Feature Article

R A JAT K. CHAKRA B O RTI, JA GJIT KA U R, A ND H AR P R EET K AU R

Water Shortage Challenges

and a Way Forward in India

W
ater scarcity, or the lack of sufficient water resources to
meet demands, affects every continent. Around 1.2 billion
people, or almost one-fifth of the world’s population, live
in areas of physical scarcity, with another 500 million
people approaching this situation (Amarsinghe & Sharma
2009, Sharma & Bharat 2009). Another 1.6 billion people, or almost one-fourth
INDIA SHOULD IMPLEMENT of the world’s population, face economic water shortage (i.e., where countries
ADAPTIVE GREEN AND GRAY
lack the necessary infrastructure to take water from rivers and aquifers). The
world population is expected to increase from 7.7 billion in 2018 to between
WATER MANAGEMENT
Layout imagery by Shutterstock.com/SmallWorldProduction

9.4 and 10.2 billion by 2050, with two-thirds of the population living in cities
STRATEGIES AS IT FACES AN (KPMG International 2010). The global demand for water has been increasing
UNCERTAIN WATER FUTURE.
at a rate of about 1% per year as a function of population growth, economic
development, and changing consumption patterns, among other factors, and it
will continue to grow significantly over the next two decades, resulting in water
scarcity in various parts of the world (WWAP 2018).
“Water scarcity” is defined as the point at which the aggregate impact of
all users impinges on the supply or quality of water under prevailing institu-
tional arrangements to the extent that the demand by all sectors, including
the environment, cannot be satisfied fully. Whenever there is a lack of access
to potable water for drinking and sanitation, water is scarce. “Water shortage”

42 CHAKRABORT I E T A L .  |   M AY 2 0 1 9 • 1 1 1 :5   |   J O U R N A L AWWA
is a relative concept and can occur at
any level of supply or demand
(Batten 2018). Shortage may be a
social construct—that is, a product
of affluence, expectations, and cus-
tomary behavior—or the conse-
quence of altered supply patterns, for
example, stemming from climate
change. Future water availability and
water quality will be affected by pro-
jected changes in flood and drought
occurrences and risks (Vorosmarty
2000). The number of people at risk
from floods is projected to rise from
1.2 billion today to around 1.6 billion
in 2050, or nearly 20% of the
world’s population (WWAP 2018).
The concept of water shortage
may also refer to the difficulty in
obtaining freshwater sources and the
deterioration and depletion of avail-
able water sources (Sharma &
Bharat 2009). Some of the factors
contributing to water scarcity are
climate change, overuse, and
increased pollution. Worldwide
about 2.7 billion people experience
water scarcity every year (WWAP
2012). Water use has been growing
at more than twice the rate of popu-
lation increases in the last century
and, although there is no global
water scarcity as such, an increasing
number of regions are chronically
Three
short column (UNICEF
of water figure max width
et al.=2013).
37p9 (actual but
FIGURE 1 Water use in various sectors for high-income (A) and lower-middle-income (B) countries
Agricultural use
Industrial use
Domestic use
High-income countries
22%
28%
50%
Data source: Doungmanee 2016
Hydrologists typically assess scar- Situation and Prospects (UNICEF et
city by looking at the population– al. 2013), more than 1.1 billion peo-
water equation (UNICEF et al. ple lack access to potable water. As
2013). A country is defined as suffer- more people put increasing demand
ing high relative water stress if on existing water resources, the cost
demand is greater than 40% of the and effort to build or even maintain
At current consumption rates, two-thirds of
the world’s population may face water
shortages by 2025.
renewable water supply (Kummu et access to water increase. At current
al. 2016). An area is experiencing consumption rates, two-thirds of the
water stress when annual water sup- world’s population may face water
plies drop below 0.45 mil gal per shortages by 2025.
person. When annual water supplies Water shortage is both a natural
drop below 0.30 mil gal per person, and a human-made phenomenon.
the population faces water scarcity, There is enough freshwater on the
and below 0.13 mil gal, it faces planet for 7 billion people, but it’s
“absolute scarcity.” At present, an distributed unevenly and too much of
estimated 3.6 billion people (nearly it is wasted, polluted, and unsustain-
half the global population) live in ably managed (WWAP 2012). Glob-
areas that are potentially water- ally, water use is expected to continue
scarce at least one month per year, increasing as a function of population
and this population could increase to growth, economic development, and
some 4.8–5.7 billion by 2050 changing consumption patterns,
(WWAP 2018). among other factors (WWAP 2018).
Safe water, or good-quality water, Figure 1 presents water use disparities
is essential for a healthy human life, among various sectors in the devel-
2 column width = 39p9)
according to Water in India: oped and underdeveloped countries
Lower-middle-income countries
14%
10%
76%
C H A K R A B O R TI ET A L.   |  M AY 2019 • 111: 5  |  JO U R NA L AWWA 43
(Doungmanee 2016). For lower-
middle-income countries like India,
the major share of water consump-
tion is agriculture. Proper water
management for agricultural use is
key for economic growth in these
countries. Total water consumption
in India is approximately 153 tril gal,
with irrigation requirements account-
ing for almost 75% of all use
(CAWMA 2007, MWR 2006).
India needs to work holistically with its neighbors
and global partners to address climate change
and its impact on regional water scarcity.
India is facing a particularly diffi-
cult challenge as water crisis is
threatening millions of lives and live-
lihoods. Some 600 million Indians—
about half the population—face
high to extreme water scarcity con-
ditions, with about 200,000 dying
every year from inadequate access to
safe water. By 2030, the country’s
demand for water is likely to be
twice the available supply. As a
result of rapid development, increas-
ing population, and inequitable dis-
tribution, the demand for water far
outweighs supply (UNICEF et al.
2013). Nearly 163 million people
among India’s population of 1.3 billion
lack access to clean water close to
their home (Chandran 2018). To
follow is discussion of a few pro-
cesses that highlight access to water
for domestic and productive uses
(e.g., agriculture, industry, other
economic activities).
CAUSES OF WATER SCARCITY
Water scarcity is influenced by
such factors as social, institutional,
and policy arrangements; lifestyles;
and water quality. The main factors
affecting water scarcity in India are
regional climatic disparities, over-
population, and water pollution.
Regional and climatic disparities.
Of the 495 tril gal of water reserves
44 CHAKRABORT I E T A L .  |   M AY 2 0 1 9 • 1 1 1 :5   |   J O U R N A L AWWA
i n I n d i a , o nly an estimated
300 tril gal can be exploited because
of topographic constraints and dis-
tribution effects (MWR 2006). How-
ever, changes in temperature and
precipitation have affected regional
water resources and flood risk, exac-
erbating regional disparities in water
availability across the country. Most
Indian cities depend on rainfall for
their water supply. The long-term
average rainfall for India is about
46 in. (UNICEF et al. 2013), but
owing to physiographic factors, rain-
fall in India is highly variable.
Changing monsoons and water
shortage. For example, in 2008, rain-
fall measured from about 19.7 in. in
eastern and western Rajasthan to
150 in. in coastal Karnataka (CWC
2010). More than 80% of rainfall
occurs in the monsoon months of
June to September, often causing
floods. This is because significant
precipitation occurs over a short
period, resulting in a high volume of
runoff. However, acute water short-
ages are common in many regions
during the rest of the year. For exam-
ple, the southeastern coastal city of
Chennai has suffered water short-
ages for decades. The requirement
for the city and the adjacent areas is
around 388 mgd, which includes
commercial and industrial demand.
But the city gets a daily supply of
only 158.5 mgd from sources such
as lakes and reservoirs, which
depend on the erratic monsoons. In
addition, in many areas with sizable
populations, the annual monsoon
precipitation occurs over just three
to 27 days in a year, according to the
India Meteorological Department as
reported in an article in The Indian
Express (Ashok 2018).
Many Indian cities and towns
often run out of water during the
summer because of the absence of
sufficient surface water systems and
infrastructure, leaving groundwater
as the only feasible source. In addi-
tion, monsoon rains can account for
70% of a region’s total annual rain-
fall; in dry years, this often results in
water shortage. Statistics for the cen-
tury, so far, back this up: 2018 was
the fifth consecutive year to register
deficit monsoon conditions, and 13
of the last 18 years have seen below-
normal rains (Pandey & Sengupta
2018). To begin addressing this
shortfall, India recently commis-
sioned a desalination plant to add
26.4 mgd of reclaimed water to the
drinking supply.
Overconsumption. Groundwater
is typically used to compensate for
unreliable rainfall; however, this
practice has become unreliable and
inconsistent in some areas. More
groundwater consumption than
recharge has drastically reduced
groundwater levels over the past 60
years. Of the 5,723 blocks assessed
across India by the Central Ground
Water Authority, 839 have been
found to be overexploited, 226 are
classified as critical, and 550 are
deemed semicritical, meaning that
approximately 29% of India’s
groundwater blocks need better
groundwater basin management
(CGWB 2019).
Increased groundwater use and
limited aquifer recharge lower the
groundwater table so much that
yields of many tube-wells and bore-
wells have decreased substantially,
particularly during summer. Because
agriculture depends on irrigation,
unsustainable extraction of ground-
water is reducing India’s arable land
and affecting economic growth.
Overexploitation of groundwater
has caused concentration of salts,
fluorides, nitrates, total dissolved
solids, metals, and other chemicals
found in the groundwater. Inefficient
irrigation practices, severe ground-
water contamination, and uncon-
trolled exploitation of groundwater
are some of the major causes of
water scarcity in India.
Overpopulation. Population growth
is causing tremendous stress on water
supply. India is the second most pop-
ulous country in the world and had a
population estimated at 1.31 billion
as of July 2018 (US Census Bureau
Current Population 2019), and
increased life expectancy and other
factors contribute to rising popula-
tion and overcrowding in many
areas. In addition, because of various
socioeconomic factors, many urban
centers have seen large influxes from
rural areas. The resulting develop-
ment, too often poorly planned, has
led to a loss of ecosystems and bio-
diversity. Rapid urbanization, with
the resulting increase in paved areas
and decrease in reservoir capacity,
drainage, and space for recharge
areas, has resulted in an increase in
local urban flooding.
As the population continues to
Threeand
grow, column figure max
migration ofwidth = 37p9 (actual 2
population
in already-stressed urban centers
continues, demands for water will
put additional strains on over-
allocated freshwater resources. As
FIGURE 2
1,600,000
1,400,000
Per Capita Water Supply—gal/year
1,200,000
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
Data sources: KPMG International 2010; Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India
shown in Figure 2, the per capita
water availability in 1951 was about
1.4 mil gal but decreased to 0.6 mil
gal in 1991; by 2011, it had declined
to approximately 0.4 mil gal (Bhat
2014, Sharma & Bharat 2009).
About 54% of people in India are
under the threat of water stress (Shiao
et al. 2015), and approximately 600
million people in the northwestern
and southern regions of India are
under “extremely high” to “high”
water-stress conditions.
Data from India’s Ministry of Water
Resources, River Development, and
Ganga Rejuvenation indicate per capita
water availability in 2025, and 2050 is
estimated to decrease from 2001 levels
by 36 and 60%, respectively (Bhat
2014, KPMG 2010); Figure 2 presents
the projected population and per capita
water supply per year in India until
2050. If India can’t offset these future
water demands, its agricultural, indus-
trial, and domestic water users will
column
likely width
face = 39p9)
increasingly frequent and
more severe water shortages.
Water pollution. India’s increasing
population has resulted in excessive
air and water pollution along with
Population and per capita water supply per year in India
Per capita water supply
Population
1,367,618
1,250,062
583,556
1951 1955 1991
deforestation. Sources of water pol-
lution include nonpoint sources,
such as pesticides and fertilizers from
farms (Amarsinghe & Sharma 2009),
along with point sources such as
industrial and human waste, a sig-
nificant amount of which is directly
dumped into rivers without treat-
ment. In India, about 114 tril gal of
groundwater is replenished yearly
from rainfall and river flows, but
104 tril gal of that is used each year,
82% for irrigation and agricultural
purposes and 18% toward domestic
and industrial water use (Bhat 2014).
Agriculture remains the predominant
sector of employment, engaging
more than half of India’s workforce
in some way. The deteriorating state
of water management systems, which
serve the multiple needs of liveli-
hood, security, and irrigation for
many small-scale farmers, has been
another concerning trend (UNICEF
et al. 2013).
While oil spills and leakage from
landfills have seeped underground,
polluting the groundwater in some
areas, the largest source of water pol-
lution in India is untreated sewage.
1,800
1,600
1,400
1,200
Population—millions
1,000
800
479,736
408,146 600
354,255
301,156
400
200
0
2001 2011 2025 2050
Year
C H A K R A B O R TI ET A L.   |  M AY 2019 • 111: 5  |  JO U R NA L AWWA 45
Untreated urban wastewater is often
discharged to streams, affecting down-
stream water quality and causing
health problems. During summer
months with low-flow conditions, the
contaminated discharge reaches high
levels. Improper sanitation and poor
hygiene practices are common, and
one-third of all deaths of children
Governments and organizations can undertake
measures to recharge aquifers by infiltrating or
injecting treated surface water into the
underground aquifers. This may include
restoration of watersheds and wetlands and
supporting green infrastructure aimed at
reducing impervious surfaces.
under age five in India result from
waterborne diseases like diarrhea and
pneumonia (UNICEF et al. 2013).
Taken together, ongoing water
scarcity in India is a direct cause of
hunger, poor health, poverty, and
ecosystem imbalances. Looking for-
ward, higher temperatures will likely
increase electricity demand as a
result of higher air conditioning use;
at the same time, hydropower pro-
duction may be reduced because of
decreased precipitation. In the next
decade, water demand is expected to
grow by 20%, fueled primarily by
industrial water requirements, which
are projected to double from 6 tril
gal to 12 tril gal. By 2025, domestic
demand is expected to grow by 33%
from 12 tril gal (in 2014) to 16 tril
gal, while irrigation demands are
projected to increase by 10%, grow-
ing from 147 tril gal annually (in
2010) to 161 tril gal, and industrial
water demand is expected to increase
dramatically by 80%, from 10 tril
gal (in 2010) to 18 tril gal (Bhat
2014). The situation is challenging
because a large portion of available
water in India is not potable as a
result of poor water quality.
46 CHAKRABORT I E T A L .  |   M AY 2 0 1 9 • 1 1 1 :5   |   J O U R N A L AWWA
WATER MANAGEMENT
SOLUTIONS
On the basis of current projections,
per capita water supply could drop
from an average of 24 to 21 gpd by
2025 and 18 gpd by 2050 (Bhat
2014, Shaban & Sharma 2007).
However, specific technical and policy
changes could improve the situation
by controlling human interventions
and behavior with institutional
responses to natural phenomena.
Gray and green infrastructure. It is
important to change institutional
approaches from a strictly conserva-
tive approach to more progressive,
“green” solutions. Presently, water
management remains heavily domi-
nated by traditional, human-built
(i.e., “gray”) infrastructure, and the
enormous potential for working
with nature remains underused. Tap-
ping stormwater capture and treat-
ing it by means of green infrastruc-
ture can augment a water supply
portfolio by supplying good-quality
water to recharge the groundwater
basin. Stormwater runoff not other-
wise captured from industrial,
municipal, and residential areas;
highways; and construction sites can
carry pollutants that degrade water
quality and impede the otherwise
beneficial uses of these waters.
As reported in the 2018 edition of
the United Nations World Water
Development Report (WWAP 2018),
some of the management approaches
toward water-shortage challenges in
India could be nature-based
solutions (NBSs) across all sectors,
including water needed for agricul-
ture, sustainable cities, disaster risk
reduction, and water quality. The
green-infrastructure approach under
NBSs promotes the natural move-
ment of water by collecting and man-
aging stormwater runoff from streets,
sidewalks, parking lots, and rooftops
and directing it to engineered systems
that typically feature soils, stones, and
vegetation. Use of green infrastruc-
ture reduces polluted runoff from
reaching water bodies through the
separate storm sewer system. The
green-infrastructure approach uses
natural processes to enhance water
availability (e.g., soil moisture reten-
tion, groundwater recharge), improve
water quality (e.g., natural and con-
structed wetlands, riparian buffer
strips), and reduce risks associated
with water-related disasters and cli-
mate change (e.g., floodplain restora-
tion, green roofs).
Green infrastructure expands the
low-impact development approach
to a larger community scale and
presents similar sustainable oppor-
tunities to local governments and
regional projects. To develop a sus-
tainable water supply scenario in
India, the green infrastructure
approach can substitute, augment,
or work in parallel with gray infra-
structure in a cost-effective manner.
Both NBSs for conservation (e.g.,
harnessing the opportunities of the
hydrological cycle with rainwater
harvesting, stormwater manage-
ment, and so on) and gray infra-
structure upgrades (i.e., the improv-
ing operations of water distribution
system infrastructure) can together
play a big role in better water infra-
structure for India. The goal of such
sustainable development is to con-
trol human interventions with natu-
ral processes and to find the most
appropriate blend of green and gray
investments to maximize benefits
and system efficiency while mini-
mizing costs and trade-offs (WWAP
2018). NBSs mainly address water
supply through managing precipita-
tion; humidity; and water storage,
infiltration, and transmission so
that improvements are made in the
location, timing, and quantity of
water available for human needs.
The various regulatory programs
have the same goals—to use storm-
water as a resource and to reduce
pollutants, fertilizers, debris, and
other harmful materials draining
into rivers, lakes, and oceans. In
addition to the benefits to water
quality, green infrastructure beauti-
fies streets and neighborhoods while
improving water and air quality and
aesthetics. Therefore, green infra-
structure could supplement gray
infrastructure for water supply in
India in a positive, natural way.
Irrigation techniques. Traditional
irrigation techniques result in sig-
nificant water loss from evapora-
tion, drainage, percolation, water
conveyance, and excessive ground-
water use. Potential solutions
include educating farmers on best
practices, including micro-irrigation
techniques such as drip and sprinkler
irrigation. A model developed by the
International Water Management
Institute and Earthscan of water
demand and supply for 118 coun-
tries, accounting for 93% of the
world’s population, estimated that
a 50% increase in demand for
water by 2025 can be met by
increasing the efficiency of irriga-
tion (CAWMA 2007).
Aquifer recharge. Rapid develop-
ment has ignored traditional water
bodies that have acted as groundwa-
ter recharging mechanisms, so this
connection must be reinforced or
reestablished as areas grow. Govern-
ments and organizations can take
measures to recharge aquifers by
infiltrating or injecting treated sur-
face water into the underground
aquifers. This may include restoring
watersheds and wetlands and sup-
porting green infrastructure aimed at
reducing impervious surfaces. Per-
mitting further construction of
groundwater extraction structures
and registration of drilling agencies
should be made mandatory and
enforced in India.
Stormwater management and conser-
vation. To encourage more pervious
areas for infiltration, recharge shafts
or trenches should be constructed in
paved areas, use of pervious pave-
ment should be encouraged, and
stormwater drainage must be imple-
mented along roads and footpaths.
In addition, dredging operations in
large water bodies and reservoirs
should be promoted to increase
water storage capacity. The Indian
government needs to enhance its
investment in technology and include
all stakeholders at the planning level
to ensure efficient use of existing
resources. Education and public
awareness campaigns must be put in
place to curb the pollution of water
sources from domestic solid and
sewage wastes and to promote the
conservation of freshwater.
Nonrevenue water. The amount of
nonrevenue water (NRW) is high for
several reasons, including advanced
system age, poor maintenance, illegal
connections, leakage, and lack of
proper mapping. Average NRW in
India has been estimated at almost
32% (ADB 2007, MWR 2006). In
some Indian cities, NRW is more than
half of water produced (ADB 2007).
Many Indian cities and towns often run out of
water during the summer because of the
absence of sufficient surface water systems
and infrastructure, leaving groundwater as the
only feasible source.
Part of the problem is a lack of
metered connections and the extent
of distribution networks with inade-
quate pumping facilities. These are
major determinants of water utilities’
successful performance. It is esti-
mated that the typical Indian munici-
pal water utility has the potential to
improve water pumping system effi-
ciency by 25%, thereby increasing
supply reliability (ASE 2008).
C H A K R A B O R TI ET A L.   |  M AY 2019 • 111: 5  |  JO U R NA L AWWA
Better water accounting would
support more economically viable
water markets for an already stressed
water sector, and to this end, the cre-
ation of a robust water accounting
framework is integral to a better
water policy for India. By contrast,
such policies as providing free elec-
tricity to farmers or giving financial
support for groundwater extraction
have resulted in uncontrolled exploi-
tation and waste of resources.
Water reuse. Water reuse can help
alleviate water scarcity (Madaan
2018). For example, nonpotable
water (graywater) produced from
reclaimed water should be used for
car washing, landscape irrigation,
industrial processing, and toilet
flushing. Desalination of seawater or
brackish groundwater may be con-
sidered; however, the high costs of
capital, operations, and maintenance
may make wide-scale use of desali-
nation technology unfeasible.
Overdevelopment. Unplanned and
unrestricted expansion of urban cen-
ters must be curtailed. Leaks in the
water distribution systems as well as
in homes and businesses must be min-
imized. Water conservation needs to be
promoted among all water users.
Specific proposals for water con-
servation in India include wide-
spread education and increased use
of green infrastructure like rainwater
harvesting and stormwater capture.
Investments must be made to
upgrade water distribution systems,
data management, and metering
infrastructure. The utility budgets
should include a billing system put
in place to ensure water use of all
47
service users are fully accounted for.
For a middle-income and water-
stressed country like India, efficient
use of water resources in the most
sustainable way is the way forward.
ADAPTATION AND RESILIENCE
India faces an uncertain water
future as a result of climate variabil-
ity and social changes. For these rea-
sons, the country needs to implement
water management strategies that
If India can’t offset future water demands, its
agricultural, industrial, and domestic water users
will likely face increasingly frequent and more
severe water shortages.
are adaptive and resilient. Like other
developing nations, India needs to
make it a priority that significant
investments be allocated in its infra-
structure and institutions for sustain-
able development.
In many regions of India the
water supply scenario is variable,
and India is not a water-deficient
country in general. But either from
neglect or lack of development, sev-
eral regions in the country experi-
ence water stress from time to time.
The country’s approach to water
management must be tailored to
meet the specific needs of its com-
munities over a strikingly wide
range of natural and man-made
challenges. The nation’s water poli-
cies should ultimately integrate
under the “One Water” concept to
support social, environmental, and
economic needs under sustainable
way (Batten 2018).
A holistic approach. In addition to
facing its own specific challenges,
India needs to work holistically with
its neighbors and global partners to
address climate change and its
impact on regional water scarcity.
Governments must also collaborate
with the private sector to innovate
and implement economically and
48 CHAKRABORT I E T A L .  |   M AY 2 0 1 9 • 1 1 1 :5   |   J O U R N A L AWWA
environmentally sustainable projects.
In the end, better management of
water systems with blended green
and gray infrastructure solutions and
the restoration and protection of
water resources are the keys to
India’s socioeconomic development
going forward.
Smart planning. To achieve some
of those goals, India has started
planning and developing a few cities
(initially with 20 “smart” cities,
identified in 2016) in the vacant
lands. These smart cities represent
comprehensive development: institu-
tional, physical, social, and economic
infrastructure to reduce congestion,
air pollution, and resource depletion;
boost local economies; promote
interactions; build computer-aided
efficient transport systems and water
infrastructure; and ensure security.
The main idea behind the smart city
concept is to promote mixed land
use in area-based developments—
planning, as it were, for “unplanned
areas” containing a range of compat-
ible activities and land uses close to
one another to make land use more
efficient.
Some of the features of smart cities
include promoting green infrastruc-
ture; exploring renewable sources to
meet the energy demand for the new
city or a part of existing city; pre-
serving and developing open spaces
in terms of parks, playgrounds, and
recreational spaces to enhance the
quality of life of citizens; reducing
heat effects in urban areas; and gener-
ally promoting ecological balance
(Smart Cities Mission 2019). It is
anticipated that smart cities will meet
the requirements for better water
management systems and protection
of water resources with high-quality
water produced locally and meet the
demand of the cities through socio-
economic, physical, and institutional
developments. This is a good start,
but the initiative in its present scope
is still too limited compared with the
scale of the country’s needs. Expan-
sion of such initiatives would be ben-
eficial for India.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge assistance
from Jacobs and DAV College during
manuscript preparation. Also, the
authors are grateful to Ken
Mercer, editor-in-chief of Journal
AWWA, for reviewing the manuscript.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Rajat K. Chakraborti
(to whom corre-
spondence may be
addressed) is a
project engineer with
Jacobs, 1000
Wilshire Blvd., Ste.
2100, Los Angeles, CA 90017 USA;
Rajat.Chakraborti@Jacobs.com. He
received a bachelor’s degree in civil
engineering from Jadavpur
University in Kolkata, India; a
master’s degree in infrastructure
planning from the University of
Stuttgart, Germany; and a doctorate
in civil engineering from the State
University of New York at Buffalo.
He has more than 15 years of
consulting experience, primarily
focusing on water resources
management, urban planning, and
climate change assessments. A
member of AWWA and AWWA’s
Climate Change Committee,
Chakraborti is preparing a chapter
for the association’s climate change
adaptation manual for water
utilities. Jagjit Kaur is a senior
project technologist at Jacobs in
Los Angeles, Calif. Harpreet Kaur is
on the faculty of the Department of
Science, DAV College, Hoshiarpur,
Punjab, India.
https://doi.org/10.1002/awwa.1289
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AWWA RESOURCES
• AWWA and the UN Sustainable
Development Goals. AWWA
International Council, 2019. Journal
AWWA, 111:1:68. https://doi.
org/10.1002/awwa.1219.
• Challenges to Improve Water
and Sanitation Facilities in
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https://doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2016.
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• US Water Regulations and
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• Vulnerability Assessment of an
Aquifer Using Modified GIS-based
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Heidarzadeh, N.; & Asadollahfardi,
G., 2017. Journal AWWA, 109:5:
E170. https://doi.org/10.5942/
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These resources have been
supplied by Journal AWWA staff.
For information on these and
other AWWA resources, visit
www.awwa.org.
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