Q,n}$ is changing values every two $T_b$s at even multiples of $T_b$. Due

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to this offset behavior, at every $T_b$, either $I$ or $Q$ waveform is zero at $t=T_b$ while
the other reaches its maximum value. This is how phase remains continuous during symbol
transitions.

Figure 7 draws $\Theta_n$ as a supplement to above findings.

Figure 7: $\Theta_n$ evolving with time

On a final note, observe from some equations (e.g., (2) and (5)) that the continuous phase
has two parts, one of which arises due to the delay of the $n$-th symbol. This information
can be used to refine a phase estimate.

We are also clear now why MSK can act both like a linear and a non-linear modulation. In
reality, MSK is a non-linear modulation scheme (see Eq(2)) for $a_n$. Pseudo-symbols $d_n$
themselves are non-linear functions of information bits. So it is only from $d_n$ viewpoint
that MSK can be seen as a linear modulation scheme.

A GENERALIZATION: FROM MSK TO CONTINUOUS-PHASE FSK (CP-FSK)

After understanding MSK, it can be expanded into a general modulation scheme known as
Continuous-Phase Frequency Shift Keying (CP-FSK). As we see in the next section, CP-FSK
is a special case of Continuous-Phase Modulation (CPM), which is a class of non-linear
digital modulation schemes in which the phase of the signal is constrained to be continuous
from one symbol to the next. As with MSK, the most attractive feature of such a signal is that
it has a constant envelope as a result of the amplitude being independent of the modulating
information. Consequently, a CPM signal can be amplified without distortion by a non-linear
amplifier operating near the saturation point allowing low cost and more efficiency as
compared to a linear amplifier.

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Usually CP-FSK (and hence CPM) is not a straightforward concept to master. However,
starting from MSK, its basics can easily be understood by building on the same expressions.
For this purpose,

Remember that $\Delta_F = R_b/4$.

Modulation symbols can carry more than 1 information bit. For example, 00, 01, 11 and
10 can be sent through four symbols $a_n$ $\epsilon$ $\{-3,-1,+1+3\}$. In general,
$a_n$ is a sequence from the alphabet $\{\pm 1, \pm 3, \cdots,\pm (M-1)\}$. Thus, we
call $a_n$ as symbols and replace $T_b$ with $T_M$ (a symbol time) from here
onwards. Symbol rate $R_M$ is then $1/T_M$.

Now let us start with rewriting Eq (2) and Eq (4) and then substituting the former into the
latter.

$$\theta_n = \frac{\pi}{2} \sum \limits_{i=0}^{n-1} a_i$$ \begin{align*} s(t) &= A \cos \Big[2\pi
F_c t + 2\pi\frac{a_n R_M}{4} (t-nT_M) + \theta_n\Big] \\ &=A \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi
\frac{1}{2}\cdot \frac{t-nT_M}{2T_M}a_n + \frac{\pi}{2} \sum \limits_{i=0}^{n-1} a_i\Big] \\ &=
A \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi h a_n \cdot q(t-nT_M) + \pi h \sum \limits_{i=0}^{n-1} a_i\Big]
\end{align*} where we have defined the following terms. \begin{align*} h &= \frac{1}{2} \\ q(t)
&= \begin{cases} 0 & t \le 0 \\ \frac{t}{2T_M} & 0 \le t \le T_M \\ \frac{1}{2} & t \ge T_M
\end{cases} \end{align*} It turns out that $h$ is a general concept known as modulation
index, which in case of MSK is equal to $1/2$. In general, $h$ is defined as $$h = 2
\frac{\Delta_F}{R_M}$$ which describes the peak frequency deviation in terms of a
percentage of the symbol rate. With the definition of $h$, we can write $$s(t) = A \cos
\Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi h \Big( a_n q(t-nT_M)+ \frac{1}{2} \sum \limits_{i=0}^{n-1}
a_i\Big)\Big]$$ The above equation is true for the interval $nT_M \le t \le (n+1)T_M$.
Considering from its definition that $q(t)$ is $1/2$ after a symbol interval, we can also write
$s(t)$ as \begin{align*}s(t) &= A \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi h \sum \limits _{i=0}^{n} a_i q(t -
iT_M) \Big]\quad ---- \quad \text{Eq (9)}\\ &= A \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi h \int _{-\infty}^{t}
\Big( \sum \limits _{i=0}^n a_i g(u - iT_M)\Big) du \Big] \end{align*} where $g(t)$ is defined
as the derivative of $q(t)$ as $$q(t) = \int \limits _{0}^{t} g(u) du$$ Notice that in the present
case with $q(t)$ defined as above, its derivative $g(t)$ is a rectangular pulse shape.
Consequently, $\sum \limits _i a_i g(u - iT_M)$ is the standard baseband Pulse Amplitude
Modulated (PAM) waveform with rectangular pulse shape and this is how its discontinuities
are transformed into a continuous-phase signal.

It is refreshing to conclude that the starting point for a continuous-phase modulated signal
is a standard pulse amplitude waveform, in which the discontinuities are smoothed out by
the integral operation.

MORE GENERALIZATION: FROM CONTINUOUS-PHASE FSK (CP-FSK) TO

CONTINUOUS-PHASE MODULATION (CPM)

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Now referring to Eq (9), the expression for a CPM signal can be written as

$$s(t) = A \cos \Big[2\pi F_c t + 2\pi \sum \limits _{i=0}^{n} h_i \cdot a_i q(t - iT_M)
\Big]\qquad nT \le t \le (n+1)T$$

Here, $h_i$ is a sequence of modulation indices: a ratio of two relatively prime integers.

$$h = \frac{k}{p}$$

This is the case of multi-h CPM. When all $h_i=h$, the modulation index is the same for all
symbols. This is the category we saw in CP-FSK and MSK above.

Finally, $q(t)$ is a waveform shape known as the phase response of the modulator which is
normalized as

$$q(t) = \begin{cases}
0 & t \le 0 \\ \frac{t}{2T} & 0 \le t \le LT \\
\frac{1}{2} & t \ge LT
\end{cases}$$
where $L$ is the length of a pulse $g(t)$ in symbols. Since angular frequency is the rate of
change of phase, this $g(t)$ is the derivative of $q(t)$ and known as the frequency response
of the modulator.

$$g(t) = \frac{dq(t)}{dt}$$

For any pulse shape $g(t)$, $L=1$ results in full response CPM, while the other case $L>1$ is
the partial response CPM. Commonly used pulse shapes are rectangular (as used in the case
of MSK), raised cosine and Gaussian.

We can see that CPM is in fact a very large class of modulation schemes owing to different
pulse shapes $g(t)$, modulation indices $h_i$ and the modulation alphabet size $M$. That is
both a blessing and a curse: blessing due to the remarkable variety of signals as its
offsprings all yielding excellent spectral and power efficiencies, and curse due to the high
receiver complexity. By virtue of Moore's law, this is becoming less of an issue -- thanks to
powerful baseband processors in the modern age.

REFERENCES
[1] Mengali and D'Andrea, Synchronization Techniques for Digital Receivers, 1997.

[2] John Proakis, Digital Communications, 4th ed, 2001.

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