Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47

www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

Determination of critical load for flange buckling in concentrically loaded

pultruded columns
J.T. Mottram*
Division of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, School of Engineering, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, UK
Received 18 June 2002; revised 5 February 2003; accepted 15 August 2003

Abstract
Physical testing and theoretical methods to determine the critical local flange buckling load in concentric pultruded columns are presented.
Knowledge of this critical load for wide flange profiles is required in a new universal column design procedure. Because there are too few test
results for other profile sizes only the standard 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm (8 £ 8 £ 3/8 in.) profile is considered. Reasons are given to explain
why the 14 data points give buckling loads between 307 and 406 kN. To obtain a test result corresponding to the true physical situation the
minimum column length should be four half-wavelengths of the local instability. The true critical load is about 360 kN. Presented are nine
closed form equations that can be used to predict the critical load for the local instability. To use these equations effectively, it is shown that
the elastic constants of the flange material must be those of the profile being analysed. Numerical methods, and their closed form equations,
that include the rotational stiffness at the web– flange connection are shown to be reasonably accurate. However, without direct access to the
software they are difficult to apply, and these equations are therefore unsuitable for application in the preparation of universal design
guidance. A simpler equation that predicts the buckling load to within 4% of 360 kN is therefore recommended.
q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: B. Buckling; E. Pultrusion; C. Analytical modelling

1. Introduction In column studies, the ends of the concentric loaded WF

This paper concerns studies on the buckling failure of
pultruded Wide Flange (WF) profiles under concentric
compressive loading [1 –6] and the determination of the
critical local flange buckling load. Pultrusion is an
economical process that manufactures prismatic profiles
of glass reinforced plastic [7,8]. Being lightweight and
resistant to corrosion, these structural profiles are
increasingly used when these advantages are required.
Standard shapes mimic those of steel sections and it is
natural that construction follows what is seen in steel-
work, with WF profiles chosen for column members.
They are characterised by having the same dimension
of breadth ð2bf Þ and depth ðDÞ: They also have
constant flange and web wall thicknesses (i.e. tf ¼ tw ).
The elastic response of the material can be assumed to
be linear with the material compressive strength
. 210 MPa [7,8].
* Tel.: þ44-24-765-22528; fax: þ44-24-764-18922.
E-mail address: jtm@eng.warwick.ac.uk (J.T. Mottram).
1359-8368/$ - see front matter q 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compositesb.2003.08.006
profiles are often supported about their minor axis and fixed
about the major axis. If long (or slender) the mode of failure
will be minor axis Euler buckling, with an effective length
factor ðkÞ of one. As the column length reduces a transition
length will be reached [5,9], at which the concentric load for
instability is the same for the two distinct buckling modes of
Euler and local flange. Below the transition length, the
column is short enough for the local instability to occur
(Fig. 1), with PL its critical buckling load. The column is
now said to be short (or squat). In describing this ideal
column response it is assumed that imperfections can be
neglected. However, when actual pultruded columns are
tested, the presence of imperfections leads to mode
interaction between these two distinct buckling modes and
the phenomena manifest itself as a reduced buckling load
for concentric column lengths either side of the transition
length [5,9,10].
Fig. 1 shows local flange buckling. Taken from Ref. [5],
Fig. 1(a) shows the buckling wave deformation of the flange
of a 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm (8 £ 8 £ 3/8 in.) WF column. In
Fig. 1(b), the left-hand sketch shows a side view of
36 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47

Nomenclature load when supported longer edge is simply

supported [25]
a half-wavelength
ðNL Þ1cr critical stress resultant for local flange buckling
bf flange outstand width
load when supported longer edge is clamped [25]
c mode interaction curve fitting parameter
Pc column buckling load
k column effective length factor
PE critical Euler buckling load without shear defor-
kf flange buckling coefficient [17]
mation
ki normalised buckling load interaction factor [9]
PEsh critical Euler buckling load with shear defor-
kiso buckling coefficient that depends on edge
mation
restraint condition and the isotropic plate pro-
PL critical local flange buckling load
portions
ðPL Þ1cr critical local flange buckling load when supported
kYuan buckling coefficient that depends on edge
longer edge is simply supported [25]
restraint conditions [8]
ðPL Þ0cr critical local flange buckling load when supported
p factor depending on z [25,29]
longer edge is clamped [25]
q factor depending on z [25,29]
R normalised coefficient of rotational restraint [24]
tf thickness of flange
S restraining moment
tw thickness of web
a factor for restraint at web – flange connection [4]
A cross-sectional area
f coefficient to account for the orthotropic material
As shear area
[8]
D depth of profile
l normalised column slenderness
DT (or D22 ) the plate bending stiffness in transverse
n Poisson’s ratio
direction
nLT major Poisson’s ratio
E Young’s modulus
nTL minor Poisson’s ratio
EL longitudinal Young’s modulus
scr;L critical stress for local flange buckling
ET transverse Young’s modulus
scr;iso;L critical stress for local flange buckling of an
I second moment of area
isotropic plate.
G shear modulus
scr;ortho;L critical stress for local flange buckling of a
GLT in-plane shear modulus
specially orthotropic plate
L column length or length of plate
scr;phy;L critical stress for local flange bucking from
ðNL Þcr critical stress resultant for local flange buckling
physical testing.
[25]
z coefficient of restraint ð¼ 1=RÞ [25]
ðNL Þ0cr critical stress resultant for local flange buckling

a concentric column of overall length L having four half-

wavelengths, each of length a: The right-hand sketch in
Fig. 1(b) is the end view showing a mode shape that is
antisymmetric about the minor axis of the profile.
Theoretically, the onset of this distinct local instability
will occur when the uniform stress over the cross-sectional
area A is the critical value, given by scr;L : The critical load
PL is, therefore, given by Ascr;L : In this paper loads and
stresses are compressive.

1.1. Design procedure and available experimental results

Introduced next is a new universal column design

procedure that requires knowledge of PL : Barbero and
DeVivo [9] developed the procedure to give the column
buckling load ðPc Þ for concentric WF columns (ends are
simple for minor-axis bending). It is has the potential
to be used routinely and it could be considered when
design manuals for pultruded structurals are next revised.
Taken from Lane and Mottram [10], Fig. 2 presents, Fig. 1. Local flange buckling in WF profiles (a) from experiment [5] and (b)
in a convenient normalised form, column buckling schematic representation.
 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47 37

Fig. 2. Column buckling loads of WF profiles subject to concentric loading (from Ref. [10]).

failure loads from WF column tests. Data A minimum critical load, given by the horizontal dashed
points not labelled Warwick (Lane) have been directly line in Fig. 2 can define this instability. In constructing the
reproduced from the equivalent plot in Barbero and figure, the PL values used to normalise the test data points
DeVivo [9]. were taken from the original source references. In practice,
PL is used in the figure to calculate the normalised terms PL is not constant, as it depends on the column length and
giving column load Pc and column slenderness l: The number of half-wavelengths [17]. In design the minimum
theoretical behaviour of a perfect concentrically loaded value is chosen, as it remains virtually unchanged with the
column is for failure either by pure global Euler buckling number of half-wavelengths.
(with a single half-wavelength overall mode shape) at Following Barbero and DeVivo [9], the column buckling
critical load PE ; (or PEsh if shear deformation is involved load in Fig. 2 is given by
[3]), or by pure local flange buckling at critical load PL ; with
P c ¼ k i PL ; ð1Þ
a much shorter half-wavelength. The normalised theoretical
load curves for these two distinct modes are given in Fig. 2 where PL is to be determined experimentally or numeri-
by the dashed lines, and their intersection marks the cally. To obtain an allowable load for column member
transition length (where l ¼ 1). For higher slendernesses, design the buckling load ðPc Þ will be factored by an
failure of an imperfection-free column is by Euler buckling appropriate safety index. Strongwell [7] and Creative
and its critical load is given by PE ¼ p2 EI=kL2 ; with k ¼ 1 Pultrusions [8] have chosen to use a factor of safety of
for simple end supports. Here EI is the flexural rigidity three based on column design using the two distinct
about the axis of instability. The low shear modulus of instabilities (i.e. no mode interaction).
pultruded profiles [7,8] suggests that the Euler formula The interaction factor, ki ; in Eq. (1) is given by
should be modified to take account of shearing. For simple
 v ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u0
 12 ffi
end conditions this gives 1 u 1
1þ 2 u 1þ 2
uB l C
ki ¼
l
2u B C 2 1 ; ð2Þ
PE 2c t @ 2c A cl2
PEsh ¼ ;
P
1þ E
As G where column slenderness l is defined by
rffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffi
where As G is the shear rigidity about the axis of buckling. kL PL PL
Zureick and Scott [3] recommend this formula for ‘slender’ l¼ or l¼ ; ð3Þ
p EI PE
column design. For a column length such that l ¼ 1; the
shear correction reduces the Euler buckling ðk ¼ 1Þ load by with k ¼ 1 in Fig. 2. The curve fitting parameter is constant
not more than 5%. It was deemed acceptable by Barbero and c; which accounts for the degree of mode interaction.
DeVivo [9] to neglect the presence of shear in their design Reported values of c are 0.84 [15] and 0.65 [9]; the latter,
procedure. and lower, c was determined after more column test results
For column lengths giving l , 1; the mode of failure were available. Its function is to provide a buckling load
will be the local flange buckling shown in Fig. 1. curve having all experimental buckling loads above it. In
38 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47
Fig. 2, the solid curve is for c ¼ 0:65 in Eq. (2). At l ¼ 1;
Eq. (1) gives 0:63PL as the column buckling load (it is also
0:63PE ). This degree of mode interaction is for the data
without the points from Lane [5]. However, inclusion of
these new points does not change c ( ¼ 0.65) as his buckling
loads are all higher. The determination of the curve fitting
parameter c depends on a number of factors, of which PL is a
very important one. PL must be known either by testing or
from theory if we are to use Barbero and DeVivo’s design
procedure [9] with confidence.
Plotted in Fig. 2 are 62 test data points, from three
different University research laboratories. These test
points concern a number of different WF profiles. Results
from West Virginia University are from Refs. [2,11,12],
while those from Georgia Institute of Technology are
given by Zureick and Scott [3]. Results from Warwick
University are from Brown et al. [6,13], and Lane [5,10].
The WF profiles tested were from Strongwell [7] and
Creative Pultrusions [8,14] product ranges. A majority of
the ‘concentric loading’ points in Fig. 2 fall well below
the buckling load given by the distinct local and Euler
curves. These column loads were assumed by Barbero
and DeVivo [9] to have been reduced by mode
interaction. The greatest reduction occurs at column
lengths near the transition length because mode inter-
action is now at its most influential. Barbero and DeVivo
assumed that this interaction was due solely to geometric
imperfections (i.e. an assumed out-of-straightness) pos-
sessed by the profiles. By analysing the few load-lateral
deflection plots in Ref. [9] (and Ref. [15]) the author
finds that there was an eccentric loading (which was not
reported and cannot be readily quantified), in these West
Virginia University column tests. The existence of other
sources of imperfection could have further reduced the
measured Pc because mode interaction can be higher.
The results from such ‘non-concentric’ column tests were
used in the construction of Fig. 2. This observation
provides one reason why a number of the buckling loads
in the figure might be much lower than they would had
been had the loading been truly concentric. Another
reason might be the use of a PL value not corresponding
to the true physical situation.
The new test results from Lane [5,10] (given by £ in
Fig. 2) using standard 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm columns does
support the author’s finding of a load eccentricity in the
West Virginia University column testing, as they do not
show a significant reduction in buckling load for l close to
1. Considerable care and effort was taken by Lane [5] in his
tests to minimise and quantify all sources of imperfection.
This paper will not discuss this important issue further, as its
aim is to look at the determination of PL itself. To find out
how the various imperfection sources can affect column
response in ‘concentric’ tests the reader is directed to
Barbero and DeVivo [9], Lane and Mottram [10] and
Mottram [16].
1.2. Notation for elastic constants
It is generally assumed that pultruded material is
specially orthotropic. General texts presenting closed form
equations for buckling loads, such as Refs. [19, 20], use
subscript notation to the elastic constants of an orthotropic
plate based on a local Cartesian co-ordinate system.
Considering a plate element under uniform compression,
the x-direction is aligned to the applied load (Fig. 1). The y-
direction is in the plate’s plane and the z-direction is normal
to this plane. It is, however, more convenient when defining
the notation to elastic constants for pultruded material to use
subscript ‘L’ for the Longitudinal (pultrusion) x-direction,
and subscript ‘T’ for the Transverse y-direction. Elastic
constants for a pultruded plate are now EL for the
Longitudinal Young’s modulus, ET for the Transverse
Young’s modulus, GLT for the in-plane shear modulus, and
nLT and nTL ð¼ nLT ðET =EL ÞÞ for the major and minor
Poisson’s ratios, respectively.
1.3. Outline of the paper
Section 1.1 describes a new proposed design procedure
for concentric WF columns. It requires knowledge of PL and
it has been developed to allow for the mode interaction
found via testing. Fig. 2 introduces the available column
experimental data used by Barbero and DeVivo [9] to show
what their procedure provides to the structural designer. In
its development, the authors did not validate the values of
PL used to construct Fig. 2. Because of its importance to
column design in general, this paper deals with the
determination of PL by ways of physical testing and theory.
The main objectives of the work presented are:
1. to show that closer attention needs to be given to the real
boundary conditions when determining PL by testing.
2. to show that different WF profiles have different elastic
constants (due to variations in fibre architecture) which
need to be known if theory is to predict PL accurately.
3. to present the nine closed form equations for PL ; which
appear in the design manuals and journal publications
associated with pultruded WF columns.
4. to establish which one of these nine equations could
be made suitable for preparing design guidance of
universal recognition.
To accomplish these objectives, Section 2 covers the
determination of PL by physical testing and Section 3
presents the closed form equations determined using a
number of theoretical methods. A preliminary assessment
on the predictive performance of the equations is given in
Section 4, together with the findings and conclusions.
 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47 39

2. Critical local flange buckling load: from physical
testing
Barbero and DeVivo [9] recommend that ‘PL be
determined by short column testing’ ðl , 1Þ; as described
in Tomblin and Barbero [2]. The off-the-shelf WF profile of
size 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm has, at 10.7, a high flange
outstand-to-thickness ratio bf =tf : It is, therefore, susceptible
to local flange buckling. Owing to the small number of
physical test results for a range of lengths with other WF
profiles, consideration is now only given to the profile of
size 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm. Table 1 presents PL values from
14 column tests at lengths ranging from 495 (very short) to
3800 mm (long). Creative Pultrusions supplied the standard
profiles tested by Tomblin [2], Brown [6,13] and Lane [5,
10], while the standard profiles tested by Yoon [1] and
Cosenza et al. [21] were from Strongwell. The range in
buckling loads is from 307 to 406 kN. As a stress, scr;phy;L is
from 54.6 to 72.7 N/mm2, with the maximum , 0.30 of the
material longitudinal compressive strength (. 210 MPa).
One reason for the high variation is the different methods
used to interpret the test results for the onset of buckling. It
is possible that loads reported are for instability in the post-
buckling region since the local waves are now visible
(Fig. 1(a)). Such loads can be expected to be higher than
when buckling initiated. Other reasons for the variation in
test loads are given in what follows.
Tomblin, Yoon and Cosenza axially compressed col-
umns (rows 6– 14 in Table 1) in a universal testing machine
with the parallel ends of a profile bearing against the rigid
end plates of the machine. Yoon [1] and Tomblin [2] chose
lengths which were integer multiples of the half-wavelength
ðaÞ; with a determined by numerical methods. The columns
tested by Brown [6,13] and Lane [5,10] had simple end
supports about their minor axis. Brown’s single length of
3300 mm is near the transition length (i.e. l ¼ 1). The
presence of imperfections ensured that his two columns
experienced global flexural deflection prior to the onset of
the local instability [6], and so local buckling was initiated
at a reduced axial load (see rows 4 and 5 in Table 1). To
minimise mode interaction, the mid-length lateral deflection
was fully restrained in the PL tests by Lane [5] (Euler being
the theoretical mode of failure for lengths greater than
3100 mm). The three higher PL s (rows 1– 3 in Table 1) were
a consequence of the secondary compressive stresses from
the flexure being minimised by a restraint preventing the
web from lateral displacement.
Buckling loads in Table 1 are dependent on the column
length, the web – flange edge restraint, the number of half-
wavelengths, flange elastic constants (EL ; ET ; GLT and nLT )
(Table 2), and imperfections. Given that the influence of
imperfections was small on the buckling loads, it still
remains difficult to compare the 14 results without precise
knowledge of each column’s half-wavelength distance ðaÞ
and the elastic constants. Table 1 gives the half-wavelength
distances as reported. Tomblin and Barbero [2] tested
columns at lengths corresponding to 2, 3 and 4 half-
wavelengths (with a numerically derived a ¼ 298 mm).
Yoon [1] tested at column lengths corresponding to 5, 6, 7
and 8 half-wavelengths (with a numerically derived
a ¼ 305 mm). Only Lane [5] measured the half-wave-
lengths after a column had buckled (in the post-buckling
region). His mean a was 365 mm when the total column
length was 3800 mm ðk ¼ 0:5Þ:

Table 1
Experimental critical loads for local flange buckling of the 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm wide flange profile

Source Test no. Pultruder Length, L (mm) PL (kN) a (mm) scr;phy;L (N/mm2)

Lane [5,10] Cra 3100b,c 369 313 65.5

Lane [5,10] Cr 3100b,c 350 – 62.2
Lane [5,10] Cr 3800b,c 362 365 64.3
Brown et al. [6,13] 7 Cr 3300b 300 500 53.3
Brown et al. [6,13] 8 Cr 3300b 310 500 55.1
Cosenza et al. [21] Strd 500 373e – 66.2e
Tomblin and Barbero [2] II Cr 495 406 298f 72.7
Tomblin and Barbero [2] III Cr 737 397 298f 70.5
Tomblin and Barbero [2] IV Cr 1003 329 298f 58.5
Yoon [1] V5g Str 1524 345 305g 61.4
Yoon [1] P5h Str 1524 307 305h 54.6
Yoon [1] P6 Str 1829 354 305 62.3
Yoon [1] P7 Str 2134 330 305 58.7
Yoon [1] P8 Str 2438 326 305 58.0
a
Creative Pultrusions standard profiles.
b
300 mm for steel end fixtures. Their presence can be ignored.
c
Mid-length deflection fully restrained to promote local mode.
d
Strongwell standard profiles.
e
Average of three tests.
f
Half-wavelength length of 298 mm determined theoretically, see Ref. [27].
g
Vinylester matrix, five half-wavelengths of 305 mm determined theoretically [1].
h
Polyester matrix, five half-wavelengths of 305 mm determined theoretically [1].
40 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47

Table 2
Elastic constants for 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm wide flange profiles

Source EL (kN/mm2) ET (kN/mm2) GLT (kN/mm2) nLT Remarks

Design manuals
Strongwell [7] 17.2 5.5 2.9a 0.33 EXTRENw Series 500/525 standard
Creative Pultrusions [14] 17.5 5.6 –b 0.35 PULTREXw Series 1500/1525 standard
Creative Pultrusions [8,18] 29.1 13.3 3.5a 0.35 PULTREXw Series 1500/1525 SuperStructurals
EUROCOMP DC [26] 17.2 5.5 2.9a 0.33 From Strongwell [7]
PULTEXw Series 1500/1525 standard
Brown et al. [6,13] 23.8c Column test (2.4% C.O.V.)
Lane [5,10] 24.3c 10.0 3.7 0.34 Resin burn-off and micromechanical models
Bank and Yin [24] 24.0 10.0 3.7 0.33 Coupon tests
Tomblin and Barbero [2] 21.1 9.1 3.1 0.39 Coupon tests
EXTRENw Series 500/525 standard
Yoon [1] 18.1 10.5 4.3 0.33 Coupon tests
Cosenza et al. [21] 22.0 7.5 2.4 0.3 Coupon tests
PULTEXw Series 1500/1525 SuperStructural
Barbero and DeVivo [9] 28.5 13.9 4.3 0.35 Fibre architecture and micromechanical models
a
Determined from flexural tests on full section of WF profile [7].
b
Shear modulus determined assuming material to be isotropic using relationship G ¼ E=2ð1 þ nÞ; with Poisson’s ratio 0.31.
c
Flange material only.

Table 2 reports elastic constants from the pultruders’ Using the results in Table 1 it is seen that the minimum
design manuals and by the researchers conducting the column length in testing ought to be four half-wavelengths.
column tests in Table 1. The values from the design manuals Tomblin’s [2] results (rows 7 –9) in Table 1 help to support
[7,8,14] are representative of the whole product range and such a minimum length, since PL is seen to be significantly
are minimum values from in-house coupon testing. These higher (by more than 16%) when the number of half-
properties are lower than when they are measured by the wavelengths is below four (cf. tests II and IV). It is found
column researchers. It is seen in Table 2 that there can be a that Yoon’s mean PL of 329 kN, from his four tests at 5, 6, 7
significant difference in a stiffness measurement between and 8 half-wavelengths in Table 1, is the same as Tomblin’s
those sources giving elastic constants for the same profile. load when the length is four half-wavelengths. To obtain the
There is an indication on comparing the constants for minimum PL it is desirable for the column length to be an
Creative Pultrusions (rows 5– 8 in Table 2) and Strongwell exact multiple of the natural half-wavelength, which of
(rows 9 and 10) standard profiles that they are not the same. course, is not known a priori. Test results that do not report
Assessing the results in Tables 1 and 2 provides us with the measured half-wavelength are therefore failing to give
new information, and this will now be used to discuss the essential information regarding measurement of PL :
construction of the mode interaction buckling curve in A counter argument to requiring tests at lengths of four or
Fig. 2. Barbero and DeVivo [9] say that “PL can be easily higher half-wavelengths is the increasingly likelihood that
determined by short column testing”. Based on the load inherent profile imperfections reduce the buckling load.
results in Table 1, it is observed that for this to be true Such a condition is to be found in practice and it is for longer
attention must be given to the test boundary conditions.
When a testing machine is used to compress a ‘short
column’ there will be transverse end restraints from friction
phenomena (similar to that found when crushing concrete
cubes or cylinders). Such restraints must oppose the flange
buckle from developing the Simple Supported (SS)
boundary condition at the node-lines (Figs. 1 and 3),
which is often assumed in the analytical approaches to
formulate equations giving the minimum critical buckling
load [19]. At very ‘short’ lengths, the column test will be
over-constrained and the measured critical load is likely to
be on the high side. When column length is increased the
end restraint condition will have much less significance as
the SS nodal condition can prevail for internal buckling
waves. This was the situation in the PL tests by Lane [5] and Fig. 3. Local buckling of a rectangular plate with one longer side free and
Yoon [1]. the other longer side simply supported or having rotational restraint.
 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47
columns that the universal column design procedure is to be
used. Taking account of the factors, the author proposes that
testing should not be on short columns (i.e. L=a , 4)
because measured buckling loads are likely to be less safe.
In Section 4, nine closed form equations for PL will be
compared with the physical test results from Lane [5,10] on
the standard profile from Creative Pultrusions. His test data
is the only set available, where all properties have been
characterised and there is evidence given herein to indicate
that his measured buckling load should be close to the true
critical load. Nominal geometric properties for the
203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm profile are given by A ¼ 5630 mm2 ;
D ¼ 203:2 mm; bf ¼ 101:6 mm; and tf ¼ 9:53 mm:
The flange outstand is assumed to be half the flange
width (a less conservative bf would be given by
101:6 2 ðtw =2Þ ¼ 96:8 mm). Taken from Tables 1 and 2,
the other property data needed are: PL ¼ 360 kN; a ¼ 365
mm (i.e. a=bf ¼ 3:6), EL ¼ 24 GPa; ET ¼ 10 GPa; GLT ¼
3:0 or 4.0 GPa, and nLT ¼ 0:3: ET and GLT were not
measured by Lane [5]. Values for these elastic constants
have been chosen after consideration of what is known. It is
assumed that the compression/tension EL and ET are the
same as the equivalent flexural moduli associated with the
flexural mode of instability. The lower GLT is that given in
the company design manuals, while the value 33% higher is
that obtained by considering shear modulus data in Table 2
and from resin burn-off with micromechanical modelling
and coupon testing [1,5,22]. The author believes the higher
shear modulus of 4 GPa is relevant to flange material in the
203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm standard profile from Creative Pul-
trusions.
3. Critical local flange buckling load: from theory
When a thin plate (imperfection-free) is loaded in
compression within its own plane, it is subject to sudden
bifurcation instability, or lateral deflection at a stress ðscr;L Þ
that depends on its stiffnesses (via elastic constants), edge
lengths and edge restraints [19]. An introduction to
bifurcation of plates and to the theoretical methods used
to formulate equations for the critical loads is given by
Bulson [19].
Fig. 3 shows the local buckling mode for the flange of a
WF profile with half-wavelength a: The buckling stress scr;L
is substantially below the compressive strength of the
material (. 210 MPa, as given in Refs. [7,8]). While this
initial buckling causes rippling in the plate (see flanges in
Fig. 1(a)), it does not immediately result in catastrophic
failure [23]. To use the column design procedure by Barbero
and DeVivo [9], the value of PL must be known since it
appears in Eqs. (1) – (3). An alternative to physical testing is
to determine the critical stress using closed form equations,
which can be formulated from a number of theoretical
approaches. To calculate PL ; it is assumed that the uniform
41
compressive buckling stress acts over the cross-sectional
area A (i.e. PL ¼ Ascr;L ).
When presenting these equations, the notation has been
changed from that used in the original sources to make it
consistent in the paper. Referring to the references cited, it is
found that, for example k; a; bf ; etc., have more than a single
definition. The equations given in Sections 3.1 –3.3 are
those to be found in the design manuals and journal
publications associated with pultruded WF columns. In
what follows scr;L can be scr;iso;L or scr;ortho;L depending on
whether the plate material is isotropic or specially
orthotropic.
3.1. Theory of elasticity
Presented first are the equations given by the American
Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) [20] for isotropic and
specially orthotropic rectangular plates with various edge
restraints. It is appropriate to present the equation for
isotropic material since, together with its isotropic buckling
coefficient expressions, it provides the basis for an equation
applicable to specially orthotropic plates.
Consider an isotropic flange with longer sides of length L
in the x-direction. The general equation for the compressive
critical buckling stress is

2
p2 E tf
scr;iso;L ¼ kiso 2
: ð4Þ
12ð1 2 n Þ bf
kiso is the isotropic buckling coefficient that depends on the
edge restraint conditions, plate proportions (given by L=bf ),
isotropic elastic constants, and compressive stress distri-
bution over the plate width. For the buckling load PL in
concentric WF columns this stress distribution is uniform.
kiso has minimum values for those L=bf ratios that result in
buckling of the plate in an integral number of half-
wavelengths in the x-direction (as shown in Figs. 1(b) and
Fig. 3).
The plate model in Fig. 3 concerns the situation where
L ¼ a; the two shorter sides are Simply Supported (SS) and
one of the longer sides is free. The other longer side
corresponds to the connection between the flange and web
and, therefore, possesses a rotational stiffness [24]. When
calculating scr;iso;L by Eq. (4), the supported longer edge
conditions of SS and CLamped (CL) give ‘minimum’ kiso
values of 0.45 and 1.33, respectively. These values of kiso
give the lower (SS) and upper (CL) bounds. For the SS
situation, a more accurate coefficient is given by

2
bf
kiso ¼ 0:45 þ :
a
On taking ða=bf Þ ¼ 3:6 (from Table 1), the SS edge
condition gives kiso ¼ 0:53; i.e. an 18% increase on its
minimum value of 0.45. Eq. (4) cannot be used to predict PL
since it is valid only for isotropic material.
42 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47

Equation regards to predicting PL its application must be questioned

"
2 #
2
p2 EL bf tf
scr;ortho;L ¼ þGLT
12ð1 2 nLT nTL Þ a bf
also taken from Ref. [20], gives the approximate critical
buckling stress when the plate material is specially
orthotropic and the supported longer edge is SS (the other
three edge boundary conditions are as above). This equation
can be used to predict PL when the material is pultruded.
If the half-wavelength is very large, bf =a is very small,
and Eq. (5) simplifies to

2
t
scr;ortho;L ¼ GLT f : ð6Þ
bf
Eq. (6) predicts the lowest critical buckling stress (and PL )
of the nine closed form equations presented herein.
Taking EL ¼ 24 GPa; GLT ¼ 3:0 – 4:0 GPa; nLT ¼ 0:33
and nTL ¼ 0:14 in Eq. (5), it is found that a=bf must be
between 7.2 and 6.7 for the first term to be 1/10th of the
second term. Since the measured half-wavelengths in
Table 1 correspond to a=bf ratios between 3 and 4, it is
seen that Eq. (6) would very conservatively predict PL for
the 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm standard profile.
Eqs. (4)– (6) take no account of shear deformation.
Buckling relations become very complex when transverse
shear is not neglected. It has been found that shear
deformation will be significant if ðEL tf =GLT bf Þ . 2: Since
this ratio is less than one for WF profiles [7,8], it is
acceptable to neglect the small reduction to scr;ortho;L due to
shear deformation.
ASCE manual No. 63 [20] provides a critical stress
equation for specially orthotropic plates when the in-plane
shear modulus ðGLT Þ is unavailable. An estimate of the
effect of the differing stiffnesses in the L and T directions
(Table 2) on the buckling stress can be obtained by
modifying the isotropic Eq. (4). The procedure given in
Ref. [20] is:
1. Use ET in Eq. (4) to determine scr;iso;L : pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2. Modify buckling stress using scr;ortho;L ¼ scr;iso;L EL =ET :
Using this procedure the new estimate for the critical
stress is given by
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

p2 EL ET tf 2
scr;ortho;L ¼ kiso ; ð7aÞ
12ð1 2 n2 Þ bf
or, on rearranging
sffiffiffiffiffi

2
ET p2 EL tf
scr;ortho;L ¼ kiso : ð7bÞ
EL 12ð1 2 n2 Þ bf
Poisson’s ratio is left undefined; n2 can be assumed to be
nLT nTL : Forms of Eq. (7) will appear later in the paper.
The theory of elastic Eqs. (4) and (7) include kiso ; which
is the theoretical buckling coefficient that depends on edge
restraint conditions and isotropic plate properties. With
because it does not closely approximate the true physical
; ð5Þ situation. Searching the literature no expressions for a
buckling coefficient to replace kiso can be found, which are
capable of approximating the local instability of the
specially orthotropic material of WF concentric columns.
It is for this reason that the coefficient is kiso when the two
equations are used in Section 4 to predict the critical local
flange buckling load for the 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm standard
profile.
3.2. Design manuals
Barbero and DeVivo [9] state that “PL values should be
reported by industry in their design guides”. In Section 10 of
its design manual, Strongwell [7] gives Eq. (C-2), which is
0:5EL A
PL ¼
 : ð8Þ
2bf 1:5
tf
For a standard 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm profile, this equation
predicts PL ¼ 686 kN (with EL ¼ 24 GPa). This is 1.8
times higher than the maximum buckling load (i.e.
406 kN) from the 14 test results reported in Table 1.
Strongwell derived the final form of the semi-empirical
equation from curve fitting to ‘in-house’ test data. An
explanation for why Eq. (8) predicts a very high, and
unrealistic, PL cannot be made until Strongwell release
their test data for independent assessment. To calculate
the allowable load for tabulation, the value for PL using
Eq. (8) is divided by a safety factor of three. Thus, the
short column allowable load would be 229 kN; being
about 63% of the 360 kN test load. The overall factor of
safety is closer to 1.6, i.e. just over half that implied in the
Strongwell design manual [7].
Creative Pultrusions Inc. have released three volumes of
their design manual and Volumes 1 and 2 had revised
editions. Chapter 5, ‘Load Tables for Compression
Members’ in Vol. 2, Rev. 2 [18] and Vol. 3, Rev. 1 [8] is
the same. To determine the critical stress of short Pultexw
WF columns R. Yuan (University of Texas), used ‘in-house’
test data to establish the semi-empirical design equation

2
p 2 EL tf
scr;ortho;L ¼ kYuan F : ð9Þ
12ð1 2 n2 Þ bf
Coefficient F is taken to be 0.8 (to account for the
orthotropic material), the buckling coefficient kYuan is
recommended to be 0.5 for the non-stiffened flanges (i.e.
SS restraint for the supported longer edge) of WF profiles
and n2 is taken to be n2LT : It is likely thatpEq. (9) is based on
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Eq. (7b), with FkYuan replacing kiso ET =EL following
parameter fitting to test data. For the standard
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm profile kiso ET =EL ¼ 0:35; and this
is 14% lower than FkYuan ¼ 0:4: Thus PL calculated by
Eq. (9) will be higher than by Eq. (7).
 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47
To determine allowable compressive stresses and loads,
Creative Pultrusions [8,18] use a factor of safety of three
(same as Strongwell [7]), with EL ¼ 21 GPa and n ¼ 0:36:
The unfactored allowable PL for a 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm
profile is 393 kN. Dividing by three gives Creative
Pultrusions an acceptable overall factor on safety of about
2.5 (with EL ¼ 21 GPa). Page 32 in Chapter 5 of Ref. [8]
gives an allowable load table for the SuperStructural
203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm profile subject to concentric com-
pression. Long columns buckling loads are determined
using the Euler equation with the same factor of safety. The
transition length is at 2600 mm, about 500 mm below that
determined by Lane [5,10] for the standard profile.
In Vol. 2, Rev. 2 [18], Chapter 4 ‘Load Tables for
Flexural Members and Connections’ gives Eq. (5) to
determine the critical stress for local buckling failure in
beam members. This guidance is changed in Vol. 3, Rev. 1
[8] and the new equation stems from the numerical
simulation work of Qiao [25] (Eq. (10) in Section 3.3).
Although Eq. (10) has only been presented by Creative
Pultrusion for the design of local buckling under flexure, it
could equally be used in column design, which justifies its
inclusion in this paper.
In 1996, the EUROCOMP Design Code (EDC) was
published to provide an independent practical design code
for glass reinforced composites structures [26]. Part 1,
Section 4.4, is for ‘Members in Compression’ and Eq. (4.10)
in EDC, which herein is Eq. (5), is to be used to determine
scr;ortho;L for ‘an element that can be defined as a long
rectangular plate with one of the longer edges pinned and
the other free’. The EDC writers directly lifted Eq. (5) from
Ref. [20].
Critical load Eqs. (8) and (9) are independent of the in-
plane shear modulus ðGLT Þ: There is a good argument for
this approach despite the recognition that the shear modulus
is important in instability phenomena. If buckling con-
ditions are appropriate, Eq. (5) simplifies to Eq. (6), the
latter being dependent only on elastic constant GLT :
Relatively small changes in GLT are known to have a
greater effect on the critical load than similar small changes
in EL and ET [17]. Substituting Lane’s profile properties in
Eq. (5) we find PL ¼ 227 kN with GLT ¼ 3 GPa and 277 kN
with GLT ¼ 4:0 GPa: These theoretical buckling loads are
63 and 86% of 360 kN from Lane’s tests. The second term
in Eq. (5) contributes 65% ðGLT ¼ 3:0 GPaÞ; or 72%
ðGLT ¼ 4:0 GPaÞ; to the theoretical load, and its dominance
increases as GLT increases.
Shear modulus is difficult to determine with accuracy. No
test standard is available for thick pultruded material and the
shear stress shear vs strain curve is non-linear. Methods for
the reliable measurement of shear moduli of pultruded
material are the subject of current research [22]. In the
references used to compile Tables 1 and 2 the quoted
variation in GLT is too high (i.e. 2.6– 4.5 GPa) not to
question the validity of this property data. This observation
highlights one difficulty faced when assessing the suitability
43
of theory. To predict PL it would therefore be preferable to
adopt a closed form equation, which does not require GLT
and, possibly, also not a=bf : This preference would eliminate
Eqs. (5) and (6) from our consideration.
It is relevant, at this stage in our discussion, to explain
why there are two 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm profiles with
different proportions of unidirectional reinforcement (see
elastic constants in Table 2). The Creative Pultrusions
profiles tested by Brown [6,13] and Lane [5,10], at Warwick
University, were standard profiles with a lower proportion
of unidirectional rovings. The flange elastic constants are
given by EL ¼ 24 GPa; ET ¼ 10 GPa; GLT ¼ 4:0 GPa; and
nLT ¼ 0:3 (row 6 in Table 2). Recent column research at
West Virginia University [9,11,12] used a new profile with
the same cross-sectional size. These SuperStructural profiles
[8] have a higher proportion of unidirectional rovings and
reported [9] elastic constants of: EL ¼ 28:5 GPa; ET ¼ 13:8
GPa; GLT ¼ 4:3 GPa; and nLT ¼ 0:35 (row 11 in Table 2). It
is noted that for both profile types the web material has
slightly lower elastic constants because there is a
lower proportion of unidirectional rovings. Eq. (5) gives
PL ¼ 307 kN for a SuperStructural 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm
profile, with an assumed half-wavelength a ¼ 365 mm: This
theoretical buckling load is between 1.11 (if GLT is 4.0 GPa)
and 1.38 (is GLT is 3.0 GPa) times the calculated value for
the standard WF profile. In Fig. 2, the normalised co-
ordinates concerning the 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm SuperStruc-
tural profile (which are not identified) used PL ¼ 369 kN
(see Table 1, in Barbero and DeVivo [9]). Barbero and
DeVivo used a finite element analysis (FEA) to obtain their
local bucking load. Load predictions by Eq. (5) are expected
to be low, since it ignores the beneficial rotational stiffness
along the web –flange connection. Physical testing by Lane
[5] suggests that PL predicted by Eq. (5) are lower than the
true buckling load by about 30%. By linear interpolation,
this implies that for the equivalent SuperStructural profile
PL could be 400 kN. This prediction, if correct, indicates
that Barbero and DeVivo [9] determined normalised points
in Fig. 2, which could be too high.
3.3. Numerical simulation
Barbero and DeVivo [9] state that “the value of PL can
also be obtained by numerical simulation”. Eqs. (5) –(7),
using theory of elasticity methods, ought to give a low PL ;
even if the true elastic constants for the specially orthotropic
material are known, because the rotational stiffness at the
web – flange connection is neglected when the supported
edge restraint is SS. Several numerical simulation studies
have been made of compressed specially orthotropic plates,
where the supported edge restraint (Fig. 3) is modelled by a
rotational stiffness [24,27 – 29]. Zureick and Shih [17]
analysed the stability of pultruded columns by adopting
the structural sections’ approach in Bulson [19], whereby
the whole profile is modelled and thin-walled panel
interaction is accounted for in a particular way. Column
44 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47
instability can also be solved by eigenvalue FEA, and
Barbero and DeVivo [9], Pecce and Cosenza [4], and Qiao
et al. [25] have adopted such methods.
It is pertinent to the objectives of the study to present
aspects of these advanced numerical methods that pertain to
the development of closed form equations for PL : Barbero
and Raftoyiannis’ discrete plate approach has been used
only by Tomblin and Barbero [2]. Their Rayleigh –Ritz
solution gave predictions to the half-wavelength,
which were required for planning the column test lengths
(Section 2 and Table 1). PL was also calculated and found to
be on the high side (# 24%) of the physical test load. In this
treatment, the stiffness per unit length of web – flange
connection was assumed to be D22 ¼ DT ¼ ET tf3 =12ð1 2
nLT nTL Þ: Zureick and Shih [17], Bank and Yin [24], and
Davalos et al. [28] produced charts and additional
information for general application. The three groups
solved the instability problem, with the mode shape in
Fig. 3, using a transcendental equation [19]. However, it is
not straightforward to use their charts to predict PL for WF
profiles, either because specific parameters are unavailable
or because the elastic constants used to generate a chart are
different to practice (e.g. GLT is closer to 4.0 than the
3.0 GPa used in the numerical simulation).
The chart in Fig. 31 of Ref. [17] concerns concentrically
loaded pultruded columns. It gives the flange buckling
coefficient kf that replaces kiso in Eq. (7a), having also
substituted ð1 2 nLT nTL Þ for ð1 2 n2 Þ: To construct their
Fig. 31, Zureick and Shih used elastic constants for
Strongwell material ðEL ¼ 17:2 GPa; ET ¼ 6:9 GPa; GLT ¼
2:9 GPa; nLT ¼ 0:33Þ; and ranges of D=2bf and tw =tf ratios
were chosen. It is noted that the ET value chosen by Zureick
and Shih is slightly higher than the Strongwell Design
Manual value given in the first row of Table 2. Taking
ðD=2bf Þ ¼ ðtw =tf Þ ¼ 1; their chart gives kf ¼ 0:53 for WF
profiles. This kf value is strictly valid only for the specific
elastic constants used to produce Fig. 31.
Using the Zureick and Shih computer programme and
Lane’s 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm profile properties, the author
obtained kf ¼ 0:527: Recalling that kiso gives 0.53 when the
supported longer edge is SS the presence of the rotational
restraint and orthotropic material appears not to appreciably
change the required orthotropic buckling coefficient from
kiso : The latest prediction of PL is 350 kN, only 3% lower
than the 360 kN obtained from testing. To further support
Zureick and Shih’s analysis, the minimum kf was for a=bf ¼
3:7; a value very close to the half-wavelength measured (i.e.
ða=bf Þ ¼ 3:6) by Lane [5]. This comparison provides support
to the test buckling load from Lane being close to the true
critical value.
The solution by Bank and Yin [24] gives parametric
information on critical buckling loads, for specific aniso-
tropy ratios, in terms of L=bf and a normalised ‘coefficient of
rotational restraint’ R ¼ Sbf =DT ; where S is the restraining
moment [19] (R ¼ 0 corresponds to SS and R ¼ 1 to CL
edge condition). Bank and Yin recognised that S is difficult
to determine and, therefore, presented charts to determine R
(or S). One chart is for pultruded material based on the same
Strongwell elastic constants used by Zureick and Shih (and
given above), and for ðL=bf Þ ¼ 10: It cannot, however, be
used to predict PL for WF profiles.
Qiao [25] developed a comprehensive discrete laminated
plate approach following the general solution by Bleich
[30]. By considering the case of a long and elastically
restrained plate equation
i
t 2
p2 h pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi f
scr;ortho;L ¼ 2 qEL ET þ pðnLT ET þ 2GLT Þ :
12 bf
ð10Þ
was developed, which is adopted in Chapter 4 of the current
Creative Pultrusions design manual [8], for local flange
buckling in beam members. To account for the rotational
stiffness at the web –flange connection, a coefficient of
restraint z is used. This coefficient is zero for CL and infinite
for SS edge conditions (it is 1=R in the Bank and Yin study
[24]). Factors p and q depend on z and the plate’s properties,
and they are obtained from numerical analysis [25]. Using
properties for the standard 304 £ 304 £ 12.7 mm WF
profile, Davalos et al. [28] propose p ¼ 0:3 þ ð0:004=ðz 2
0:5ÞÞ; q ¼ 0:025 þ ð0:065=ðz þ 0:4ÞÞ (expressions given in
Chapter 4 of Ref. [8]). The coefficient of restraint z is given
by 2DðET Þf =bf ðEL Þw ; where ðET Þf and ðET Þw are the
transverse elastic moduli of the flange and web, respect-
ively. Letting ðET Þf ¼ ðET Þw ; Eq. (10) predicts PL to be
399 kN for a standard profile, a value 11% higher than the
measured 360 kN. It is noted that Qiao [25] did not verify
whether z; p and q changed with different profile properties.
More recently, Qiao et al. [29] have proposed the
generalised buckling load equation
ðNL Þcr 2 ðNL Þ1
cr 1
0 1
¼ q ; ð11Þ
ðNL Þcr 2 ðNL Þcr p z þ1
expressed in terms of resultant force per unit width, ðNL Þcr
and where PL is obtained from ðNL Þcr A=tf : Factors p and q in
Eq. (11) are not the same as in Eq. (10) and ðNL Þ1 0
cr and ðNL Þcr
are the lower (SS) and upper (CL) bounds to the critical
local buckling load. No closed form equations to these
evaluated bounds are given. Using SuperStructural elastic
constants (Table 2), possibly taken from Barbero and
DeVivo [9] (the source is not given), Qiao et al. present, for
a 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm profile, ðPL Þ1 0
cr ¼ 244 kN; ðPL Þcr ¼
1
4 £ ðPL Þcr ¼ 976 kN; p ¼ 0:84; q ¼ 0:77 and z ¼ 6:44
ððET Þf – ðET Þw Þ: Using Eq. (11), the critical load is
calculated to be 411 kN.
Qiao et al. compared this favourably with an experimen-
tal buckling load of 394 kN. However, this test result cannot
be for a SuperStructural profile, as all PL tests (Table 1)
have been with standard profiles. It is most likely that the
physical test load was the Mode III test (i.e. row 8 in Table 1)
by Tomblin and Barbero [2]. Table 2 shows standard
profiles have lower elastic constants than SuperStructural
 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47
profiles. A possible explanation for the good correlation
is that the test load is too high for the reasons given in
Section 2. This example highlights potential difficulties,
which researchers must be aware of when validating their
theoretical models. In their Fig. 11, Qiao et al. [29] plot
ðNL Þcr curves for pultruded plate lengths up to 25b: These
curves give a just above 400 mm (cf. 365 mm in Table 1).
Using the Zureick and Shih analysis and SuperStructural
elastic constants, from Ref. [29], the author found the
minimum PL ¼ 458 kN; with a ¼ 325 mm: Using the
parameters presented by Qiao et al., this prediction is
significantly higher than by Eq. (11).
Predictions for PL have been made by eigenvalue FEA
by Qiao et al. [29] and Pecce and Cosenza [4]. Their models
for the WF column were imperfection-free. The ANSYSw
bifurcation buckling loads by Qiao et al. were found to be a
few percent below their predictions using Eq. (11). Pecce
and Cosenza developed a local buckling curve from an
extensive FE parametric study using LUSACw code. Their
curve was confirmed by comparison with their own physical
test data given in Ref. [21]. Three tests used the standard
Strongwell 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm3 profile and a short
column length of 500 mm. This length is below the
1500 mm, which would be at least four half-wavelengths
ð4aÞ and it is also not equal to an integer number of a:
Buckling loads from their tests can be expected to be too
high. Tables 1 (row 5) and 2 (row 10) give the data used by
Pecce and Cosenza in their local buckling study. These
researchers rightly recognised that elastic constants vary
from source to source and that suitable experimental
procedures are needed to account for this uncertainty.
By varying the profile geometry and elastic constants
(the ratio GLT =ET ¼ 0:33 did, however, remain invariant),
Pecce and Cosenza [4] established a lower bound to PL for
pultruded profiles, for bf =tf ratios up to 30. Their proposed
design equation for the critical stress is

0:85
2
EL p 2 EL tf
scr;ortho;L ¼ a ; ð12Þ
ET 12ð1 2 nLT nTL Þ bf
where a is the factor that involves the restraint at the web –
flange connection. Eq. (12) takes the same form as Eq. (7b)
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
when aðEL =ET Þ0:85 is replaced by kiso ET =EL : Eq. (12) is
also similar to Eq. (9), presently adopted by Creative
Pultrusions for column design. A linear relationship for a
against bf tw =Dtf ð0:3 . bf tw =Dtf , 1:15Þ was derived from
the finite element results. WF columns have dimensions that
make bf tw =Dtf ¼ 0:5; and so a ¼ 0:625: Taking EL ¼ 24 
GPa; and ET ¼ 10 GPa the parameter aðEL =ET Þ0:85 is
0.625 £ 2.029. Eq. (12) now yields the far too high PL ¼
1338 kN: Via correspondence with Pecce and Cosenza the
author has been informed that, because of a typographical
mistake, ðEL =ET Þ0:85 in Eq. (12) above should have been
ðET =EL Þ0:85 : Using the corrected Eq. (12), a much lower and
acceptable PL of 302 kN is predicted for the standard
203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm profile. Sensibly, Pecce and Cosenza
45
[4] have taken the necessary steps to formulate a generalised
design equation, which will give safe buckling load
predictions.
4. Findings and conclusions
It has been shown in Section 2 that PL ; required, for
example, to construct the column buckling load curve in
Fig. 2, can be determined by physical testing. Care needs to
be taken for the results to be reliable and relevant, and the
reasons for this have been presented. For the standard
203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm3 WF profiles, testing has given PL
between 307 and 406 kN. Possible reasons for this high load
variation have been identified. Based on the column
research of Lane [5,10], the true value of PL is about
360 kN, for Creative Pultrusions’ standard profile.
A review has been made of the nine closed form
equations for PL (via scr;L ), which appear in the design
manuals and journal publications associated with pultruded
WF columns. The fundamental equations derived from the
theory of elasticity, are based on the assumption that the
supported (web – flange) edge connection is either simply
supported or clamped. Strongwell [7] and Creative Pultru-
sions [8,14] have developed their own design equations
from ‘in-house’ physical testing (not in public domain).
Several theoretical treatments have been developed to
formulate equations that predict the higher critical load
(stress) by including the rotational stiffness at the web –
flange connection. As mentioned in Section 1.1, inherent
profile imperfections lead to a reduction in buckling load
when real WF columns are failed under concentric loading.
Only the two semi-empirical equations derived by pultru-
ders have inherently included such profile imperfections. It
is, however, well known that PL will not be reduced by
geometric imperfections to the same degree as the Euler
buckling is (which is due to mode interaction). Furthermore,
there is increasing recognition that mechanical properties of
profiles have an inherent variability [4,6,16] that is often
neglected when equations predicting instability loads are
assessed. As a result of these uncertainties, the calculated
PL s in Table 3 cannot be taken as exact.
Table 3 presents a comparison of the local buckling
loads, predicted by Eqs. (5) – (12), with 360 kN measured by
Lane [5] for the standard 203 £ 203 £ 9.53 mm WF profile.
Property data used in the Eqs. (5) – (11) are: a=bf ¼ 3:6;
EL ¼ 24 GPa; ET ¼ 10 GPa; GLT ¼ 4:0 GPa; and nLT ¼
0:3: Note that the compressive load would be . 1100 kN if
failure could ever be due to the mean stress reaching the
material compressive strength. The analytical predictions of
PL have been entered in ascending order, starting with Eq.
(6) and ending with Eq. (8). The reasons why these two
equations bound the load predictions have been given in
Sections 3.1 and 3.2.
Ideally, the equation used to calculate the critical local
flange buckling load (e.g. to construct Fig. 2) should be
46 J.T. Mottram / Composites: Part B 35 (2004) 35–47
Table 3
Comparison between theory and practice for PL
Equation Source
Table 1 from Lane [5,10]
(6) ASCE [20]
(5) ASCE [20], EDC [26]
(12) Pecce and Cosenza [4]
(7a) and (7b) ASCE [20]
(7a) Zureick and Shih [17]
(10) Qiao [25]
(11) Qiao et al. [29]
(9) Creative Pultrusions [8]
(8) Strongwell [7]
a
p; q and z are for profile with SuperStructural elastic constants.
capable of modelling the true physical situation. Even if a
theoretical method was available to model reality (to
include imperfections and the stiffness restraint at the
web – flange connection), this paper has shown that knowl-
edge of the elastic constants and other profile properties is
often lacking. Therefore, it is judgement and experience that
shall guide us to decide which one of the nine closed form
equations is to be recommended. Engineers who use design
manuals [7,8,20,26] in their work desire simplicity. This
helps us to discard those equations, namely (10) –(12),
which require sophisticated software (that only their writers
might have access to). The two Strongwell [7] and Creative
Pultrusions [8,18] design manual Eqs. of (8) and (9) can also
be eliminated because they appear to significantly over-
estimate PL : This leaves the three equations from the ASCE
Manual No. 63 [20]. Eqs. (5) and (6) can be discarded
because they require knowledge of GLT and a=bf ; which
are not always known with accuracy. Of the remaining two,
Eq. (7) is the most accurate, with its PL prediction within 4%
of the test buckling load.
Having recommended in Section 3 that the chosen
equation for PL should ideally not involve GLT and a=bf ; it is
observed the isotropic buckling coefficient kiso ð¼ 0:45 þ
ðbf =aÞ2 Þ; in Eq. (7) does requires knowledge of the buckling
half-wavelength ðaÞ: This paper sets out a research
methodology that can be used to establish a new expression
for the required orthotropic buckling coefficient, which on
replacing kiso would make Eq. (7) match the true physical
situation for WF concentric columns. To achieve this many
more physical tests for PL are needed, using other WF
profiles and column lengths equivalent to four (or more)
half-wavelengths. Buckling loads from new tests need be to
reported with load –deflection curves and measured half-
wavelengths. Furthermore, the tested profiles need to be
fully characterised in terms of their elastic constants and
imperfections. Knowing how to adequately model the
boundary conditions and with appropriate property data
numerical methods such as described in Section 3 could also
be used to establish the final form of Eq. (7). Having
developed a better understanding, there would be the
knowledge and confidence to refine the new universal
PL (kN) Note
360 Physical testing giving a=bf ¼ 3:6
198 a very large, SS longer edge
277 Orthotropic plate, SS longer edge
302 FEA parametric study for a and b
346 Derived from isotropic Eq. (4), SS longer edge
350 Numerically determines kf
387 Numerically determines p; q and z
411a Numerically determines p; q and z
430 Testing, with modified Eq. (7b)
686 Physical testing and curve fitting
column design procedure [9] and to reduce, from three, the
factor of safety currently used in concentric column design
[7,8].
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Prof. A. Zureick (Georgia
Institute of Technology) and Dr B.-J. Shih (National Taipei
University of Technology) for providing a copy of their
computer programme, which has been used to determine the
flange buckling coefficient for local instability. Thanks are
given to Mr A. Lane (Warwick University) for his helpful
comments during the writing of the paper.
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