Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Integration and Division, edited by Rebecca O’Sullivan, Christina Marini, and Julia Binnberg, 129–36. Oxford: BAR
Publishing, 2017.
Abstract: During the Ming dynasty, a great number of military treatises were written. They
sometimes include strange and fantastical information like pictures of sword-fighting
monkeys, which cast doubt on their representation of reality. A comparison with
archaeological sources might shed light on the credibility of these texts. A suitable topic for
this comparison is the armament of ships, as the question: ‘What kind of weapons did ships
carry?’ can be asked to both the archaeological as well as the textual sources. In this paper, I
compare the weapons described in the texts with those found in excavations of shipwrecks.
In addition, I address the question about the meaningfulness of such a comparison. I argue
that while certain elements are the same in the textual and the archaeological record, it is
better to not compare these two types of sources but rather use them alongside each other to
complement the picture. The question of the credibility of texts is better addressed by textual
analysis and a study of the biographies of the authors.
Key words: Naval warfare; Ming dynasty; China; Comparison of texts and archaeology;
Military writing
During the late Ming dynasty, China faced frequent would not be able to fly in a straight line, 3 which cast
attacks both from the sea by so called Japanese pirates,1 as doubt on the credibility of the texts and call for further
well as from the Northern border by Mongols and clarification. One possible method to evaluate the textual
Manchus, who eventually conquered China and sources is to compare them with the archaeological
established the Qing dynasty (1644–1911). This increased record. It is of course not possible to compare the tactics
threat as well as a publishing boom resulted in a great or the organisation of the troops with archaeological
number of military treatises being written, of which many sources, but the many descriptions of weapons are
still survive today. The authors of these texts were both something where parallels between the textual and the
generals of the Chinese military as well as literati archaeological records can be drawn. Especially the topic
interested in military affairs and their writings are an of the armament of ships is very suitable for a
important source for the military and intellectual history comparison, as the texts give very clear information on
of the late Ming period. The texts include valuable the employment of weapons for naval warfare and the
information on troop arrangements, tactics for fighting, discovery of shipwrecks with weapons also leave no
organising of provisions, information on the foreign doubt about the use of these weapons on ships.
enemy and any other possible information a general in the
late Ming would have needed to be well prepared for The combining of textual and archaeological sources has
battle. However, sometimes weird and fantastical led to long discussions between historians and
information finds its way into the texts like pictures of archaeologists, especially concerning early periods of
sword fighting monkeys (see figure 1) 2 or rockets that history with sparse textual sources. 4 However, regarding
1
These pirates are called wokou 倭寇 in Chinese (Japanese reading: committed to accuracy (Qi Jiguang 戚繼光, Jixiao xinshu. Shisi juan ben
wakō). The term literarily translates to “Japanese bandits.” However, 紀效新書. 十四卷本, ed. Fan Zhongyi 範中義 [Beijing: Zhonghua
especially during the later Ming period, a great percentage of these shuju, 2001], 83).
pirates were not Japanese but rather Chinese. 3
Mao Yuanyi, Wubeizhi, j. 133, 3a–4b. I will discuss this rocket in more
2
Mao Yuanyi 茅 元 儀, Wubeizhi 武 備 志 (1621), j. 86, 17a–18b, detail below.
Accessible online through Chinese Text Project 4
In China this discussion was started in the early 20 th century by Wang
http://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&res=2523. While there is a logical Guowei 王國維 and his method of dual evidence (erchong zhengju fa 二
explanation for the inclusion of the monkeys – a short introduction 重證據法), which he applied mostly to excavated texts as opposed to
before the pictures explains that they are representing a “monkey style” texts transmitted through the ages. Other important examples include K.
of sword fighting – a direct comparison with Mao Yuanyi’s source, the C. Chang’s Shang Civilization or the discussion in the introduction of
Jixiao xinshu 紀效新書 reveals that while the introductory text on the The Cambridge History of Ancient China. A recent volume dedicated
fighting style is the same, the Jixiao xinshu does not include any pictures especially to the theoretical aspects of combining the two types of source
of monkeys but instead uses schematic representations of humans. This in the Asian context was edited by Yoffee and Crowell Kwang-Chih
does not necessarily mean that Mao Yuanyi believed in fighting Chang, Shang Civilization (New Haven and London: Yale University
monkeys, but it reinforces the strangeness of the text and shows that he, Press, 1980); Michael Loewe and Edward L Shaughnessy, eds., The
or at least the person drawing the pictures, was not completely Cambridge History of Ancient China. From the Origins of Civilization to
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the Ming dynasty, a period where ample textual records Jixiao xinshu 紀效新書 (A New Treatise on Military
exist, there are very few historians that supplement the Discipline and Efficiency) by Qi Jiguang 戚繼光, c.
textual records with a close study of archaeological data. 1560.8
A notable exception, also concerning the history of Chouhai tubian 籌海圖編 (Illustrated Naval Strategy)
Chinese warfare, is of course Joseph Needham’s famous by Zheng Ruozeng 鄭若曾, 1562.9
series Science and Civilisation in China, in which he Wubeizhi 武備志 (Treatise on Armament Preparations)
carefully combined written texts, archaeological sources, by Mao Yuanyi 茅元儀, 1621.10
and natural sciences.5 Other examples are Sun Laichen’s
studies on gunpowder weapons in Southeast Asia. 6 The up The well-known general Qi Jiguang (1528–1588) fought
to now most comprehensive study on naval warfare was both against the pirates as well as against the Mongols.
done by Zhang Tieniu and Gao Xiaoxing. They The Jixiao xinshu incorporates his experience training the
supplement the historical record with some information on troops against the pirates and includes first-hand
excavated weapons, but these objects mainly serve to knowledge of naval warfare.
illustrate the information Zhang and Gao draw from the
Ming dynasty texts. They do not include any detailed Zheng Ruozeng (fl. 1505–1580) was a very diligent
discussion on the provenance of the weapons or on scholar, whose goal was to contribute in some way to the
shipwrecks and their book, thus, cannot be considered a Chinese society. He wrote the Chouhai tubian in response
detailed study of the archaeological record.7 to the ongoing attacks of the pirates and collected all the
source materials on the topic he could find. The Chouhai
Relating to this present volume about bridging the divide tubian is one of the most detailed known collections on
between interdisciplinary boundaries, I want to contribute the pirates.
to filling the gap between the archaeological and historical
data and compare the two kinds of sources concerning the Mao Yuanyi (1594 – c. 1641) followed a military career
armament of ships. In addition, I will discuss and is especially known for having fought against the
methodological problems one faces when comparing these Manchus. The Wubeizhi is a collection of various military
two types of sources and address the question of the texts and incorporates knowledge from earlier sources like
meaningfulness of such a comparison. the Song dynasty (960–1279) Wujing zongyao 武經總要.
It is the longest of the three works discussed here.11
The textual sources
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12
Qi Jiguang 戚繼光, Jixiao xinshu 紀效新書 (c. 1562), j. 18, 11b–16b,
In Qinding siku quanshu 欽 定 四庫 全 書. Accessible online through
Chinese Text Project http://ctext.org/library.pl?if=en&res=5535. 19
Needham, Science and Civilisation 5.7, 326.
13
Ibid., 48a–52a. 20
Ralph D. Sawyer, Fire and Water. The Art of Incendiary and Aquatic
14
Zheng Ruozeng, Chouhai tubian, j. 13. Warfare in China (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 2004), 210.
15
The page with half of this explanation is missing in the 1562 version, 21
Ibid., 126.
but it can easily be reconstructed in using other editions. Zheng 22
For a discussion on the different ways of building ships see Pierre-
Ruozeng, Chouhai tubian, j. 13, 1262–1264; Chouhai tubian (Siku Yves Manguin, “Trading Ships of the South China Sea. Shipbuilding
quanshu edition), j. 13, 35a–36a. Techniques and Their Role in the History of the Development of Asian
16
Zheng Ruozeng, Chouhai tubian, j. 13, 1199–1254. Trade Networks,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the
17
Mao Yuanyi, Wubeizhi, j. 116, 8b–21a. Orient 36, no. 3 (1993): 253–280.
18
Ibid., j. 117, 25a–27a. 23
Ibid., 274.
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from the Ming dynasty were trading vessels.24 Of course, found in the wreck.26 Even though it was not a warship,
conclusions can still be drawn in looking at the armament the fact that the people who used the weapons were
of trading vessels, but the texts explicitly speak of military soldiers and not merchants makes this wreck a valuable
ships. Before attempting a comparison, it is, thus, source for comparison. This shipwreck predates the
necessary to identify the purpose of the ship. This can be military treatises by around 200 years, but shows us
done by looking at the cargo – if the ship carried a lot of several things: Gunpowder weapons were used alongside
ceramics, one can assume that it was a trade vessel. non-gunpowder weapons and there was a wide range of
different non-gunpowder weapons. The findings of the
The conditions in the seawater also make it nearly hooks support the evidence of the Wubeizhi about the
impossible for some of the incendiary weapons made out existence of hooked spears for naval battles.
of paper or wood to be preserved. While wood and even
paper sometimes do survive the harsh conditions in the In Penglai County in Shandong, archaeologists excavated
ocean, with the overall very scarce number of findings the four wrecks dating to the Yuan and Ming periods in 1984
probability of finding such weapons is extremely low. and 2005. Here, especially the wreck Penglai no. 1, a
warship dating to the mid to late Ming, is relevant. This is,
The wrecks thus, a warship roughly contemporary with the texts. The
archaeologists found several weapons: a fragment of a
The wrecks that are most suitable for a comparison with bronze cannon, two iron cannon, iron and stone
the textual sources are the Liangshan 梁山 wreck, the cannonballs in different sizes, bottles filled with
Penglai 蓬萊 no. 1 wreck, and the Shenhu Bay 深沪湾 quicklime, and a sword. 27 Quicklime was an important
wreck. ingredient for incendiary weapons and there is evidence in
Chinese texts that vessels filled with quicklime served as
The Liangshan wreck was discovered in 1956 in the bombs.28 All three cannon have rings along the barrel and
former Songjin River 宋 金 河 in Shandong 山 東. The are of Chinese design.29 While these ringed cannons are
excavation yielded several weapons: one bronze handgun, described for example in the Wubeizhi, 30 they are not
five swords, two spearheads, 20 arrowheads, 13 hooks marked as weapons for naval warfare.
from hooked spears and various other pieces of
equipment. The gun bears an inscription, which dates it to The Shenhu Bay wreck was discovered in 1999 near the
1377. As there are no items dated later than the fourteenth coast of Fujian 福 建. The excavators did not recover
century, the ship probably sunk at that time. 25 In the many objects from the wreck, but among them were two
original report, the excavators assumed that it was a inscribed cannon and part of an arquebuse. The cannon
military vessel, but recent research points to a ship used bear the dates 1553 and 1645 respectively. Judging from
for transporting grain from the fertile region in the south these inscriptions, the ship must have sunk in the late
to Beijing. Soldiers stationed on the ship to defend the seventeenth century and, thus, dates to around 100 years
valuable cargo from bandits probably used the weapons later than the Jixiao xinshu and Chouhai tubian and only a
bit later than the Wubeizhi. 31 As there are no traces of
trade items but two cannon, the excavators assume that it
was a warship. 32 The 1553 cannon is a Chinese-style
24
Important trading vessels from the Ming dynasty that include weapons muzzle loader and the 1645 cannon clearly shows
are the Bakau wreck (early 15th century), the Brunei wreck (end of 15th European influences. From this wreck, we can see that
/ beginning of 16th century), the Lena shoal wreck (sunk c. 1490), the
Xuande wreck (sunk c. 1540) and the Nan’ao I wreck (end of 16th / cannon were used for a long time, even though newer
beginning of 17th century). The weapons excavated from these ships technology was available. The Shenhu Bay wreck also
include a range of guns as well as a folangji cannon, showing that not
only military ships, but also merchant ships were equipped with
powerful weapons (Michael Flecker, “The Bakau Wreck: An Early
Example of Chinese Shipping in Southeast Asia,” The International 26
He Gouwei, “Measurement and Research of the Ancient Ming
Journal of Nautical Archaeology 30, no. 2 [2001]: 221–30; Michel Dynasty Ship Unearthened in Liangshan,” in International Sailing Ships
L’Hour, ed., La mémoire engloutie de Brunei, 3 vols. [Paris: Éditions History Conference. Proceedings. Shanghai China (Dec 4th–8th, 1991)
Textuel, 2001]; Franck Goddio et al., Lost at Sea. The Strange Route of (Shanghai: Shanghai Society of Naval Architecture & Marine
the Lena Shoal Junk, trans. Josephine Bacon [London: Periplus, 2002]; Engineering, 1991), 241ff; Zhu Hua 朱華, “Mingdai caochuan” 明代漕
Nanhai Marine Archaeology Sdn. Bhd., “The Xuande Site (+/- 1540),” 船, Zouxiang shijie 走向世界 34 (2012): 46–49.
Discovering Asia’s Ceramic Development over Half a Millennium - 27
Yantaishi wenwu guanli weiyuanhui 煙台市文物管理委員會 and
through Shipwrecks of the 14th to 19th Centuries, 2001, Penglaixian wenhuaju 蓬萊 縣文化局, “Shandong Penglai shuicheng
http://www.maritimeasia.ws/exhib01/pages/p016.html [accessed July 15, qingyu yu guchuan fajue” 山東蓬萊水城清淤與古船發掘, in Penglai
2016]; Guangdongsheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo 广东省文物考古研究 guchuan 蓬萊古船, ed. Shandongsheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo 山東省
所, “Nan’ao I hao Mingdai chenchuan 2007 nian diaocha yu shijue” 南 文物考古研究所, Yantaishi bowuguan 煙台市博物館, and Penglaishi
澳Ⅰ号明代沉船 2007 年调查与试掘, Wenwu 文物 5 [2011]: 25–47; wenwuju 蓬萊市文物局 (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 2006), 170, 178f.
Guangdongsheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo 廣 東省文 物考古研 究所, 28
For a discussion on bombs made with lime, see Needham, Science and
Guojia shuixia wenhua yichan baohu zhongxin 國家水下文化遺產保護 Civilisation 5.7, 165f, 187. Needham also shows that lime bombs were
中 心, and Guangdongsheng bowuguan 廣 東省 博 物館, “Guangdong already used in the twelfth century for naval combat.
Shantoushi ‘Nan’ao I hao’ Mingdai chenchuan” 廣東汕頭市南澳Ⅰ號明 29
For a discussion of these rings as well as similar cannon see Ibid.,
代沉船, Kaogu 考古 no. 7 [2011]: 39–46). The guns of some of these 331–37.
ships are also discussed in Sun Laichen, “Chinese-Style Gunpowder 30
Mao Yuanyi, Wubeizhi, j. 122, 14a.
Weapons in Southeast Asia. Focusing on Archaeological Evidence.” 31
Lin Qingzhe 林清哲, “Fujian Jinjiang Shenhuwan Mingmo Qingchu
25
Liu Guifang 劉桂芳, “Shandong Liangshanxian faxian de Mingchu guchenchuan yizhi” 福建晉江深滬灣明末清初古沉船遺址, Dongnan
bingchuan” 山東梁山縣發現的明初兵船, Wenwu cankao ciliao 文物參 wenhua 東南文化 no. 3 (2013): 57f.
考資料 no. 2 (1958): 51–52. 32
Ibid., 58f.
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Conclusion
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