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GRAPH PLOTTING

Shirish Pathare

One efficient tool of data analysis is graph plotting. It pictorially represents the
relation between two variables. It also helps us to visualize experimental data at a
glance. If two physical quantities a and b are such that a change made in a results
in a change in b, then a is called independent variable and b is called dependent
variable. The independent variable (or secondary data obtained from it) is plotted
on the x-axis and the corresponding data representing dependent variable on the y-
axis. Often the primary data is combined in such a way that the relation plotted on
the graph is linear. The linearizing of the relation is found to be useful because the
results obtained from the slopes and intercepts are unambiguous.
The equation of straight line is given as; y = m x + c, where m is the slope of the
straight line and c is the Y-intercept of the line.
e.g. in determination of acceleration due to gravity using simple pendulum, the
period of oscillation is given as
l
T = 2π
g
Hence by linearizing the relation,
4π 2
T2 = l
g
Hence by plotting T2 against l with T2 on Y-axis and l on X-axis, g can be
4π 2
determined from the slope (slope = ). Here the Y-intercept c is zero. But Y-
g
intercept in the equation being zero does not qualify for (0, 0) being a data point.
Hence, while plotting a straight line, it should not be forced to pass through origin.
Instead a best fit should be observed which may give a Y-intercept.

Calculating slope of a straight line:

(a) (b)
Fig. 1 Calculating slope of a straight line
y2 − y1 Δy
Slope = =
x2 − x1 Δx

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Hence in Fig.1 (a), the slope will be positive whereas in Fig.1 (b), the slope will be
negative.

Calculating slope of a curve at a point:

In some experiments where the relation between independent and dependent variable
is non-linear, it becomes necessary to calculate the slope of the curve at a given point.

Fig. 2 Fig.3

Fig.4 Fig.5

Fig.6

Steps to follow:
1. Slope is to be found at point A on the curve. (Fig.2)

2. Take a plane mirror and keep it on the curve at point A. Look into the mirror
such that the curve on the paper and its image in the mirror looks continuous.
If it looks continuous then draw a line using the mirror at point A. (Fig.3)

3. The straight line drawn is a normal to the curve at point A. (Fig.4)

4. Now keep the mirror on this normal and look into the mirror such that the
straight line on the paper and its image in the mirror looks continuous. Draw a
line along the mirror. (Fig.5)

5. This straight line drawn is the tangent to the curve at point A. (Fig.6)

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Points to be noted

1. The title of the graph must be written either at the top or bottom of the graph
paper.

2. The scale should be chosen with two guiding principles: 1- The fractions of units
can be easily located on the graph; and 2- the graph occupies as large part of the
graph paper as possible.

3. The scale markings on x and y axes should not be crowded. Write the numbers at
every fifth cm of the axes. Write also the units of the quantity plotted. Use
scientific representation of the numbers i.e. write the number with decimal point
following the first digit and multiply the number by appropriate power of ten. The
scale conversion may also be written at the right or left corner at the top of the
graph paper. [Note: The smallest unit on graph paper (i.e 1 mm division) should
not represent a quantity smaller than the least count of the measured quantity.
Otherwise claim of the accuracy of the graphical results will be more than what is
legitimate.].

4. When the graph is expected to be a straight line, generally 6 to 7 readings are

enough. Time should not be wasted in taking a very large number of observations.
The observations must be covering all available range evenly. The independent
variable (whose value is selected and changed in equal steps) must be plotted on
x-axis and the dependent variable must be on y-axis.

5. If the graph is a curve, first explore the range by covering the entire range of the
independent variable in 6 to 7 steps. Then try to guess where there will be sharp
changes in the curvature of the curve. Take more readings in those regions. For
example, when there is either a maximum or minimum, more readings are needed
to locate the exact point of extremum.

6. If the relation between the dependent and independent variable is unknown there
are various ways to explore the relation. A simple plot represents the relation
graphically. One may plot log (or ln) of either one or both the variables to get a
straight line. For example, intensity of radiation I emanating from a point source
varies as 1/d2 and a plot of lnI versus ln d would give a straight line with slope –2.
If the relation is exponential a straight line graph is obtained if log of the quantity
is plotted against the independent variable.
Sometimes, the expression with the variables may not be explicit. In such cases
the expression can sometimes be ‘linearised’ by defining new variables. The graph
plotted with these calculated values of these variables will then be a straight line.
Important conclusions can often be drawn from straight- line graphs and therefore,
‘linearising’ is a technique often used.

7. While calculating the slope always choose the x-segment of sufficient length and
see that it is represents a round number of the independent variable. The
corresponding interval of the dependent variable is then measured on y-segment
and the slope is calculated. Generally the slope should not have more than two
significant digits. The values of the slope and the intercepts, if there are any,
should be written on the graph paper.

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8. When the independent variable has a very large range, the relationship between
the dependent variable and the independent variable is plotted on a semi-log
graph. The values of the independent variable are plotted at distances proportional
to the log of the values. In this way the long range can be accommodated on the
graph of finite size. Especially, the response of an electrical circuit over the range
of frequencies of the signal is plotted using semi-log graphs. (Example shown in
Appendix I & II).
There are also polar graph papers. When we want to show the magnitude of a
quantity as a function of angle in a plane, polar graphs are used. (Sample Paper is
given in Appendix III).

9. Error bars must be shown for the dependent variable when all the points on the
graph appear to lie on a straight line. This is essential to determine the error in the
slope. An example is shown below to calculate the length of the error bar.

e.g.
In case of a static spring-mass system, one plots a graph of extension (s) against
mass (m). Hence the y-variable is s and x variable is m.
The error in extension will be Δs which will be equal to the least count of the
measuring instrument (i.e. measuring scale/tape). The error in mass will be Δm
which will be equal to the least count of the weighting scale.
In case of a dynamic spring mass system, one plots a graph of T2 against m.
The error in T2 will be 2⋅T⋅ΔT and the error in mass will be Δm which will be
equal to the least count of the weighting scale.

Fig.7 Error Bars

If there is large scatter and the distances of various points from the best fit are
more than the length of the error bar, the exercise becomes useless and need not
be done.

Fig.8 (a) Large scattering of points and hence no need of drawing error bars
(b) No scattering of points and hence error bars are plotted

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For determining the possible error in the slope, draw lines with maximum and
minimum slopes with the condition that they cut all the error bars. If all the points
do not lie on the same straight line, visual judgment is to be used to find the two
lines, which appear to represent the best fit within reasonable limits.
According to arguments based on statistical theory the line with best fit should
pass through the point called centre of graph and which has co-ordinates ( y, x )
{average values}. So the two lines may be drawn to pass through ‘the centre of
graph’.

Fig.9 Error in slope for points having considerable scattering

Calculate the slopes of these two lines, S1 and S2.

Δslope S1 ~ S 2
=
slope S1 + S 2
S1 + S 2
For the given data distribution, the slope will be equal to .
2
The error in the value of a point read from graph can never be less than the error
in the points plotted in the neighborhood.

Error in the intercept:

To calculate the error in the intercept, consider the graph shown above. You get
two intercepts y1 and y2 due to two lines. Hence the error in the intercept will be
y ~ y1
Δy = 2
2
Similar treatment may be adopted for the calculation of error in X-intercept.

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Error in reading a value of dependent (independent) variable corresponding to

some specific value of independent (dependent) variable

The chosen specific value is supposed to have no error. But the corresponding value
of the other variable will have an error which is equal to the least count of the graph
i.e. value corresponding to 1 mm of scale or more. If the uncertainty of the points for
that variable in the neighborhood of the point is larger, then the uncertainty in the
value read from the graph also should have the same order of uncertainty.

For example, from the graph of T2 vs l for simple pendulum, one wants to know the
value of T2 corresponding to a value of l = l0. The error in T2 is 2T⋅ΔT and may be
much larger than the value corresponding to 1 mm of scale. In this case the value of
T2 should have uncertainty ±2T⋅ΔT equal to that of neighboring points.

Fig.10

Eliminating systematic errors using graphs

When the result is some ratio of two quantities whose mutual relationship is linear,
the systematic errors in the variables will affect their ratios. But when the value of the
ratio is obtained from the graph the systematic errors will get eliminated provided
both the quantities appear in first power on the linear graph. When the quantity has
some other power, the systematic error also changes with the power. For example, in
the graph of T2 vs l, the systematic error in T would result in error 2T⋅ΔT in T2 and
though ΔT may be same for all values of T, 2T⋅ΔT will go on increasing. As a result
the slope will increase or decrease. But if a graph of T vs l is plotted, the systematic
error in T can be eliminated, though the systematic error in l becomes Δl 2 . Here the
systematic error decreases with increase in l. With proper judgment, appropriate
choice of variables should be made to eliminate the systematic errors.

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APPENDIX I

Semilog Graph Paper

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APPENDIX II

Semilog Graph Plotting

LCR Series Resonance

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APPENDIX III

Polar Graph Paper

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