BEHAVIOR, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL STEEL ELEMENTS - VOLUME (1) BY Dr. EL-SAYED BAHAA MACHALY Professor of Steel Structures Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University dase all We WAL j a Fifth Edition Based on the Egyptian Code of Practice of Steel Constructions and Bridges (2001) Allowable Stress Design 2005PREFACE This book is a humble éffoit to cope with the new specifications of steel structures based on the Allowable Stress Design concept and published in 2001. This new edition contains the new concept of compact, noncompact and slenderness sections. It was extremely difficult to accomplish this book incorporating the new Egyptian code in one-volume. Therefore the idea of dividing this book to > four volumes was easier for publication “purposes . Since the first edition of volume (1)-of this -boek was puplished ten years, this new edition has been modified according to the new Egyptian Code of Practice for Steel Construction and Bridges 2001. I endow this book to my father who was and still is my tutor and idol and my mother may God keep her in good health. It is also an obligation to thank all those whom I met during my humble career and they lit my way with hope and helped me overcome obstacles of all kinds . Phan. cb) Prof. Dr. El-sayed Bahaa Machaly 01/10/2001 7 ROOT _.& I would like to express my deep appreciation to the work team without whom | could not have accomplished this book . This team includes : ACKNOWLEDGMENTS CKNOWLEDGMENTS (1) Dr. Karam Maalawi, who received this book hand written. He made the review . ‘ (QQ) Dre Sherif Safar, who solved the majority of the example in the previous editions. (3) Eng. Saad Ghaprial Yakoub, who drew the illustration, the graphics and the tables using Autocad, Artist and Excell programs respectively. Eng. Saad Printed also this book using both Winword and Chiwriter programs, proving always to be an excellent Engineer . Prtbeo. D. Prof. Dr. El-sayed Bahaa Machaly 01/10/2001 WOTTON _-PREFACE —-~~-~~ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: Contents = -~ CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Let The Structural Project. -------------------- ~-o- --- £e2--Structural Properties of Steel. ------------ 1.3 Solved Examples. Types of Structural Elements and their Behavior. ~ Type of Steel Constructions. ~~ Design Concepts. --. Factor of Safety. -~ Specifications and Codes. -- Loads and Forces. CHapTeR @ TENSION MEMBERS : 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Introduction. -- Behavior of Tension Members. ------------~-- Different Types of Cross Sections. --------- Stiffness Limitations. --- Allowable Tensile Stresses of Concentrically Loaded Members. ~--- Behavior of Eccentrically Loaded Members. -~ Net Area of Staggered Holes. Page 21 29 32 33 36 33 54 S4 59 62 69| 2.8 2.9 Solved Examples. ~~ Effective Net Area of Pin-Connected Members. Effective Area of Threaded Tension Members. CHaPTeR 3 COMPRESSION MEMBERS : 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.42 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.45 3.16 3.17 3.18 Solved Examples. ~~ Introduction. -----~ 7 Different Types of Cross Sections. Historical Review of Column’s Buckling Phenomena. -~~---------~ Different Methods -of. Buckling-Analyses. Design Codes. ---------------. Stiffness Limitations. --------- Instability by Local Buckling of Plates. Design Procedure. Compression Members used as Columns. The Effect of Shear on Buckling Loads of Solid Section. - Buckling of Open Latticed Columns. --------~ Buckling Length of Battened Columns. ------- Buckling Length of Perforated Cover Plate Columns. - ca Local Buckling of Main Ribs. ~~ Allowance for Shear and Design of Lacing. -- Design of Lacing Bars. -~ Design of Batten Plates. --~ Design of Perforated Plates. -- 93 94 95 98 100 112 118 119 125 128 130 133 135 137 137 139 140 144 146 148CHAPTER 4 BUCKLING oF ComPRESSION MEMBERS : 189 4.1 Introduction. 190 4.2 Values of Buckling Coefficient for Columns. -~ 190 4.3 Buckling Coefficient Members. --- 192 4.4 Buckling Coefficient (K) for Beam - Columns in Rigid Frames. -- 207 ~ Solved Examples. --~ 238 CHAPTER 5 DESIGN oF BEAMS : 274 Introduction. =: 272 5.2 Historical Review. 272 Different Applications of Beams in Steel Structures. ~ 273 Different Types of Cross Sections. --------- 276 Performance and Behavior of Flexural Members 278 Allowable Bending Stresses for Simple Bending of symmetrical shapes according to E.C.P. 2001. - 282 5.7 Limits of Width/Thickness Ratios for Sections subject to Bending for Compact and Noncompact Sections. --. 286 5.8 Holes in Beams. 289 5.9 Shear Stresses. 291 5.10 Deflections. -- 294 5.11 Bending Associated with Torsion Unsymmetrical Bending. -- - ---- 296 305 5.12 Lateral Torsional Buckling of Beams. -~-5.13 Web Crippling. --~ 5.15 Summary Regarding the Allowable Bending Stresses. -~ Solved Examples. CHapTER 6 COMBINED BENDING AND COMPRESSION Beam-CoLUMNs : Introduction. Different Applications. ---- Critical Buckling Load of Columns - A Simplified Structural Model. 6.4 Modes of Failure of Beam-Columns. - 6.5 Analysis of Beam-Columns. -- 6.6 Exact Analysis of Frames. ---~ 6.7 Safety of Beam-Column Structural Elements Against Stresses. --~ Local Buckling of Steel Elements. -- Steps Concerning the Design. ~ Solved Examples. 7 BRACING SYSTEMSG : 7.1 Introduction. ~~ Generalities Concerning the Wind Bracing. -- Location and Different Structural Systems of Vertical Bracing Systems. «Location and Different Structural Systems of 5.14 Provisions for Buckling of Webs in I-Section. 326 328 332 334 375 376 378 380 382 383 403 409 411 414 417 475 476 480 482 4957 7 7 7. Solved Examples. --- -10 Bracing Systems of Halls. -- Wind Loads on Halls and Buildings According to the E.C.P. , 2001. ---: Idealization of a wind Bracing Panel. ------ -7 A Study Case of the Stability of Structures with respect to Horizontal Loads. -- +8 Effect of Bracing on Thermal Deformations. - +9 Analysis and Design of Wind Bracing Systems. 11 Transversal Instability of Hinged Structures. 499 504 S08 513 518 S27 540 542 56344 ee eee eee Becyec og Fee LENE © Bc arehlsi eter Beil Ds Nast Kes TESST @ Bat peowigaeCHAPTER 14 INTRODUCTION 1.1. The Structural Project: There are many different. ways to classify the phases of a structural project. Since projects vary enormously in scope and method of execution. The way can be all inclusive or even much more than partially satisfactory. For civil engineering structures, the following list of phases may be helpful: 1. Initial planning. 2. Preliminary design. 3. Final design: a~ Analysis. b- Proportioning of elements. c- Drawings, specifications, and other contract documents. 4. Contract. 5. Fabrication and construction. 6. Operation and maintenance. 1.1.1. Initial Planning: Starts with the desire for a structure, it may include a feasibility study in which the wish is tested against the limits of practicability. During this phase the engineer acts as a consultant to the prospective owner, builder, or financier. He must first be an ideal man, capable not only of recognizing the more or less standard structural systems which are worthily of investigation in the particular case, but also of devising new or modified systems to meet special demands. Veryrough designs ire made, often with few computations and heavy reliance upon judgment. and experience. The approximate costs of the promising schemes are estimated and compared, and tentative budgets andei CHAPTER 1 3 time schedules are prepared. Then if the project appears reasonable to those immediately concerned, their next task is to convince others of its value. The power of decision may rest with an individual builder, a corporation executive or board, a school board, a government department reviewing committee, or may any one of a number of other agencies. If a site has not been predetermined, preliminary planning may also involve the structural engineer in site selection. It is clear that at this stage the engineer’s activities may range far from the strictly technical. It is also true that the ideas generated and the course set in this-early work may control the success or failure of the entire project. 1.1.2. Preliminary Design Phas Having passed the test of feasibility, the project enters the preliminary design phase. Here the first rough designs are reviewed and partially refined. There is’ a winnowing process in which the best system is selected for final design. Sometimes, differences are not clear out, and it is necessary to carry more than one scheme through to final design or even to the point of competitive bidding. The structural materials are selected, the main dimensions of the structure are established and the principal members are located. 1.1.3, Final Desigi Refinements, alterations and corrections are made throughout the final design, but, generally, the basic from of the structure has been defined by the time this phase starts. What remains is the detailed structural analysis and proportioning of elements. Primarily in statistically indeterminate systems, though also in determinate ones, this may involve successive approximations in the search for dimensions, up to date technical competence and alertness are prime Se a atiat tata anet4 CHAPTER 1 a requisites. The preparation of contract drawings, job specifications, and other contract documents may also be included as part of final design. They are generally prepared under the supervision of the structural engineer or, in the case of the legal documents, with his assistance or cooperation. He may also participate in the, preparation of the engineer’s final cost estimate which is used as the standard in evaluating construction bids. 1.1.4. Contrac’ The structural engineer usually takes part in negotiations withthe progressive contractors or.in the review of .. competitive bids (contract). Frequently, contractors raise technical questions or propose design alternatives requiring his judgment. 1.1.5. Fabrication and Constructio Having undertaken construction, the detailed shop and construction drawings of the steel fabricator and other manufactures are submitted to the engineer for approval (fabrication). Generally, a representative of the engineer remains in residence on the job cr, on a small project, visits it periodically (construction). His primary duties are to inspect the work and to ensure that construction is in compliance with the plans and specifications. He is also concerned with project scheduling and progress. In addition, in almost all jobs, questions of interpretation of the design arise to require his attention. 1.1.6. Operation and Maintenance: Once the job is completed, operation and maintenance pass to other hands. Frequently however, new construction goes through a shaked own period during which minor alterations areJe CHAPTER 1 5 found necessary. This is particularly true in novel structures or those incorporating some innovation in detail. During this period the engineer remains intimately involved in the projects. Several things in the above breakdown require comment. Rarely, in practice, are the dividing lines between phases as nearly deliveated as they have been here. Different phases are often combined or in progress simultaneously. Some phases may be dispended with entirely. For instance, the practicability of a project may be so obvious that a feasibility study is unnecessary. In other cases, the choice of a structural system is so clear that final design can begin almost immediately.” ~ This leads to the question of where, in the total project, design, as such, really starts and ends. It is rather pointless to pursue this. The word has too many connotations to permit the establishment of precise boundary lines. It is sufficient to say here that, if one accepts as design everything from the initial conception to the final detailed plans and directions for making it an operational reality, the design pervades the entirety of all structural projects. Another point is one which was mentioned earlier; the iterative nature of the process. The search for the best solution, which follows the initial creative impulse, is a repetitive operation. Ideas, methods of analysis, and member sizes or arrangements, are proposed, tested. and frequently rejected, modified, or refined in the course of arriving at the final solution. In the past, and still in the present, this procedure has often been followed almost intuitively. Recently there has emerged an array of tools and techniques for systematizing and formalizing parts of the design process. Among these are:6 CHAPTER 1 zz a> Linear and dynamics programming for general optimization of the components of a system. b- The calculative powers of digital computers which enable the consideration of more alternatives for a given situation. c- The development of different styles of systems theory, linear graph theory, and other methods for treating broad classes of engineering problems. The range and applicability of these techniques are not yet clear but are certain to expand. While they will permit increased sophistication in design, it is doubtful that they will ever eliminate the need for individual creativity and high-level, professional competence in engineering technology. Lastly there is the matter of individual versus group effort on a project, and the question of individual involvement. Only on very small project is one man the structural engineer or the designer. When the words are used they are generally intended to mean the individual in charge of all or part of the work and having supervision. over other ‘engineers and technicians, many of whom may, ‘in turn, be doing high level, responsible design. As the size and scope of projects increase, the extent of involvement and identity of one individual with the entire project naturally tends to decrease. Since, in recent years, the notable projects have tended to be large ones, one hears less about the outstanding accomplishments of individual design engineers than one used to. To get an idea of the extent of human involvement in an engineering work, or might read the stories of some famous bridges and the names associated with them: the Brooklyn Bridge and the Roeblings, the Gads Bridge and Captain Gads, the Golden Gate Bridge and Mr. Strauss.oi CHAPTER 1 One may be amazed at the political, social, and economic responsibilities of these engineers and their emotional involvement in their work. Even though these are examples from the past, the degree of personal commitment of engineers to their work is still very high. 1.2. Structural Properties of Steel: The wide use of steel in our civilization today can be attributed to the remarkable properties of this metal, the abundance of the raw materials required for its manufacture, and its competitive marked price. Steel can be produced with widely varying characteristics which can be controlled to satisfy the intended use. The final product may be anything from a stainless steel surgical instrument to a city skyscraper, a giant bridge, a nuclear reactor vessel, or innumerable other objects. ‘STRESS (1) FAILURE STRAIN (2) Fig. 1.1 Stress—Strain Curve. for Steel Carbon. The two main characteristics describing the behavior of structural material are strength and ductility. Fig. 1.1 shows the engineering stress-strain curve that is characteristic of most steel with structural applications. Such a curve is obtained from a tension test. The figure notes the four typical ranges of behavior: the elastic range, the plastic range (during which the material flows at near-constant stress), the strain8 CHAPTER 1 a hardening range, and the range of strain at and beyond the ultimate stress during which necking occurs in a tensile bar, this range terminating in fracture. raineo| UNRESTRICTED PLASTIC| STRAIN a FLOW HARDENING ELASTIC STRAIN (€) Fig. 1.2 Initial Portion of Stress Strain Curve (St 87). Figure 1.2 shows the initial portion of figure 1.1 to an expanded scale and in somewhat idealized form. The curve is drawn for steel 37 with a yield stress level f, of 2.4 tom”. (Curves for other structural carbon steels are similar). The following points are to be noted in Fig. 1.2 : 1. After the initiation of yield there is a flat "plateau". The stress at this level is termed the "field stress level". It is one of the characteristics features of the structural steels, especially structural carbon steel. 2. The extent of the field zone ( or plastic range ) is considerable. The value E,, is about 10 times E., for structural carbon steel, varying froma low of about 6 to a maximum of about 16. 3. At the end of the plateau strain-hardening begins, with consequent increase in strength. The magnitude of the strain-hardening modulus is averaging abeut 1/50 young’s modulus.Je CHAPTER 1 9 4. some tension tests curves do not show an upper yield point. The result is a gradual transmission from the elastic to the plastic region, as shown by the dashed curve. This is also the condition most usually encountered in full size members. The region designated as the plastic range in Fig. 1.1 is thus made up, in fact, of two regions. One of these is called “contained plastic flow"; although there is plastic flow in part of the cross-section, the deformation is restricted or “contained” by the remaining elastic part. The other region is characterized by the term "unrestricted plastic flow"; as shown in figure 1.2 it is’a region in which the strains increase markedly at a constant yield value up to the point of strain hardening. 1.3. Types of Structural Elements and their Behavior: 1.3.1. Introduction: Metal structures are composed of elements which. are rolled to a basic cross section in a mill and worked to the desired size and form in a fabricating shop or on the job site. Although there are many ways of making any given structure, and designer normally is compelled to use the standard plates, sheets, and sections which can be provided by a rolling mill. This is one significant difference between steel and concrete construction for, in the latter, the designers have more control over the shape of the elements. Fortunately, the variety of metal plates and sections available is so great that any desired structural effect can be achieved in steel. Among the things which, in recent years, have greatly increased the versatility of steel have been developed in welding and high-strength bolting, in light-gage sheet and hot-rolled plate fabrication, and in the extended use of wire rope.10 CHAPTER iB The characteristic behavior of structural elements is someuhat similar to that of the idealized tension specimen as sketched in Fig. 1-2. These structural elements are tension or compression members, beams or beam-columns. Joining two or more of these structural elements by different types of connections we get the steel structure. 1.3.2. Shapes: Rigid structural steel members may be made of a single rolled shape as it comes from the mill, multiple shapes joined by bolts, rivets, or weld; plate or light-gage sheet element fabticated to suitable “form; or combinations of plates and shapes in which the plates may be either main load-carrying elements or simply connection material. The shapes available today have been developed to meet structural needs. Cross-section and size are governed by a number of things: arrangement of material for optimum structural efficiency; functional requirements (surfaces that are easy to connect to, flat surfaces suitable for supporting other materials, etc. ); dimensional and weight capacity of rolling mills; and material properties which for example, inhibit the hot rolling of wide thin elements because of excessive warping or cracking that might occur. _CITL (a) angles. (b) Channels. (ce) Standard [.Bs. (4) TeeSection. (e) Broad Flange LBs. Fig.. 1.3 Regular Series Shapes. Structural shapes have been almost completely standardized, although a few mills roll nonstandard sections, and, in someJ CHAPTER 1 ree cases, detail dimensions of structurally identical standard shapes vary slightly between mills. The current available sections may be divided into two categories: a regular series and a special series. Typical cross-sections of the regular series Shapes are shown in Fig. 1.3. Most of the structural shapes used in practice are of the regular series. Since most of these are in steady demand and since each size is produced by at least one of the major steel companiés, they are usually obtainable. Several sizes of regular series shapes are made from the same rolls by spreading the rolls. , They are grouped accordingly in the tables of dimensions and properties. All standard I beams and channels have a slope on the inside face of the flange. Practice varies on wide flange beams (Broad Flange I Beams). The regular series of the sections are made by splitting standard I or B.F.I. sections longitudinally. The spherical series shapes consist of ship building channels, special car building’ sections, tees (which are rolled to this shape rather than out from regular sections), and zees. From a construction standpoint, steel pipe and square and rectangular structural steel tubing may be classed with the special series shapes, although pipes have always been readily available and tubing is becoming increasingly so. The properties of the more frequently used pipe and tubing sizes are tabulated in several manuals. SEER EE aaa12 CHAPTER I a Pipe, tubing and special shapes are useful in a number of applications. For example, rectangular tubes may make excellent building columns. In the case of bulb angle welded to the top flange of the beam and embedded in the concrete is very effective in keying the two materials together. 1.3.3. Tension Members: The cross-sectional arrangement of material in axially stressed tension members (also called ties or hangers) is structurally unimportant. They may have any cross section so long as the net area is sufficient to carry the design load with a reasonable factor of safety’and*the shape is one which may be conveniently connected to continuous members. The only other structural requirement is that they should be sufficiently stiff to prevent harmful vibration, unsightly sagging, or, when the member must resist a change reversal of stress to compression of small magnitude. Empirical rules are used to ensure requisite stiffness. LOAD (P) ty os tya P |Contained Plastic. Flow ELONGATION Fig. 1.4 Typical Behavior of Tension Member. The behavior of a tension member is shown in Fig. 1.4 on a load-elongation basis. Two curves are shown: one is the complete curve to rupture, and the other is the initial part toeee. 13 expanded scale. The plate specimen has a reduced section length of 45 cms and 2.5 cms thick, and is loaded in tension. The averagé stress at which local yielding first started was about half the load at which unrestricted plastic flow developed. Local plastic flow can and usually does commence, at an average stress-which is less than the yield value. The reason for this usually lies in the fact that perfect alignment of load seldom exists in practice, and fabrication operations may introduce a variation in cross-sectional characteristics. Also, unleSs a member is stress relieved, it will contain residual internal stresses that are introduced in the member during manufacture or fabrication; upon application of external load. their combined effect will cause local yielding. On further loading, the entire cross-section eventually yields at a load corresponding to the tension specimen yield value. The point of local yielding corresponds to the onset of “Contained plastic flow" sketched in Fig. 1.4. It ends with the plastification of the entire cross-section and is followed by unrestricted flow. LOAD (P) @) 7] (3) = ELONGATION * Fig. 1.5 Tensile Stress and Deformation in Plate with a Hole. Similarly a tension member that is slightly cooked will yield locally at one edge before the average yield stress is14 CHAPTER 1 i. reached. Eventually, however, the entire section will yield at PAA=E. y : A plate with a hole exhibits this same phenomenon and illustrates especially the region of contained flow. Due to Stress. concentrations, local yielding will commence at the edge of the hole (stage 1 of Fig. 1.5) and initiate flow (strain hardening is neglected in this discussion). The corresponding point on the load elongation curve is shown in Fig. 1.5. On further loading, an intermediate condition is reached (stage 2) with additional fibers brought to yield; however, the elastic part of the member "contains" the deformation until further load is applied. (see sketch of yielding cross-section). Finally, at stage 3, each fiber has reached the yield value (the term for this phenomenon is “plastification"), and unrestricted plastic flow commences. The point at which contained plastic flow commence could be termed the “proportional limit" of the member, and in light of the discussion above it is evident that there will be wide variation in its value. However, the load which terminates this region and marks the beginning of unrestricted plastic flow is the one that can be calculated and corresponds to a real limit of usefulness of the. member, mainly, a significant. and relatively uncontrolled, elongation. Thus, the allowable’ stress » for a tension member is based upon P/A.= f,. which marks the point at which unrestricted plastic flow begins. (The difference between gross and net area has been ignored in this discussion). 1.3.4. Compression Members: The requirements for compression member (also called colums, struts, posts of stanchions) are more demanding than those for tension member for here the carrying capacity is aey CHAPTER 1 15 function of shape as well as of area and material properties. The material must. be disposed so as to resist effectively any tendency toward general or local instability. This means that the member must be sufficiently rigid to prevent general buckling in any possible direction, and each plate element of the member must be thick enough to prevent local buckling. Some local buckling may be permissible if it is taken into account in evaluating the capacity of the member and if it does not result in unsightly waviness or bulges in the member. If no phenomena of instability occur the load elongation curve will be the same as that of the tension member. - 1.3.5. Beams: The optimum section for flexural resistance is one in which the material is located as far as possible from the natural axis. Naturally there are, limitations to this: abnormally deep beams increase the height and cost of a structure and they tend to be unstable; web material is required for resisting shear and for making connections to other members, and the increased cost of deep webs may offset the saving in flange material. Fig. 1.6 shows a typical moment~curvature relationship for a shape under pure bending. Here again there is a region of contained plastic flow. In part it is the result of the early yielding caused by residual stresses and stress concentrations, and in part it is the result of the gradual plastification of the cross-section as deformation is continued. My is the moment at first yield, M, is the plastic moment (after plastification is complete) and @., is the curvature at which strain-hardening commences .MOMENT (M) Mp | Contained Plastic Flow CURVATURE (9) Fig. 1.6 Tensile Stress and Deformation Following the plastification of the cross-section, & region of unrestricted plastic flow starts at the moment value of M.: this rotation at near constant moment characterizes the “plastic hinge", which is one of the fundamental concepts of plastic design. As in the case of tension members, the “proportional limit" or the beginning of the region of contained plastic flow is subject to wide variation and cannot, in fact, be defined sufficiently to constitute a design criterion. The plastic Limit M,, however, is not subject to such variation and does constitute a real limit of usefulness upon which design specifications can be based. The broken lines a-b-c in Fig. 1.6, show the behavior to be expected if a member is unloaded after reaching the plastic region and then is reloaded. The relationship follows the original elastic slope, obliterated in so far as subsequent reloading is concerned. The post-yielding behavior is thus elastic for subsequent loads less than maximum value previously attained.EE cuarten 1 17 1.3.6. Beam-Columns: Contained Plastic Flow Instabilty ° Fig. 1.7 Behavior of a Beam-Column. A beam-column is a combination of a compression member” ~ and a beam. Fig.1.7 shows the typical behavior of a beam-column. Again the region of contained plastic flow is evident, in the case of an isolated member, its upper limit represents a suitable maximum to which a factor of safety may be applied for design. In this case the limit is defined by stability. A similar situation would exist in columns subjected to transverse loading. 1.3.7. Connections: LOAD (P) DEFLECTION (4) Fig. 1:8 Behavior of a Typical Steel Connection.18 CHAPTER 1 a Of critical importance in structures are the regions making up the connections between beams and columns. Fig. 1.8 shous the behavior of a connection fabricated by welding. Due to the loading configuration, the effect of strain-hardening is evident; the assembly carries considerably more load than the value P, as predicted by the plastic theory. It is an effect customarily ignored . in design. The shape of the curve is similar to that of other structural members. 1.3.8. General Remarks: (a) Behavior of a Rigid Structur If the load-deformation behavior of an intermediate structure is observed, it is found that the resulting curve is remarkably similar to the curves shown above for beams and beam-columns. This has been done in Fig. 1.9 where a single-span portal frame is shown. The dashed line represents the theoretical calculation and the connected frame of 14 ms span,loaded as shown in the inset with concentrated loads simulating uniformly distributed vertical and horizontal loading. The abcissa is the vertical deflection at the peak of the gable. There is an initial elastic region, but the inelastic region of contained plastic flow is the dominant on both the load and the deflection'scales. Actual yielding begins at a load very much lower than the hypothetical yield load P, . On the other hand, the load at which unrestricted plastic flow commences is in remarkable agreement with theory. The service loads that would be permitted on this test structure according to allowable stress design and to plastic design are also shown in this figure, the latter being based on the attainment of the maximum plastic strength.ey CHAPTER 1 19 LoaD (P) DEFLECTION (4) Fig. 1.9 Load-Deformation Behavior of a Single Span Frame. (b) Instability: The “maximum plastic strength", referred to above, neglects instability effects. The overall instability of the entire frame becomes in certain instances the appropriate limit of usefulness of the structure. The example given in Fig. 1.6, is one that is "typical" so long as the beam does not fail due to local or lateral buckling in which case the limit of usefulness is the stability limit load unless provision is otherwise made to prevent such failure. If the beam were a plate girder then other instability effects also would have to be considered. The buckling of the centrally loaded column is the classic case of instability failure. No structural member has been tested more extensively nor is there more variation in design approach than there is for this element, all of which simply reflects the complication of the problem and the accounting for it in design. Thus, instability effects constitute a significant, design problem and are the subject of much on going research.20 CHAPTER & (c) Fatigue and Fracture Two modes of failure of steel structures are of quite a different nature from those discussed thus far. One is failure by fatigue as the result of application of many cycles of stress, the other is failure due to brittle behavior of the material as a result of adverse combinations of temperature, material, and design conditions. Although instance of such failures are rare, special measures are taken to avoid them because of the serious consequences that may be involved. In the case of fatigue, an adjustment in allowable stresses frequently is made, but when fatigue is known to be the dominant design eriterion, -the greatest. attention is given to design details and material properties, especially in the loading region where failure would be expected. Similar attention is given when brittle behavior is a possibility. 1.3.9. Summary: In summary, Fig. 1.10 shows the typical behavior of a steel structure under load. The heavy solid line that reaches “maximum plastic strength" is the typical behavior of a structure not limited by fatigue, fracture, or instability, or subject to a prescribed maximum deflection limit ( these limitations being shown by dashed excursions from the heavy line). Shown also are the three regions that are observed in the behavior of a structure under load. LOAD (P) 7 - DEFLECTION (a) Fig. 1.10 Behavior of Steel Structure Under Load and Limits of Structural. Usefulness.Je CHAPTER I 21 The elastic region is frequently very limited; f it is followed by the region of contained plastic flow whose onset is subject. to wide variation; and this latter region merges into the third one, which is that of unrestricted plastic flow. The transition is gradual from one to the other; the exact point of departure has no real physical meaning, and it is especially important to note that the “yield point" of a structural member or frame has only hypothetical signification. 1.4. Type of Steel Constructions: Metallic constructions may be classified according to their function or to the type of structural framework. a Modern buildings may be classified, as follows: (a) Industrial-type buildings. (b) Multi-story buildings. (c) Special buildings with unusual framing. In this course our study will concern only the industrial-type buildings. But we have to note that the basis of design for the multi-story and the special buildings will be available throughout chapters two till six. Adding to the knowledge of this course a chapter on the behavior and design of built-up beams, will be given in part IV. This will allow design of multi-story frames, as well as metallic bridges. Industrial-Type Buildings: One or two story buildings is used for industrial, institutional, and residential-type buildings. The steel framing may be a truss, a column-truss, a saw tooth truss, a girder, a rigid frame, an arch or a suspension system. 1.4.1. Trusses: For many years ago trusses were the trend in industrial building design.22 CHAPTER iB . Prior to analyzing and selecting members for a roof truss, three engineering decisions must be made: (1) The form of the chords must be determined, that is, whether they should be flat or sloped and whether they should be straight or curved. (2) The type of web system must be selected. (3) It must be decided whether to make the trusses simply gupported or continuous with the other trusses. Sometimes these decisions are governed by spatial requirements, sometimes by the obvious economic advantages of a particular system, or sometimes by structural requirements. The common types of trusses, considered as simply supported, vertically leaded are shown in Fig. 1.11. Fig. 1.11 Common Types of Simply-Supported Trusses. 4.4.2. Mill Building -'Column Truss: : : see Description: The simplest structural system of the standard fingle-story industrial building (mill buildings) is that with flat roofs and horizontal chord truss. The only difficulty isde CHAPTER 1 23 that unavoidable construction imperfections and natural deflections of the roof system result in low spots where water collects and may remain for long periods. This may be tolerable, particularly in regions of low rainfall, but standing water inevitably accelerates the deterioration of the surface. How to slope a roof? It is more common to pitch the roofs towards drains with a minimum slope of 10 mms. per meter to ensure drainage. There are three ways to slope a roof: (1) By placing a varying thickness fill of lightweight “concrete or other material between the deck and roofing. This permits the use of horizontal chord trusses but increases the dead weight. (2) By using trusses with horizontal chords but varying the elevation of purlin. This requires a number of different types of purlin connections. (3) By sloping the upper chord of the roof trusses. For long span this is the only feasible system. (b) re + S y s 7 oo (a) "Fig. 1.12 Roof Trusses.24 CHAPTER 1 a 10 ms . The coefficients C are deduced from figure given by E.C-P. 1999 clause 1.12 - item (II). a a WF (e.g) x SX Soa W, = 0.5 x 0.05 x 6 x 2:90 2 cos 25 cms of the reaction from the 2.75.8 32mt LL. C205 c=405 1999, the intensity of wind (q) for ith- a coefficient K = 1.0 as the 0.60 x 0.05 x 6 x 2:59 = 0,45 ton cos a = 0.376 ton *£ 5 Ww, Ye 7 ; § as a 1g y at 50 z - Wy = e.q.8 = 0.80 x Ge55 x 6 = 0.24 tym 0.50 x x 6 = 0.15 t/m’ 50 1000 Assume that the summation of the horizontal forces is divided equally on both the horizontal reactions. oeex t= 3[to.24 + 0.15) x 4.25 + (0.376 x 5) sin a - (0.45x5) sin 4] = 0.81 ton IM, = 0.0 (0.24 + 0.15) x 4.25 x 425 _ 0.45 x 5 x cos @ x 6.25 ~ (0.45 x 5) sin a x (4.25 + 0.625) - (0.376 x 5) x cos « * 18.75 + (0.376 x 5) sin « x (4.25 + 0.625 ) + y, x 25(0.45 + 0.376) x 5 x cos a - 1.74 = yy ee “lt. y, = 2.37 ton (a) Forces in the Truss Members: Sec. (1-1) (Left): DM, = 0.0 . Fy cos @ x 2.75 + ~ 0.225 cos « x 2.50 - 0.225 sin a x 2.50 237 + 1.02 x 0.375 - 2.37 x 2.50 + 0.81 x 1.75 = 0.0 . FL = + 1.32 ton I DM, = 0:0 v1. Fyy cos 45° x 2.75 + 1.02 x 0.375 + 2.73 x 25 + 0.81 x 1.75 - 0.225 x ao = 0.0 cos & @ + Fry = - 2.876 tons DM, = 0.0 F. pe2-50 + 1.02x(2.50 - 0.375) Ir - 0.81(2.50#1.75) = 0.0 + Fyyy = + 0-51 ton48 CHAPTER iz Sec. (2-2) (right) I My, = 0.0 + Fly cos a x 27.5 + 0.188 cos « x 2.50 - 0.188 sin a x 2.50 - 0.637 x 0.375 - 1.74 x 2.50 - 0.81 x 1.75 = 0.0 + Fyy = + 2,03 tons + Fy cos 45° x 2.75 + 1.74 x 25 - 0.81 x 1.75 ~ 0.637 x 0.375 - 0-188 x 28 cos @ = 0.0 ".E, - 1.91 tons TM, = 0.0 Fyy * 2-50 + 0.81 x 4.25 - 0.637 x (2.50 - 0.375) = 0.0 F, vy = 7 0-835 ton 0.45 0-225 0.188 9 376 0.376 576 fetetoWs fe fi fa'p Draw the stress diagram in order to get the resulting force due to the case of wind left . The case of wind right can bé easily computed using the same stress diagram .024 Vm CHAPTER 1 (b) Upper Column. a al - os | 2am 1.0m B.M.D, WL. zan zon wa wae wat wat 2am 2an o.5emt 6.66mt 237, 27 0.59mt arate .81t O18 t/m' 0.43mt 17a wae50 CHAPTER 1 Ee (3) Crane Loads * The crane load will affect the lower columns only. * The maximum vertical reaction of the crane on the column can be calculated as follows: (A) Own Weight of Crane Track Girder: The own weight of girder is assumed to be 200 kgm/m’ ie. Ry =u xS = 0.20 x6 = 1.20 ton 100 10t 2.0ms Ru 5.0ms (B) Moving Loads: The shown case of loading is the one giving the maximum reaction due to live load. 16.67 tons i.e. Rp | = 10 + 10 x (C) Lateral Shock: According to the ECP, the lateral shock is to be taken 10% of the total vertical live. load. i.e. H = 0.10 x 16.67 = 1.67 ton Thus, the total vertical load can be calculated, considering 25% increase in the vertical live load as an effect of the impact. ive, VER), + 1-25 RB 1.20 + 1.25 x 16.67 = 22.04 tons 1.67 ton @ = "We shall consider the crane effect on the lower left column. Also, each of the vertical load and horizontal load will be tréated separately, as the vertical: load is considered as a main lodd, while the lateral shock is considered as a secondary lead. 22.04 5.51 BMD. 22.04 5.51 i i NF.D. i B.M.D. i a. 7.5mt (4) Design Values As an example only the design forces of the three members connected to the vertical beam-column are deduced as given in the table :- (ALL FORCER ARE GIVEN IN TONS ) f Fuing Design Force Member | Foy. | Fit. | nest [Right] (-ve) | (ve) A -11.5 | -10.47| 41.32 |+2.03 Pichi: - B +16.2 | -14.75]-2.87 |-1.90] == |*°025° wh '=0.835 140.51 c 0.0 0.0 }+0.51 |-.898] 0) | a)CHAPTER | a 52 (haa) FE (W 94-) w en a) a) - : a == uae y22-| sezt-| a hoe on [edte-leoer-| “1 | 2 ° 0 |voze-|se2t-) 9t- | N as a _- |, @ a) Y ro-| = oe a 9 7 S— 7 “1 art zrar-|tyer | S42 | 999 sz | ge-|igs-| ve | se |W 3 7 |.) @ | o : ral -- |---| = vee-lezat-| ¢1- en be sede lesde-| mer | 482 0 0 |roee-|ceat-] +1- [N al 2 a = wT “o-| eso-| -- | -- | -- ro) a : 5 ert $2: | ona | 8¥O-| 880 0 o |tss-) ve] se lw + QOS eae eee eae 5 e| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- lever] a- gu'92- wel | 28% evet-| +I- IN : S 0 0 ° ° ° o [ --] -- | -- |} -- |] --] --] © o iw 3 o [a F verter ere epee eee [eee gaa ler a seoz- ze'vz-|to'se-| 1 | 62 seet-| #t- [N i? tH) @ rt- . oe oe See eo a a pu 0 o | | Sh, | ete] cot r 0 o |W o aa—| art | aa—| ant usu] eT |—H|—H) A |—H|—-H| A : ~ “TT | ‘TO | 98S) wed! N ‘xeW W xen PUIM yuary euesg YWsT auedg “suuinjod (q)CHAPTER 2 TENSION MEMBERS 2.1. Introduction: Tension members are those structural elements that are subjected to pure tensile ‘forces. The selection of their cross sections is one of the simplest and most straight forward problems encountered in steel design. Since stability is of minor concern with tension members, the problem is reduced to selecting a section with sufficient area to carry the design load, without exceeding the allowable tensile stress as determined by the factor of safety. The rigidity of a tension member must be considered in order to prevent saging and so the slenderness ratio is limited by the design specifications. fetes Behavior of Tension Members: 2.2.1. Stress Strain Relationship When a concentric tensile axial load is applied to a prismatic structural member whose length is several times larger than its maximum transverse dimensions, the resulting internal stress is uniformly distributed over the cross section and is equal to: P/A (2.1) where P is the applied load, A the cross sectional area, and f, is the resulting actual tensile stress. Members of this kind are abundant in metal structures such as chords and web members in trusses, cables in suspension structures and others.& CHAPTER 2 55 As the structure is loaded gradually, the stress in a ension member is also increasing gradually. Its behavior is entirely-analogous to that of a specimen in a tension test as depicted in the stress-strain curve of Fig. 2.1. STRESS. (t) HARDENING STRAIN (2) Fig. 2.1 Typical Stress—Strain Curve. Should the applied stress reach the yield point shows that the member will suddenly elongate a very considerable amount. The load at which this occur is called the yield load. Such yielding of the member will cause detrimental deformations of the structure. It is necessary, therefore, at design loads, that is, under service conditions to keep the applied stress below the yield point by a certain margin. Correspondingly, allowable stresses in tension members are obtained by dividing the yield stress by a constant, generally referred to as the factor of safety. 2.2.2. Stress Concentration due to Fillets and Holes: The various parts of a steel structure are connected by rivets, bolts, pins or welds. The first three of these methods require that holes be made to receive the fasteners. On occasion holes also have to be made for other purposes, such as for passing electric conducts through webs of beams.56 CHAPTER 1B Tt is well known that a hole placed in a tension member, such as in a narrow, long plate produces a stress concentration which causes the stress adjacent to the hole to be much higher than elsewhere in the plate. There are other such stress concentration cases, in steel structures, such as fillets. Figs. 2.2-a and b show the distribution of tensile stresses for these two cases. The degree of stress concentration is expressed by the stress concentration factor K which is defined as: max. peak stress K = ee eet ois average stress on net section fqroee P re Saree = Frou froex™K foot Tex K Sroee (a) Plate with Hole. (b) Plate with Fillets. Fig. 2.2 Stress Concentration. When the radius of hole or fillet is quite small as compared with the width of the member,say, one-tenth of the net width or less, as is often the case in steel construction, K will be in the range of 2.5 to 3.0 for holes, and 1.8 to 2.4 for fillets. These values apply under elastic condition when the peak stress is smaller than the proportional limit or roughly, the yield point. 2.2.3. Plastic Stress Distributior Stress concentrations can be understood from a study of Fig. 2.3. As long as the peak stress is smaller than the yield stress F, the stress will be as indicated by curve 1. Upon load increase, f, becomes equal to Fy (curve 2). When the load is‘CHAPTER 2 57 further increased, the metal immediately adjacent to the hole yields at constant stress similar to a tension test specimen. However, the stress in the portions further removed from the hole will keep increasing so that the distribution of stress will change, successively to that shown by curves 3 and 4. That is increasingly larger portions of the metal to yield, but, as long as some of the material remains stressed below the yield point, the member will entirely not show any sudden elongation at constant load. In the end, upon further increase of P, yielding spreads over the entire net section as indicated by curve ‘5. When this happens, permanent damage to the member occurs through excessive deformation. The stress concentration disappeared altogether; the stress becomes uniform over the net section, and the load at which general yielding occurs is Py Fy-Anet* al + Fig. 2.3 Plastic Stress Distribution. It is this plastic-stress redistribution which accounts for the fact that a hole weakness a steel tension member only in the ratio A regardless of the degree of initial elastic net/Agross stress concentration. This is one example of the fundamental importance of the ductility of structural steel. Had the member been made of a brittle material, such as cast iron or glass, it would have failed when the peak stress f,., reached the tensile strength (which, for such materials, is practically equal to the58 CHAPTER 2 z proportional limit) without the benefit of plastic redistribution. 2.2.4. Effect of Dynamic Loading: - The above is true only for static loading, that is, when loads are applied gradually and remain substantially constant throughout the life time ofthe structure or, at least, do not fluctuate a large number of times between widely different limits. This is the case with most buildings. In contrast in bridges, cranes, transmission and antenna towers, and many other structures, stresses change greatly and frequently owing to the character of the load (moving loads on bridges and cranes or wind loads on towers). Should such structures fail, they may do so by fatigue caused by repetitive loading rather than by yielding under excessive static loading. In this situation plastic-stress redistribution contributes little, and the strength of a structure is significantly reduced by the presence of stress raisers. It follows that, when loads are such that the possibility of fatigue exists, structures should be designed to reduce stress concentrations where possible and, in addition, allowable stresses must be reduced to provide for the detrimental influence of the remaining stress raisers. While structural steel. is ductile in most normal situations, it can become brittle under some conditions such as low temperature, high speed of loading, unfavorable chemical composition and unusual states of stress. It fails, then, in the same sudden and complete manner as cast iron or glass. This very undesirable eventuality is known as brittle fracture. Under such circumstances, likewise, plastic-stress redistribution does not develop, and stress concentrations contribute significantly to the weakness of the member.CHAPTER 2 59 2.3. Different Types of Cross Sections: The cross-sectional arrangement in axially stressed tension members (also called ties or hangers) is structurally unimportant. They may have any cross section so long as the net area is sufficient to carry the design load with a reasonable factor of safety and the shape is one which may conveniently be connected to continuous members. The only other structural requirement is that they be sufficiently stiff to prevent harmful vibration, unsightly sagging, or, where the member must resist a chance reversal of stress to compression of small but indeterminate magnitude, to prevent buckling.- Empirical rules are used to ensure requisite stiffness. For example, the E.C.P- of 2001 required, for members other than rods or cables, a slenderness ratio (unsupported length to least radius of gyration) of 300 or less. Many designers make the diameter of rods at least 1/500 of their length, regardless of stress, to obtain some rigidity. Cables require special considerations. Cross sections of some of the common tension members are shown in Fig. 2.4. vt (c) (a) (e) r (e) (h) @ @ Fig. 2.4 Different Types of Cross Sections.60 CHAPTER 2 s ~ Round Bars or Rods (Fig. 2.4.a) are, often used for bracing in buildings. Sagging may be minimized by. limiting the length-diameter ratio or by fabricating the rod shorter than its theoretical length by some arbitrary amount and drawing it into place to provide an initial ténsion. The same result may be obtained by placing a turn buckle in the rod. Light rods may be connected to the supporting members by running them through a hole in the member and attaching a nut on the far end. - Wire ropes, - Bridge stands, and Cables (Fig. 2.4.b.) are extremely versatile. They may be used for everything. from the lightest to the heaviest tensile loads. Since they are generally long and since their flexural stiffness is negligible initial sag and other geometrical effects must be accounted for in design. It is frequently necessary to employ secondary stiffening members. Wire ropes and cables are joined to supporting members by special fittings or attachments. ~ Rectangular Bars (Fig. 2.4.c) were used extensively as eye bars in pin connected bridges but this use is diminishing. ~ Single angles (Fig. 2.4.d) are used for relatively light loads, as in roof trusses or transmission towers. In trusses they are normally connected to one leg, making the bar force eccentric to the centroid inducing bending stresses. e) are very common in light building ~ Double angles: (Fi, trusses where simple plane (simple gusset) construction, the gusset between the two adjacent angle legs is simple and ensures concentricity. In heavier buildings or bridge trusses, double angles may be used in double gusset construction , but in this case they must be turned, as in Fig. 2.4.f, to fit the gusset plates. Lacing orey CHAPTER 2 61 tie plates (the dashed line), are, required to make the two angles to function as @ unit. — Structural Ties (Fig. 2.4.g) make excellent chord members for lightly loaded welded trusses, since the stern may serve as a gusset for the attachment of single-angle or double-angle web members. — S.I.B. or B.F.I. Members (Fig. 2.4-h) are used as tension members in heavier buildings or bridge trusses of double-plane construction. Figs. 2.4-i,j show two examples of the many different types of built-up members which are used in double-gusset construction where the proper size or area is not available in a single rolled section. They consist of angles, channels, I, or B.F.T. sections connected by plates, battens or lacing as shown in Fig. 2.5. A portion of the perforated plate may be considered as main material (Fig 2.5a ), while battens and lacing bars (Figs. 2.5.b,¢,4) are virtually ineffective in the axial direction. Te Te a, a, a, a aK VA ——WAA (a). Double Lacing.62 CHAPTER a For tension members it is well known that the stability 2.4. Stiffness Limitations: phenomenon is not a criterion in the design. But even in order to prevent saging for tension members which are too long, utilized to or support vibrating equipments such as fans or compressors, it is necessary to establish a stiffness criterion. This criterion is based on the slenderness ratio of a member, 2 = L,/i, where Lis the buckling length of member and i is the corresponding radius of gyration. The E.C.P.2001 of steel structures in clause 4.2.2, require the satisfaction of the slenderness ratio A,,, of Table 2.1 + Table 2.1 Maximum Slenderness Ratio for Tension Members. Members Anax Buildings Tension members 300 Tension members in railway bridges 160 Bridges Tension members in railway bridges 180 Vertical Hangers 300 Bracing Systems 200 ‘| The use of rods and cables in bracing systems or as a main tension member is prohibited in this code. When applying the stiffness criterion to tension members, the following must be considered: (i) For symmetrical members there are two different radii of gyrations. (ii) For nonsymmetrical | members, consider the highest slenderness ratio based w.r.t. the twoprincipal axes.JE CHAPTER 2 63 Table 2.2 Approximate Values of Radius of Gyration for Sections Composed of Angles. CASE | SECTION OF MEMBER ix or iy iy or iy | 1 * HW | i,=0.3 a a 2 — Tp “i,=0.28 b , “| 1 4 oe le -- iy=0.3 a U y a64 CHAPTER 2 zz ) For built up sections, the appropriate radius of gyrations must be computed from the relation i T7K where I is the moment of inertia and A the cross-sectional area: Table 2.2, gives. approximate values of the radius of gyration corresponding to different configurations. 2.5. Allowable Tensile Stresses of Concentrically Loaded Members: 2.5.1, Concentrically Welded Members: If the two end connections of a concentrically tension member are welded as shown in Fig. 2.6.a, the tensile strength is equal to the yield stress f, Limes its gross cross-sectional area A,. The actual tensile stress f, of a tension member subjected to a service load P must not exceed the allowable stress F, as prescribed by the E.C.P, 2001, clause 2.6.2. P fy, Sromca Steet eee: . ~ 21 & where: F.S = Factor of safety = 1.71. F, is as given below in Table 2.3. Table 2.3. Allowable Tensile Stresses BR t/em” Fy (t/em) | Grade of Steel E.C.P. 2001 ite eee Clause 2.6.2 1.6 St 44 21 St 52(b) Bolted Members, Fig. 2.6 Concentrically Loaded. Tension Members: 2.5.2. Concentrically Riveted or Bolted Members: If the end connections are bolted with a single row of bolts (Fig. 2.6.b), the tensile strength at the perforated angles is equal to the yield stress ry times the effective net area Avet which is equaltothe gross area minus the sectional area. of the hole. Generally, bolt holes are fabricated larger than the nominal diameter of the fastener in order to facilitate its installation ent to -the and also to compensate the damage of the -metal-adja “hole caused by the punching operation. For such situation the tensile allowable stresses F, of table 2.3 are not to be exceeded and Eq. 2.1 will be of the following form: zt P fe x

iv t where I, and I, are the principal moments of inertia, x’ and ¥ are the principal coordinates of the point at which the stress f, is calculated, and M, and M, are the moments about the respective principal axes 1 and 2 due to the eccentrically applied load P, A is the cross sectional area of the single angle. Concerning I,, I, and A, the gross or net values are to be galculated for the corresponding welded or bolted ends respectively. The application of Eq. 2.4 will lead to high stresses reaching 2.5 times the stresses resulting from Eqs. 2.1 and 2.2. This calculation seems to lead to an over stressed state, but fortunately this is not true. The load being applied to the member, as shown in Fig. 2.7.a, coinciding on the gage line of the fasteners, localized yielding will start at point (A), remaining constant at the outer edge and then penetrating the section. Edge (B) is in compression, and as the yieldingej CHAFTER 2 : 67 progresses across the section, there are redistribution of stresses util the entire section is plastified. Deflection of the tensicn member will occur in a direction such that its centroidal axis will tend to approach the loading axis. This will reduce the bending stresses. Gibson has shown that when the ultimate lsad is approached, the centroidal axis coincides with the loading axis over most of the length of the member. -(a) Distribution of Stresses. 7 _...(b) Typical Configuration. Fig. 2.7 Eccentrically Loaded Angle.” As a good approximation, the E.C.P. 2001 Clouse 9.2.2.3-1 require the following :— i - Single angles, Channels and T-section. For single angle sections connected through one leg only, single cheanel sections connected only through the web, and T-sections connected only through the flange (see Fig. 2.8), the ea should be taken as the net area of the connected effective leg, plus :he area of the unconnected leg multiplied by = 2368 CHAPTER2 z Gusset Gusset A dazed bse ation Gusset Gusset Fig..2.8 Single Angles, Channels and T-section Connected to Gusset Plates. Where: > " net area of connected leg. area of unconnected leg. " i For back to back double angles connected to one side of gusset or sections, the angles may be designed individually as given above. Where lug angles are used in the connection of single angle the net area of the whole member shall be taken as effective. EB ii - Double Angles. For back to back double angles connected to one side of a gusset or section which are :. CHAPTER 2 69 1. In contact or separated by a distance not exceeding the thickness of the parts with solid packing pieces, or 2. Coonected by bolts or welding such that the slenderness ratio of the individual components does not exceed 80, Ag Gusset Fig. 2.9 Double Angles Connected to Gusset Plates. Then the effective area as shown in Fig. 2.9 may by taken as the net area of the connected legs plus the area of the outstanding-legs multiplied by.: .. SA, Where: " net area of connected leg. >> 4 area of unconnected leg. 2.7. Net Area of Staggered Holes: When more than one row is utilized, it would be desirable to stagger them in order to provide a large net area capable to resist higher loads.70 i; CHAPTER 2 zz Coe eee e 2 oe ¢ id (a) One Row.” (b) Two Rows. AY oO ee Je --¥--+ = a D (c) Staggered Holes. Fig. 2.10 Fig. 2.10.a,b shows the cases of single row and two parallel rows. Failure will occur along section 1-1, where the calculation of the net area is a straight forward matter. For the case of staggered holes shown in Fig. 2.10.c different trial sections are to be considered in order to determine the failure section. Two different trial sections ABA’ and ABCD will be considered. It might seem logical to compute the area of a section transverse to the member along ABA’ less the area of one hole and then the area along section ABCD less two holes. The smallest value obtained along these sections would be the critical value, but this procedure is wrong. It has to be noted that along the diagonal line from B to C there is a combination of direct normal and shear stresses and so a smaller area is to be used. The true strength of: the member will be somewhat between the transverse section A‘A by subtracting one hole, and that along ABCD by subtracting two holes.‘CHAPTER 2 71 B=. tiara The theoretical approach for such an analysis is complicated. The problem can be handled using an empirical relation. The E.C.P. of steel structures 2001 use a simple method for computing the net width of a tension member along a zigzag section. The following statement is extracted from the E.C.P., Clause 2.7.1: "The effective net sectional area shall be taken for all tension members. This area shall be the least that can be determined from any plane or planes cutting each component plate or section perpendicularly to its axis, diagonally, or following @ zigzag line through adjacent bolt holes. In each case all holes of rivets or bolts met. with shall be deducted from the gross sectional area. Where any portion of the sectional area is measured along a diagonal plane, a quantity = (s2.t) 7 (4g) for each gauge space in the diagonal plane must be added in computing the effective area." where S = the staggered pitch, i.e. the distance, measured parallel to the direction of stress in the member, center to center, of holes in consecutive lines. t "= the thickness of the material. g =the gauge, i.e. the distance, measured at right angles to the a direction of stress in the member, .) center to center of holes in Serle eee consecutive Lines. : The effective sectional area so obtained ‘must not be less than that obtained by assuming all the holes to be in one perpendicular plane. (Refer to example 2.5). 2.8. Effective Net Area of Pi Isolated pinned members are usually used as hangers and onnected Members:72 CHAPTER 2 zz links or elsewhere where it is desired to control the direction of a force as closely as possible. They may be eyebars (Fig. 2.11.a) or straight bars (Fig. 2.11.b). Etther ‘type is usually formed by flame cutting the edges and boring the pin holes. Some restriétions concerning the general geometry of eyebars and pin-connected links are required. The relations between width of body, diameter of pin, and diameter of head or net section adjacent to the pin hole are such that "dishing" of the head or region adjacent to the pin hole will be avoided. If dishing of the head occurs, there will be an associated loss of strength of the member. The restriction on width-to-thickness ratio of the body is included to provide a compact section and to avoid large diameter pins. Since the diameter of the pin is a function of the width of the body and the allowable bearing stress, an extremely wide or thin body will require an extensive large pin diameter. (a) Eyebars. (b) Pin Plates. Fig. 2.11 Pinned Members.nko and Goodier have summarized the current state of eyebars in the elastic range. Concerning a safe the following restrictions are to be respected: tyebars (Fig. 2.11.a): 4- Thickness shall be uniform. 6- 1.33 ws 2b 51.50 2- wth = P/ 0.6 F Tatu y p 8 3 2 bt = P/ 0.45 Fy 8-a=b 4-t = 12 mms g-r2D SeusBt t0- d) - d= 1 mm nop (b) Pin-Connected Plates (Fig. 2.11.b): 1- The thickness need not to be uniform: built up parts shall be attached by sufficient fasteners to develop force transmitted to them by pin: 2- wt, = P/ 0.6 F . 6-e2a w y 3 (b, + b,) t= P 7 0.45 F, T- Preferably, d= 5 t. 2° Pp y P P 4- e-Ifd <5 t. Pon =P» dt>=P/ 0.9 F P y 2 5- a= § (b, + by) 9- a, - a, = 1 mm Example 2.8 "Pin-Plates". ive Area of Threaded Tension Members: 2.9. 2.9.1. of Threaded Rods The strength of threaded tension rods, just as the tensile strength of bolts, is controlled by threads. There are three physically significant diameters to a thread: the major, the minor and the pitch (see Fig. 2.12).74 CHAPTER As Taking a cross section through the threads, the radius varies continuously from the minor to the major, leaving the question “what. portion of the thread rib ig effective in resisting tension?". It will be very’conservative if the threads are completely neglected considering only the minor (root) area as effective. Tests have conducted that at-yield and ultimate strengths, a larger effective area is governing. This area corresponds to the average of the minor and pitch diameters called stress, area (A,) and can be calculated using the following relationship: ey : (2.7) =Tg- gq @ where D is the major diameter and n is the number of threads per cm. Minor (root) diameter diameter Major (bolt) diameter Fig. 2.12 Bolt. Thread Detail. 2.9.2. Ordinary and High Strength Bolts: The determination of the effective area and the allowable working stresses depend on the type of the threaded member and the manner in which it is used. The E.C.P. of steel structures 2001 base computations onAPTER 2 75 the nominal (minor or root) diameter and use corresponding allowable stresses. The following is extracted from the E.C.P. 2001 for hot driven rivets and ordinary bolts (clause 6.1.1) and (clause 6.4.3). 7 z = 2 (i) For ordinary bolts Fup =.0.33F iy, (t/em") Fypy = 1:32 tron? for Grade (4.6) and (4.8) Fup = 2-85 tom” for Grade (5.6) and (5.8) ey = 1:98 tom” for Grade (6.8) The stress area (A,)is to be utilized for the determination of the ultimate tensile resistance. (iii) Concerning the high strength bolts, the effective area (A,) according to the E.C.P. 2001, clause 6.5.2.1, is pased on the mean diameter of outer and inner areas of the " produced in the bolt threaded section. The axial force by the application of a torque to the nut or belt head will follow the following relationship: T=O.7 Fy + Ag Hees where Fy = Yield point stress of the bolt material. b A, = Stress area of bolt. 2.9.3. Sag Rods for Steel Frame Buildings: For roofs of steel frame industrial buildings with steeper slopes than 1:4, sag rods are used to provide lateral supports especially for purlins consisting of channel cross section (See Fig. 2.13). For channels that