CHALLENGES FOR URBAN WATER SUPPLY AND

SANITATION IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

by
Khatri, K.B
Vairavamoorthy K.

Discussion Draft Paper

for the session on
Urbanisation

Wednesday, 13 June 2007

Delft, The Netherlands
 Discussion draft paper

Abstract
The available water sources throughout the world are becoming depleted and
this problem is aggravated by the rate at which populations are increasing,
especially in developing countries. This has brought into focus the urgent need
for planned action to manage water resources effectively for sustainable
development. The problem of water scarcity in urban areas is of particular
concern. With increasing global change pressures (urbanisation, climate
change etc.), coupled with existing un-sustainability factors and risks inherent
to conventional urban water management, cities of the future in developing
countries will experience difficulties in efficiently managing scarcer and less
reliable water resources. In order to meet these challenges, there needs to be
a shift in the way we manage urban water systems. This paradigm shift is
based on several key concepts of urban water management including:
interventions over the entire urban water cycle; reconsideration of the way
water is used (and reused); and greater application of natural systems for
water and wastewater treatment. This needs to be coupled with increased
stakeholder involvement, institutional development and capacity building.
Clearly, this will substantially contribute to a reduction in the vulnerability of
cities and an increase in their capacity and preparedness to cope with global
changes.

Keywords: Urban water systems, water scarcity, global change, sustainability,

capacity building.

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The available water sources throughout the world are becoming depleted and this problem
is aggravated by the rate at which populations are increasing, especially in developing
countries.

Currently, some 30 countries are considered to be water stressed, of which 20 are

absolutely water scarce. It is predicted that by 2020, the number of water scarce countries
will likely approach 35 (Rosegrant et al., 2002). It has been estimated that, one-third of
the population of the developing world will face severe water shortages by 2025 (Seckler
et al., 1998).

For example:
• In the Africa, 12 African countries will be considered to be in a “Water Stress”
situation by next year. A further 10 African countries will be stressed by 2025. A total
of 1.1 billion people or two thirds of Africa’s population will be affected (Dzikus,
2001).
• At the current rate of population growth in India, combined with the growing strain on
available water resources, India could well have the dubious distinction of having the
largest number of water-deprived persons in the world in the next 25 years (Singh,
2000).

On the other hand, the total non-irrigation water consumption (domestic, industrial, and
livestock) for the different regions of the developing world is increasing drastically
(Figure 1, Rosegrant et al., 2002). It means the problem of water scarcity will be felt more
severely in the developing countries.

Fig. 1: Total non-irrigation water consumption by region (Rosegrant et al., 2002)

In addition to limited water resources, the lack of safe drinking water and sanitation are
the most serious challenges of the twenty-first century. Over 1 billion people lack access
to clean water, nearly all of them live in developing countries. Yet, 2.6 billion people,
40% of the world population, half the developing world lack even a simple improved
latrine (Elimelech, 2006; UNICEF/WHO, 2004). Unsafe water and poor sanitation are the

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primary causes for the vast majority of water borne and primarily diarrhoeal diseases.
Every year, unsafe water coupled, with a lack of basic sanitation, kills at least 1.6 million
children under the age of five years – more than eight times the number of peoples who
died in the Asian tsunami of 2004 (WHO/UNESCO, 2006). Waterborne diseases also
inflict significant economic burden through the loss of productivity in the workforce and
through increasing national health care costs. As consequences of these pit falls, a billion
of people locked in a cycle of poverty and disease (UNICEF/ WHO, 2004).

The threat to water resources has brought into focus the urgent need for planned action to
manage water resources effectively as it is widely acknowledged that water is a major
limiting factor in the socio-economic development. The United Nations (UN) in their
Millennium Declaration draws attention to the importance of water and water related
activities in supporting development and eradicating poverty (UN, 2003).

2.0 EXISTING CONDITIONS

2.1 Water Supply
The problem of water scarcity in urban areas of developing countries is a major concern.
It is estimated that by 2050, half of India’s population will be living in urban areas and
will face acute water problems (Singh, 2000). It was reported in 2002 that about 1.1
billion people were still using water from unimproved sources, and two thirds of these
people live in Asia. The number of people without improved water sources in China alone
is equal to the number of un-served in all of Africa (UNICEF/ WHO, 2004). The quality
of water that people receive is also questionable. In India, eighty-five per cent of urban
population has access to drinking water but only 20 per cent of the available drinking
water meets the health and quality standards set by the world health organisation (WHO)
(Singh, 2000).

The daily water supply rate in the developing countries is very low compared to the
industrial world. In India, it ranges from 16 to 300 litres per day depending on the locality
and the economic strata (Singh, 2000), whereas this figure ranges from 100 to 600 litres
per day in the developed countries. The populations that are not served by piped water
supply receive even smaller amount of water. In East Africa, the daily supply rate of un-
piped water was nearly a third less than for piped users of low-income communities
(Thompson et al., 2001). Figure 2 shows the mean daily per capita water supplied by
piped and un-piped systems, and Figure 3 shows the mean daily per capita water used for
different purposes in East Africa.

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Piped

Water use(litres)
70 Unpiped
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

an

a
al
io

nd

ni

ny
ur
rb
eg

Ke
ga
R

nz
U
R

Ta
Fig. 2: Mean daily per capita water use in East Africa (Thompson et al., 2001)

20
Piped
Unpiped
Water use(litres)

10

0
ng
ng
n

g
s

ss

de

in
oc
er

ki
ne

hi
th
th

st

ar

rin
as
Ba
si
O

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D
W
Bu

Li

Fig. 3: Mean daily/capita water use by type of use in East Africa (Thompson et al., 2001)

The prevailing water stress in many developing countries is not only due to source
limitation but other factors such as poor distribution efficiency through city networks and
inequalities in service provision between the rich and the poor (UN-HABITAT, 1999).
One of the main reasons is the high rate of water losses form the distribution systems.
Many studies revealed that water losses in cities of developing countries are at levels of
between 40-60% of water supplied (Arlosoroff, 1999). The mean unaccounted for water
(UFW) in the developing world (Figure 4) and 8 major Asian cities (Figure 5) show the
higher rate of water losses (ADB, 1997; WHO, 2000). The unaccounted for water
reported in these figures are due to water losses (as it excludes unbilled and unauthorized
consumption). In many cases the water loss indicators shown in these figures reflect the
inefficiency of the management of the water supply system. Any reduction in water
losses, requires coherent action to address not only technical and operational issues but
also institutional, planning, financial and administrative issues (WHO, 2000)

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 Discussion draft paper

100

80

Percentage
60

40

20

0
Africa Asia LA&C N.Amer

Fig. 4: Mean unaccounted-for water in large cities (WHO, 2000)

100
Percentage UFW

80

60

40

20

0
Chennai Colombo Delhi Dhaka Jakartha Karachi Manila Mumbai
Cities

Fig. 5: Mean unaccounted-for water in selected Asian cities (ADB, 1997)

The design of water distribution systems in general has been based on the assumption of
continuous supply. However, in most of the developing countries, the water supply
system is not continuous but intermittent. The Asian Development Bank has reported
that, in 2001, 10 of the 18 cities studied, supplied water for less than 24 hours a day
(ADB, 2004). Figure 6 shows the percentage of population with 24-hour supply for 8
major Asian cities. The situation is similar in other regions of the world, for example in
Latin America 10 major cities receives rationed supplies (Choe & Varley, 1997). Only 11
per cent of the consumers with a piped supply in Nigeria, received water once in two
days, in 1995. Furthermore, Hardoy et al. (2001) reported that in Mombasa the average
duration of the service is 2.9 hours a day.

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Fig. 6: Percentage of population with 24-hour supply (ADB, 2004)

Intermittent supply leads to many problems including, severe supply pressure losses and
great inequities in the distribution of water. Another serious problem arising from
intermittent supplies, which is generally ignored, is the associated high levels of
contamination. This occurs in networks where there are prolonged periods of interruption
of supply due to negligible or zero pressures in the system (Vairavamoorthy & Mansoor,
2006).

2.2 Sanitation
The sanitation sector is often worse than water supply. Some 2.6 billion people, half of
the developing world, live without improved sanitation. Sanitation coverage in
developing countries (49 per cent) is only half that of the developed world (98 per cent).
In sub-Saharan Africa the coverage is a mere 36 per cent, and over half of those are
without improved sanitation. Similarly, nearly 1.5 billion people live in China and India
without access to improved sanitation services (WHO/UNESCO, 2006). The number of
deaths attributable to poor sanitation and hygiene alone may be as high as 1.6 million a
year. Statistics on wastewater treatment revealed that almost 85% of global wastewater is
discharged without treatment leading to serious impacts on public health and the
receiving water environmental.

In developing countries, rapid population growth and urbanization is creating an added

demand for housing, infrastructure services including sanitation services. Providing
sanitation services especially for the poor who are living outside the designated
residential areas like illegal settlements or slums is a challenge. The World Bank
estimates that almost 26% of the global urban population, over 400 million people, lack
access to the simplest latrines (World Bank, 2000).

At the same time, the drainage and solid waste collection services are not adequate in
most of the developing countries. The systems are either poorly planned and designed, or
operated without inadequate maintenance, which means that the existing services are
often of poor quality. Most of the city wastes are dumped and discharged directly to the
open environment. As a result, untreated urban wastes pollute surface as well as ground
water sources. The situation is even worse in the area of low-income settlements. Septic
tanks and feeder networks regularly discharge effluent into street gutters, open streams or

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drainage canals. This creates unpleasant living conditions, public health risks and
environmental damage (GHK, 2002).

The numbers of urban dwellers are increasing and the urban areas are becoming
overcrowded. Efforts to improve basic sanitation have tended to focus on ambitious
master plans which require large investments in trunk sewerage, storm water drainage
systems and equipment for solid waste collection and disposal. These plans either fail to
be implemented due to financial and institutional constraints, or provide an inequitable
service, once implemented. Consequently, the effort to solve the basic sanitation
problems cannot keep-up with the growing population in the developing world.

3.0 FUTURE CHALLENGES

Cities all over the world are facing a range of dynamic global and regional pressures (see
Figure 7, (Kelay et al., 2006; Segrave, 2007; Zuleeg, 2006). They are facing difficulty in
efficiently and transparently managing ever scarcer water resources, delivering water
supply and sanitation services. There are equal challenges on disposing of wastewater and
minimizing negative impacts to the environment. In order to develop solutions to manage
urban water more effectively, these global and regional pressures must be recognised and
used to drive the design and management processes of urban water systems.

2) Population Growth and Urbanization

1) Climate Change 3) Globalization &
Economic Development

9) Increase in
the fuel Costs
Urban Water 4) Deterioration of
8) Risks on Critical Systems in the Infrastructure
Infrastructure Systems city of the
Future

7) Emerging
Technology
5) Governance
6) Changes in the Public & Privatization
Behaviours

Fig. 7: Global change drivers in the city of the future

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 Discussion draft paper

Of the pressures presented in Figure 7, the three main ones are:

• Climate change is predicted to cause significant changes in precipitation and

temperature patterns, affecting the availability of water.

• Population growth and urbanisation are enforcing rapid changes leading to a

dramatic increase in high-quality water consumption. Frequently, this demand for
water cannot be satisfied by the locally available water resources, while the
discharge of insufficiently treated wastewater increases costs for downstream users
and has detrimental effects on the aquatic systems.

• Existing infrastructure is aging and deteriorating. It is a technological and financial

challenge to maintain and upgrade it in such a way that quality water can continue
to be delivered to all sectors and wastewater can be adequately collected and
treated.

3.1 Climate Change

There is little dispute that the earth system is undergoing very rapid changes as a result of
increased human activities. As a result of these changes it is generally accepted that we
have begun to witness changes in the natural cycles at the global scale. Clearly these
changes will severely impact the urban water cycle and how we manage it. Components
of the urban water cycle, like water supply, wastewater treatment, and urban drainage etc.
are generally planned for life-spans over several decades. Hence there is a need for us to
pay attention to these changes in the context of how these systems will be designed and
operated in the ‘city of the future’.

Although the regional distribution is uncertain, precipitation is expected to increase in

higher latitudes, particularly in winter. This conclusion extends to the mid-latitudes in
most of the General Circulation Model (GCM) results. Potential evapotranspiration (ET)
rises with air temperature. Consequently, even in areas with increased precipitation,
higher ET rates may lead to reduced runoff, implying a possible reduction in renewable
water supplies. More annual runoff caused by increased precipitation is likely in the high
latitudes. In contrast, some lower latitude basins may experience large reductions in
runoff and increased water shortages as a result of a combination of increased evaporation
and decreased precipitation.

The frequency and severity of droughts could also increase in some areas as a result of a
decrease in total rainfall, more frequent dry spells, and higher ET. Flood frequencies are
likely to increase in many areas, although the amount of increase for any given climate
scenario is uncertain and impacts will vary among basins.

Water quality problems may increase where there is less flow to dilute contaminants
introduced from natural and human sources. The increase in water temperature will alter
the rate of operation of bio-geo-chemical processes (degrading and cleaning) and to lower
the dissolved oxygen concentration of water. Similarly, increased occurrence of higher
runoff will increases the load of pollutants and overflowing of the sewers. Further,
increased flooding frequency with overflow of treated or untreated wastewater sewers
systems will cause serious affect on biotic life cycle, and higher possibility of out-breaks
of water borne diseases (such as cryptosporidium presence). The water quality matter

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may be more sensitive in the lakes due to higher incidence of Eutrophication process
(Hellmuth & Kabat, 2002).

The above impacts are in addition to the obvious impacts of increased risk of damage to
stormwater infrastructure and facilities (e.g. underground drains, levee banks, pump
stations etc) due to higher peak flows. There are several other impacts which we can only
guess at the moment such as increased risk of pipe failure and collapse due to dry soil
conditions.

Climate change will affect different cities in different ways with some experiencing more
frequent droughts and water shortage while others will have more intense storm events
with subsequent flooding issues. Flexible and adaptable solutions are hence required to
reduce the vulnerability of cities to these changes.

3.2 Population Growth and Urbanization

Population growth and urbanization will be one of the world’s most important challenges
in the next few decades. United Nations population prospects report (2006) illustrates the
higher rate of population growth in urban area in the developing countries. In less
developed countries, urban population will grow from 1.9 billion in 2000 to 3.9 billion in
2030, averaging 2.3% per year. On the other hand, in developed countries, the urban
population is expected to increase, from 0.9 billion in 2000 to 1 billion in 2030 overall
growth rate 1% (Brockerhoff, 2000) (Figure 8).

Fig. 8: Average annual rate of population change, by major area, estimates and medium
variant, 1950-1955 to 2045-2050(United Nations, World Population Prospects: (2005)

Moreover, the numbers and sizes of the cities, mostly in developing countries, are
increasing due to the higher rate of urbanization. In 1950, New York City and Tokyo
were only two cities with a population of over 10 million inhabitants. By 2015, it is
expected that there will be 23 cities with a population over 10 million. Of the 23 cities
expected to reach 10 million plus by 2015, 19 of them will be in developing countries. In
2000, there were 22 cities with a population of between 5 and 10 million; 402 cities with

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a population of 1 to 5 million; and 433 cities in the 0.5 to 1 million categories. Almost
180,000 people are added to the urban population each day. It is estimated that there are
almost a billion poor people in the world; of this over 750 million live in urban areas
without adequate shelters and basic services (Figure 5, UN, 2006).

Fig. 9: Percent of Population Living in Urban Areas in Major World Regions, 1950,
1975, 2000, and 2025 (United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects: The 1999 Revision
(2000)

Population growth and rapid urbanization will create a severe scarcity of water as well as
tremendous impact on the natural environment. In order to meet the future water demand,
cities will need to tap their water supply either from a deep ground or surface sources
situating a far distance away from the urban area. Moreover, rapid increase in built-up
areas disturbs the local hydrological cycle and environment by reducing the natural
infiltration opportunity and producing the rapid peak storm water flow.

Cities in developing countries are already faced by enormous backlogs in shelter,

infrastructure and services and confronted with insufficient water supply, deteriorating
sanitation and environmental pollution. The larger populations will demand larger
proportions of water while simultaneously decreasing the ability of ecosystems to provide
more regular and cleaner supplies.

Sustaining healthy environments in the urbanized world of the 21st century represents a
major challenge for human settlements, development and management. Again, flexible
and innovative solutions are needed to cope with sudden and substantial changes in water
demand for people and their associated economic activities.

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 Discussion draft paper

3.3 Deterioration of Infrastructure Systems

In order for the urban water cycle to function effectively, it needs to be supported by
appropriate infrastructure in good working condition. Protecting the infrastructure used to
treat and transport water (including sources, treatment plants, and distribution systems) is
an important step in ensuring the safety of drinking water. However, in most cities
worldwide, there has been years of neglected maintenance to water storage, treatment,
and distribution systems. Poorly maintained water supply systems can generally be traced
to insufficient financial resources and poor management. This deterioration in the water
infrastructure threatens the quality and reliability of all water services.

In particular there has been little or no management and maintenance of the underground
infrastructure. A large proportion of this infrastructure is over 100 years old, placing it at
increased risk for leaks, blockages and malfunctions due to deterioration. For example,
water mains break in hundreds of thousands of locations each year in the United States,
leaving water customers without a supply, or with a supply that is unsafe for consumption
without special treatment (e.g., boiling or chlorination).

Escalating deterioration of water and sewer systems threatens our ability to provide safe
drinking water and essential sanitation services for the current and future generations. As
the pipes crumble and leak, many cities are faced with an expensive water and sewer
problem. As this problems go unresolved, the more serious they become, placing vital
public assets at risk of further degradation, posing an unacceptable risk to human health
and the environment, damaging public and private property, and impacting state and local
economies.

The cost of rehabilitation of water infrastructure system is increasing substantially due to

their deterioration over the world. European cities are spending in the order of 5-billion
Euros per year for waste water network rehabilitation. The UK has over 700,000 km of
mains and sewers pipes, and going with over 35,000 maintenance works per month on
these pipes. A 5% saving in costs would save over £20 million for the UK (Vahala,
2004). In the same way, many of the infrastructure systems in Canada and the United
States, worth trillions of dollars, are failing prematurely and are in a need of costly
repairs. Further, estimated capital needed for the rehabilitation of main urban water and
sewer pipes, older than 50 years and in 50 largest cities of the USA, is more than $700
billion (Yan & Vairavamoothy, 2003). It will be increased significantly over the coming
decades due to the combined effect of infrastructure ageing, urbanisation and climate
change.

These deterioration processes are more severe for the developing countries, due to ageing
of the systems, poor construction practices, little or no maintenance and rehabilitation
activities due to the limited financial resource, operation at higher capacities than design,
etc. Similarly, there is a little knowledge about specific classes of assets deterioration, the
technical service life and insufficient database to know the extent and/or the value of their
infrastructure assets. Further, there are not efficient decision support tools available to
infrastructure managers and decision makers (Misiunas, 2005).
Infrastructure deterioration will impact to the public health, environment and institutions.
Higher rate of the water leakage means higher water losses and higher chances of in-
filtration and ex-filtration of water. This will create the higher chances of drinking water

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contamination and outbreak of water-borne diseases. Frequent break down of services,

and therefore reduced water service quality and standards will affect the willingness to
pay of consumers.

4.0 NEW APPROACH’S TO URBAN WATER MANAGEMENT

With increasing global change pressures coupled with existing un-sustainability factors
and risks inherent to conventional urban water management, cities of the future will
experience difficulties in efficiently managing scarcer and less reliable water resources.

The current model for ‘western’ urban water management schemes and corresponding
infrastructure originates from the 19th century and was mainly driven by the aim to
improve water services and public health. Sustainability criteria were not of relevance at
that time, and the robustness of urban water management (UWM) systems, in terms of
global change pressures such as climate change, urbanisation, industrial growth, and
population growth were not considered. The conventional system has serious
inefficiencies, such as high quality drinking water for all domestic purposes, large
quantities of drinking water to transport human excreta, loss of useful chemicals.

There are also compelling environmental considerations which plead for a redesign of the
cycle. The ever increasing costs for drinking water treatment and ‘end-of-pipe’
wastewater management, and the limitations of existing high-technology wastewater
treatment systems, means that receiving environments are often not able anymore to
‘naturally’ compensate for the huge abstractions and pollution loads, resulting sometimes
in severe ecological damage. (SWITCH, 2006).

In order to meet the future challenges, there needs to be a shift in the way we manage
urban water systems. This paradigm shift must be based on several key concepts of urban
water management, namely that: water is a cycle and hence we must consider
interventions over the entire urban water cycle; we must reconsider the way water is used
(and reused); and we must promote greater application of natural systems for water and
wastewater treatment.

4.1 Interventions over entire Urban Water Cycle

An important aspect of urban water systems is the interactions that take place between
different components of the system (e.g. foul water from leaky sewers entering into a
drinking water distribution network). It widely recognised that it is important to consider
these interactions in order to maintain an effective, efficient and safe service of water and
sanitation. Hence an integrated approach to urban water management (IUWM) is
necessary.

An IUWM approach involves managing freshwater, wastewater, and storm water as links
within the resource management structure, using an urban area as the unit of
management. The approach encompasses various aspects of water management, including
environmental, economic, technical, political, as well as social impacts and implications.
Urban areas are appropriate as units of management, as specific problems and needs faced
by cities may transcend the physical and scientific boundary embodied by more
traditional units of management of catchments and watersheds. Hence, this unit of
management offers a relevant framework for decision-making and concrete action.

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By applying an IUWM approach it is possible to satisfy the water related needs of a

community at the lowest cost to society whilst minimising environmental and social
impacts.

4.2 Reconsider Water Use

The challenge of servicing more people with same quantity of natural water, while
maintaining a tight control over the adverse environmental impacts is a profound one.
Hence it is important to critically look into water use practices and to develop strategies
that maximize the benefits of water services while minimizing the usage as far as
practically possible. In water stressed areas, balancing the demands for water between the
various sectors will need to be accompanied by the use of new and alternative resources,
by increased recycling of wastewater that will ensure better access to safe water, reduced
vulnerability to extremes and increased adaptive capacity. This will make a significant
contribution towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

Demand management and water reuse opportunities are real and increasing. A
combination of end-use efficiency, system efficiency, storage innovations (using different
managed aquifer recharge options), and reuse strategies would reduce water demand.
Water can be used multiple times, by cascading it from higher to lower-quality needs (e.g.
using household grey water for irrigation), and by reclamation treatment for return to the
supply side of the infrastructure. In most of the developing countries, effective water
demand management and reuse of the supplied water may be a sustainable ways to reduce
water stress.

4.3 Application of Natural Systems

Besides pipes and treatment plants (Gray infrastructure), use of natural capacities of soil
and vegetation (green infrastructure) should be applied to absorb and treat water. Green
infrastructure refers to techniques and systems that use the natural capacities of soil and
vegetation to absorb and retain water, and to take-up, transform, or otherwise treat
pollutants in water. Natural systems are found to be more cost-effective and require low
building, labour and maintenance costs. They are much more convenient than the
conventional (biological) wastewater plants during the operational phase, because they
require less energy than conventional systems. Limited mechanical devices are used in
these systems thus reducing the maintenance costs. In addition it has been found that
natural systems are generally efficient for the removal of most of pollutants. Finally and
most importantly these systems are found to be very reliable even in extreme operating
conditions. They can better absorb a variety of both hydraulic and contaminant shocks,
hence making them more robust and resilient systems. It should be noted that natural
systems are not only more robust but are also capable of removing multiple contaminants
in a single system. Such engineered natural systems include constructed wetlands, soil
aquifer treatment (for polishing wastewater for reuse) and bank filtration systems (river or
lake) for treating drinking water.

5.0 INSTITUTIONS, STAKEHOLDERS AND CAPACITY BUILDING

Historically the performance of urban water systems in developing countries remains
below expectation and this has not only been due to inappropriate technology. It should

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be recognised that urban water management poses extraordinary complex problems that
cannot be solved by individual stakeholders. The failing of systems particularly in
developing countries has been partly the result of a top-down approach with limited
involvement of stakeholders. Finding consensus on what the problems are and how to
solve them remains a big challenge.

Another reason for failure has been the lack of understanding of the institutional
landscape in which the urban water system will be managed and operated. The methods
and techniques developed were not appropriate for the local circumstances. The lessons
learnt from these experiences, has emphasized the need to recognise institutional
landscapes and provide appropriate institutional development and capacity building
programmes.

5.1 Learning Alliances

Learning alliances (SWITCH, 2006), is a relatively new concept that aims to link up
stakeholders at city level to interact productively and to create win-win solutions along
the water chain. They typically consist of a series of structured platforms, at different
institutional levels (national, river basin, city, community etc), designed to break down
barriers to both horizontal and vertical information sharing, and thus to speed up the
process of identification, adaptation, and uptake of new innovation. These platforms bring
together a wide range of partners (including public and private sectors, academia, and
community based organizations), with capabilities in: implementation. Clearly, the
involvement of these multi-stakeholder alliances will substantially contribute to a
reduction in the vulnerability of cities and their capacity and preparedness to cope with
global changes. In addition innovations developed through these alliances will lead to
greater impact and more potential for taking innovations to scale through the development
of locally appropriate innovations, of ownership of the concepts and process; and of
capacity of learning alliance members. Nesting learning alliances at different levels will
both shorten the time between developing new knowledge and scaling it up; and, ensure
that local solutions are nationally relevant and applicable.

5.2 Institutional Development

Clearly, improved IUWM will require engagement with a complex array of
administrative, political, institutional, social, economic challenges in cities. There is a
need, therefore to stimulate changes in policy and practice in urban water management
within institutions, other levels of government and civil society. An underlying
hypothesis is that without institutional change it will not be possible to achieve a
paradigm shift towards more integrated management. The new paradigm is likely to
require:

• Changes in holistic environmental thinking,

• Changes in institutional structures and frameworks,
• Change in use of means and resources,
• Changes in managerial methodologies and approaches &
• Changes in approaches to financial planning and management to include explicit
attention to pro-poor and gender-specific strategies.

Developing and managing institutional improvements is a difficult process. Edwards

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(1988) has developed manual that provides practical and immediately useful information
about developing and managing institutional change projects in the water supply and
sanitation sector. He points out that institutional development projects should “focus on
the development of comprehensive organisational systems and the people within the
system which make them work.” He goes on to say that ‘the overall purpose of these
projects is to achieve institutional learning or sustainability” More recently there has
been interest in the development of the ‘Change Management Forum’ (CMF) in India
(www.cmfindia.org). The mission of this forum is to
“Promote institutional and organisational development and support reform of the
urban water and sanitation sector through capacity building, knowledge sharing
and promotion of partnerships”.
The CMF works through policy and decision makers from municipalities, water utilities
and Pubic Health Departments to develop critical mass of change champions. Activities
of the CMF include dissemination of information on best practices, knowledge resource
products, introduction of performance indicators, and the development of a benchmarking
database.

5.3 Capacity Building

The critical links in the chain of sustainable water management are the institutions and the
knowledge base skills and attitudes (the capacity) of individuals and organisations, which
need to be strengthened. The capacities are the knowledge and experience incorporated in
the organization - in its structure and in its staff (Alaerts, 1999). The capacities allow the
organization to adequately resolve problems, and to respond to opportunities. The
incentives influence the decisions of the staff and the management to take certain actions.
If the incentives for the staff as individuals and as an organization point in the wrong
direction, the possession of other capacities is of little value.

Capacities, thus, are an essential component of institutions and actually determine the
institutions. That is obvious for organizations, as discuses above, but this also holds for
the non-organizational institutions, such as legal and regulatory frameworks, or the
framework to devolve decision- making power to local government levels, as well as the
economic and other incentive systems (Alaerts, 1999).

Capacity building (for the water sector) draws from three distinct sets of disciplines:
water management principles; business, behavioural and administration sciences; and
pedagogic sciences. UNU-INWH (2007) defined 4-pillars for capacity building that the
identify capacities required at the community, state and federal levels of responsibility.

1. Educate and train, including community awareness building, adult training and
formal education, so as to provide sufficient numbers of competent human
resources to develop and apply enabling systems,
2. Measure and understand aquatic systems, through monitoring, applied research,
technology development and forecasting, so that reliable data is used for analysis
and decision-making,
3. Legislate, regulate and achieve compliance through effective governmental, non-
governmental and private sector institutions and through efficient enforcement and
community acceptance, &

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 Discussion draft paper

4. Provide appropriate, affordable water infrastructure, services and products through

sustained investment and management by both private enterprises and public
agencies.

This framework can be used to identify gaps in existing capacities, which can then be
organized into a coherent and integrated development plan for implementation. The
capacities are in fact the tools that can be used to develop and apply the enabling systems
which, when fully in place and functioning, result in supply and demand balance.

6.0 CONCLUSIONS
There is an urgent need for planned action to manage water resources effectively. The
problems in urban areas of developing countries are of particular concern as still large
sections of the community are living without safe water supply and basic sanitation
services. It has been widely acknowledged that in the past several urban water
interventions (particularly in developing countries), have failed and this has been in part
due to little or no attention given to the institutional landscape within which these
interventions are applied and the lack of stakeholder involvement in the development and
implementation of these interventions.

Adequate provision of urban water supply and sanitation is likely to become more
difficult in the future due to several change pressures such as urbanisation, climate-
change and infrastructure deterioration. The challenge is to develop appropriate technical
and institutional responses to these pressures that radically change the way in which
urban water systems are managed. Interventions must be considered over the entire urban
water cycle, recognising interactions between the various components of the urban water
system. There must also be a rethink of the way water is used and reused and greater use
of natural systems for treatment (that are likely to be more effective against emerging
contaminants). The objective must be to develop urban water systems that are more
robust and resilient against these uncertain future pressures.

To achieve this appropriate scientific and technological innovations and solutions will
need to be developed. However, to ensure maximum impact of these innovations and
solutions, they must be coupled with components of institutional development (through
capacity building activities), and greater stakeholder involvement. Clearly, it is only if
these components are included in the solution process can substantially contribute to the
reduction in the vulnerability of cities and their capacity and preparedness to cope with
global changes.

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