21

Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
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1.1 HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT TRANSMISSION

With the increase in size and complexity of Power Systems, the

problems associated with long AC bulk power transmission like

reactive power support, system stability etc have also increased. A

search for more efficient mode of transmission has led to the

development of DC transmission.

The DC transmission requires conversion of power at its two ends.

Conversion from AC to DC will take place at the sending end rectifier

station and conversion back to AC will take place at the receiving end

inverter station. The converters are static, using high power thyristors

and the physical process of conversion is such that the same station

can switch from rectifier to inverter by simple control action, thus

facilitating the power reversal.

Advantages offered by HVDC Transmission over AC transmission are

as follows [1]:

• No reactive line/cable losses

Long cables possible, lines cheaper

• No synchronizing power

Easy to connect AC systems

• Controllability

Perfect for power transactions

• SSC does not increase

Upgrading of AC breakers not necessary

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With system interconnections, following are the possible advantages

with HVDC:

• Interconnector rating is determined based on the real demand of

transmission capacity with DC. Rating of AC interconnector

must be higher than the real demand on power exchange.

• Increment in power transfer is easily possible with DC.

• System operator alone can determine the power exchange

between the two systems.

• Power oscillation damping and voltage control can be obtained

with DC.

• DC acts as a shield against stability problems, voltage collapse

and cascading blackouts.

• Under emergency conditions, pre-determined mutual support

between the systems is possible.

Conventional applications of HVDC transmission are as follows:

1. For transmitting power through large water bodies spanning

30Km or more. For such distances AC transmission is

impossible because of the high capacitance of the cable which

requires intermediate compensation stations.

2. For asynchronous interconnections. For inter connecting two or

more AC systems which are operating at different nominal

frequencies and for stability reasons.

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3. For transmitting bulk power through long overhead lines. HVDC

transmission is economical as compared with AC transmission

for distances exceeding 600 km.

For the above mentioned conventional applications, HVDC

transmission is an economical and eco-friendly option. With

development in HVDC technology, liberalization of electricity industry

around the world, and the efforts to preserve the environment are

demanding HVDC systems as the preferred alternative to high voltage

AC systems in many other situations [2]. Details are as follows:

• Transmission of power over small distances (less than 60 Km)

and at lower power levels (less than 200MW) is economical with

the new technologies such as polyethylene DC cables and VSC

based HVDC systems.

• With liberalization of electricity industry, transmission has

become a contracted service and there is no scope for deviation

from contracted technical and economic norms. Better control of

the power lines is possible with HVDC and is therefore a better

alternative for providing transmission services on contractual

basis.
 25

• The concept of trading to the electricity sector resulted with

liberalization. This has resulted in bi-directional power transfers

based on market conditions. Bi-directional power flows are

possible with HVDC systems.

• When the transmission service was owned by the government,

land acquisition and obtaining rights-of-way was relatively

easier. With deregulation, acquiring land and/or obtaining

rights-of-way has become a significant portion of the project’s

costs. Since HVDC transmission requires much less land/right-

of-way for a given power rating, it is more economical than AC

transmission.

• To build a power link in environmentally sensitive areas such as

national parks and protected sanctuaries, HVDC transmission

systems is the only alternative because of its lower foot print.

1.2 POWER SYSTEM STABILITY

For a given initial operating condition, power system stability is

defined as the ability of an electric power system to regain a state of

operating equilibrium after being subjected to a physical disturbance,

with most system variables bounded so that practically the entire

system remains intact [3].

The power system is a highly nonlinear system which operates in a

constantly changing environment; loads, generator outputs and

operating parameters change continuously. When subjected to a

 26

disturbance, the stability of the system depends not only on the type

of disturbance but also on the initial operating condition. Stability of

an electric power system is thus a property of the system motion

around an initial operating condition. At the equilibrium point all the

opposing forces that exist in the system are equal.

Power systems are subjected to a wide variety of disturbances. Small

load changes occur continuously. The system must be able to adjust

to these changing conditions and operate satisfactorily. It must also

be able to withstand to severe disturbances, such as a short circuit on

a transmission line or loss of a large generator. A large disturbance

may lead to the isolation of the faulted elements. For a given physical

disturbance, a power system may be stable for an operating point and

unstable for another. Design of power systems to be stable for every

possible disturbance is impractical and uneconomical. Selection of

these design contingencies is based on their probability of occurrence.

The response of the power system to a disturbance may involve much

of the equipment. For example, a fault on a critical element followed

by its isolation by protective relays will cause variations in power

flows, network bus voltages, and machine rotor speeds. Power systems

experience fluctuations of small magnitudes continuously. When a

power system is subjected to a specified disturbance, it is assumed

 27

that the system is initially in a true steady-state operating condition

for assessing its stability.

The ability of synchronous machines of an interconnected power

system to remain in synchronism after being subjected to a

disturbance is termed as rotor angle stability. It depends on the ability

to restore equilibrium between electromagnetic torque and mechanical

torque of each synchronous machine in the system. Increasing

angular swings of some generators is an indication of instability of the

system and this may lead to their loss of synchronism with other

generators.

Loss of synchronism can occur between one system and the rest of the

system, or between groups of machines, with synchronism maintained

within each group after separating from each other.

1.2.1 control Strategies for Improvement of System Stability

Numerous control schemes have been proposed to arrest loss of

synchronism phenomena. They can be broadly classified into two

groups, i.e., preventive control and emergency control. Preventive

control anticipates events to ensure that the power system is to

withstand the most severe disturbances; emergency control is

executed immediately after the disturbance. To design effective

emergency control schemes much research has been carried out. As

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an example, load shedding scheme based on the topological and

dynamic characterization of stability boundary is proposed in [4] for

an emergency generator. On-line emergency control strategy for

generator shedding based on PMU measurements is proposed in [5].

Generation rescheduling and/or generation tripping developed in [6] is

also an emergency control scheme. Generation shedding based on real

time closed loop emergency control schemes are presented in [7]-[8].

Corrective actions based on equal area type criteria together with real-

time measurements are computed in the above mentioned methods.

To maintain stability, emergency control techniques involve actions on

generators and loads. Fast valving and braking resistors [9], fast

excitation controllers [10], or tie-line reactance controllers [11] could

also be used as means for emergency control of transient stability. In

this context, FACTS devices such as TCSC, UPFC etc. [12]-[27] also

play a vital role in the improvement of system stability.

In power systems where HVDC links have been installed, a better

alternative could be to use the converter controls as emergency

control means. As AC/DC conversion involves no inertia and power

settings of HVDC links can be changed quasi-instantaneously [28],

modulating of active power flow through the HVDC-links has been

proposed to improve power system stability. Modulation techniques

for stability purpose are presented in [29]-[37].

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1.2.2 DC Power Modulation

With HVDC systems rapid control of transmitted power is possible.

They have a significant impact on the stability of the associated AC

power systems. Proper design of the HVDC controls is essential to

ensure satisfactory performance of the overall AC/DC system like

damping of power swings, enhancement of dynamic stability and

optimal power flow control [38-61]. The principle involved is to

control DC power in response to signals from the AC network. The

control of DC power acts in a similar way to a phase angle

regulating transformer of an AC system which can influence

power flow with just voltage magnitude control. Dynamic control of

HVDC systems can be realized only with the availability of

suitable overall control strategies and this thesis deals with the

derivation of such strategies. The impact of traditional HVDC

controls on stability and some new control strategies in the analysis of

stability problems are primarily studied in this thesis.

1.3 ENHANCEMENT OF STABILITY USING HVDC CONTROLS

1.3.1 Introduction

In improving the performance of large interconnected power systems,

the controllability of HVDC link plays an important role. To achieve

the desired results, control systems must perform appropriately for

various disturbances and system conditions. In the following sections,

the basic control philosophy and the auxiliary controls that can be
 30

used with HVDC systems for improving the system performance are

discussed.

1.3.2 Basic Control Principles

The HVDC system is basically constant-current controlled for the

following two important reasons:

• To limit over current and minimize damage due to faults.

• To prevent the system from running down due to fluctuations of

the ac voltages.

It is because of the high-speed constant current control characteristic

that the HVDC system operation is very stable [1]. The following are

the significant aspects of the basic control system shown in Fig 1.1,

the details of which are explained as under:

Fig 1.1: Basic control scheme for HVDC system

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a) The rectifier is provided with a current control and an α-limit

control. The minimum α reference is set at about 50 so that

sufficient positive voltage across the valve exists at the time of

firing, to ensure successful commutation. In the current control

mode, a closed loop regulator (which is a proportional plus

integral regulator also termed as Type-0 controller) controls the

firing angle and hence the dc voltage to maintain the direct

current equal to the current order. Tap changer control of the

converter transformer brings α within the range of 100 to 200. A

time delay is used to prevent unnecessary tap movements

during excursions of α.

b) The inverter is provided with a constant extinction angle (CEA)

control and current control. In the CEA control mode, γ is

regulated to a value of about 150. This value represents a trade-

off between acceptable VAR consumption and a low risk of

commutation failure. Tap changer control is used to bring the

value of γ close to the desired range of 150 to 200.

c) Under normal conditions, the rectifier is on current control

mode and the inverter is on CEA control mode. If there is a

reduction in the ac voltage at rectifier end, the rectifier firing

angle decreases until it hits the αmin limit. At this point, the

rectifier switches to αmin control and the inverter will assume

current control. These are illustrated in Fig 1.2.

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Fig 1.2: Actual converter control steady state characteristics

d) To ensure satisfactory operation and equipment safety, several

limits are recognized in establishing the current order as shown

in Fig 1.3 i.e., maximum current limit, minimum current limit,

and voltage-dependent current-order limit (VDCOL) and are

briefed as follows:

i) Maximum current limit:

The maximum current limit is usually limited to 1.2 to 1.3

times normal full-load current, to avoid thermal damage

to valves.

ii) Minimum current limit:

At low values of current, the ripple in the current may

cause it to be discontinuous or intermittent. This is

objectionable because of the high voltages (Ldi/dt)

induced in the transformer windings and the DC reactor

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by the high rate of change of current at the instants of

interruption.

At low values of direct current, the overlap is small.

Operation is objectionable even with continuous current if

the overlap is too small. With a very small overlap, the two

jumps in direct current at the beginning and end of

commutation merge to form one jump twice as large,

resulting in an increased stress on the valves. It may also

cause flashover of protective gaps placed across the

terminals of each bridge.

iii) Voltage-dependent current-order limit (VDCOL) :

Under low voltage conditions, it may not be desirable or

possible to maintain rated direct current or power for the

following reasons:

When voltage at one converter drops by more than about

30%, the reactive power demand of the remote converter

increases, and this may have an adverse effect on the ac

system. A higher α or γ at the remote converter necessary

to control the current causes the increase in reactive

power. The reduced ac system voltage levels also

significantly decrease the reactive power supplied by the

filters and capacitors, which often supply much of the

reactive power absorbed by the converters. At reduced

 34

voltages, there are also risks of commutation failure and

voltage instability.

These problems associated with operation under low-

voltage conditions may be prevented by using a “voltage-

dependent current-order limit”. This limit reduces the

maximum allowable direct current when the voltage drops

below a predetermined value. The VDCOL characteristics

may be a function of the ac commutating voltage or the dc

voltage.

Fig 1.3: Steady-state V-I characteristic with VDCOL, minimum

current limit and firing angle limits

Higher-level controls may be used, in addition to the above basic

controls, to improve AC/DC system interaction and enhance AC

system performance. All schemes used to date have used the above

modes of operation for the rectifier and the inverter. However, there

are some situations that may warrant serious investigation of a

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control scheme in which the inverter is operated continuously in

current control mode and the rectifier in α-minimum control mode.

1.3.3 Enhancement of AC System Performance using HVDC

Controls

In a DC transmission system, the basic controlled quantity is the

direct current, controlled by the action of the rectifier with the direct

voltage maintained by the inverter. A DC link controlled in this

manner buffers one AC system from disturbances on the other.

However, it does not allow the flow of synchronizing power which

assists in maintaining stability of AC systems. The converters appear

to the AC systems as frequency-insensitive loads and this may

contribute to negative damping of system swings [1]. Also, the DC

links may contribute to voltage collapse during swings by drawing

excessive reactive power.

Supplementary controls are needed to exploit the controllability of DC

links for enhancing the AC system dynamic performance. There are a

variety of such higher level controls used in practice whose

performance objectives change with the characteristics of the

associated AC systems. Reasons for using supplementary controls for

DC links are as follows:

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• Improvement of oscillation damping

• Improvement of transient stability.

• System disturbance isolation.

• Frequency control of small isolated systems.

• Dynamic voltage support and Reactive power regulation.

HVDC links can be controlled in a number of ways by adding

supplementary control schemes to the basic control structure. The

purposes of these supplementary control schemes are multiple and in

general they have been developed to satisfy the particular condition of

each HVDC project [62-64]. Therefore, there is no general control

scheme applicable to all systems. The supplementary control

structure associated with the HVDC link is helpful in improving the

damping of the overall system.

With proper design of supplementary control loop of the HVDC link,

the damping ratio of the system can be increased to a safe value,

which cannot be attained solely using power system stabilizers. The

electromechanical inter-area oscillations can be reduced effectively

with power modulation through the HVDC link.

The control signals used tend to be unique to each system under

consideration. Generalized control schemes applicable to all systems

have not been developed so far. To modulate the DC quantities, the

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supplementary controls make use of signals derived from the AC

system. The modulating signals derived from the AC system can be

system frequency, voltage magnitude and angle, and line flows. The

control signal selection depends on the system characteristics and the

desired results.

In order to augment transient stability limit large signal modulation is

used, thereby improving system security. Large changes in the power

flow in the DC link are required to compensate for tripping of loads,

generators or AC ties. The limits imposed by ratings of the link usually

do not curtail the benefits of power modulation, while overload

capability in DC links is useful. Hence, significant improvements can

be expected out of the use of DC links in emergency control. The rapid

response of DC link controllers helps in arresting large deviations in

the frequency by matching generation with the load in the area in

which the DC link is connected [65]. Some of the aspects in the

application of power modulation in a DC link are discussed in the

following sections.

1.3.4 Control Signals

In large multi machine power systems, there are many modes of

generator rotor oscillations. The stabilizing control is used to damp

one or more of the predominant modes of oscillation. The controller

can introduce new undamped modes if proper care is not taken at the
 38

design stage. By increasing the bandwidth of the controller some of

the difficulties can be overcome but it can lead to noise interference. It

is desirable to obtain control signals locally. Control signals that can

be used for supplementary controllers are as follows:

• Rotor frequency of adjacent generator

• Converter bus frequency

• Parallel AC tie line power or current

• Phase angle changes in the AC system [66].

In the case of a single machine system, the above signals work

satisfactorily. An ideal control signal should have only the components

of oscillation which are to be damped. The extraneous components

such as at supply frequency and harmonics, sub-synchronous

frequency oscillations, local mode oscillations when the damping is

desired for inter-area modes, can pose problems. These are

suppressed by suitably designed band pass or notch filters. Control

signals derived from relative power angle deviation, relative speed

deviation, and acceleration of the various machines in the system may

be used for DC power modulation with multi machine systems.

Different combinations of these signals may also be employed

depending on the type of system. This means it involves derivation of

signals from local as well as remote machines. Fig 1.4 illustrates the

application of the above control signals for a typical ac-dc system.

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Fig 1.4: AC-DC system controller showing the modulated converters

1.3.5 Types of Controllers

The evolution of present day control strategies adopted for power

system applications can be traced from conventional or classical

control strategies followed by optimal, robust, adaptive and intelligent

control techniques. Characteristic features of these controllers are

explained below.

1.3.5.1 Conventional Control Strategies

The design objective of a linear controlled process is to have the

controlled variables behave in certain desirable ways. The problem

involves the determination of the control signal, u(t), over the

prescribed time interval so that the design objectives are all satisfied.
 40

One of the commonly used controllers is a PID controller, which

applies a signal to the process that is a linear combination of

proportional, integral and derivative of the actuating signal. Since

these signal components are easily realized and visualized in the time

domain methods, PID controllers [67] are commonly designed using

time-domain methods. The integral and derivative components of the

PID controller have individual performance implications.

The PD controller is an anticipatory control i.e., by knowing the slope,

the controller can anticipate direction of the error and use it to better

control the process. The function of derivative control is to measure

the instantaneous slope of error signal, e(t), and take a proper

corrective action before the excessive overshoot actually occurs.

Intuitively, derivative control affects the steady-state error of a system

only if the steady-state error varies with time.

The PI controller improves the relative stability and steady-state error

at the same time, but the rise time is increased. The problem of

selecting a proper combination of KI and KP is more acute than in the

case of the PD controller. Best features of each of the PI and PD

controllers are utilized in the PID controller.

 41

For the design of controllers in power systems which are basically

non-linear, the classical control theory using frequency domain

methods can be employed by linearizing the system around an

operating point. The objective of damping controllers is to provide

adequate damping torque on the rotor at the dominant mode of

oscillation, without sacrificing synchronous torque. The optimization

of the controller performance is done by trial and error. The main

objective in the design of controllers is to adjust the proportional,

integral and the derivative gains of the plant to operate reliably under

all possible operating conditions.

The time-domain representation of each of the above mentioned linear

controllers are given by the following equations:

• PI controller u = KP e+KI ∫edt (1.1)

• PD controller u = KP e+KD (1.2)

• PID controller u=KP e+KI ∫edt+ KD (1.3)

Where KP, KI and KD are proportional, integral and derivative gains, e

is the error signal and u is the control signal.

1.3.5.2 Optimal Controller

The optimal control theory is essentially based on minimizing a

chosen performance index subject to constraints in the system. In

most of the applications of the optimal control theory to power

 42

system problems, a linearized system model is considered. These

control strategies are optimal only for the linear system and not

for the actual nonlinear system. The optimal control theory has been

applied to the design of HVDC modulation controllers [68]-[72].

However, the optimal controller designed for one operating condition

may not work satisfactorily for other operating condition. Besides

such controls need accurate mathematical model of the power

systems.

Consider a large-scale linear system given by (1.4)

= A x(t) + (1.4)

where, x(0) = x0

x(t) Є Rn is a state vector, ui(t) Є Rmi is a control vector, and

= m. The information available to the local controller is

assumed to be

yi(t) = Cix(t) , i = 1,2,.......,k (1.5)

where, yi(t) Є Rri is a local output vector, and =r.

The response y(t) is due to nonzero initial conditions that are caused

by disturbances. The primary objective of the design is to damp out

the response due to initial conditions quickly without excessive

overshoot and oscillations.

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The local control ui(t) and the local output Yi(t ) are related by the

following expression:

ui(t ) = EiYi(t ) , i = 1, 2 ..............k (1.6)

where, Ei is a time-invariant gain matrix.

Method I:

The first method is based upon computing the complete state

feedback and reducing it to a specific control action along with a

decentralized structure. In this case the performance index of the

following form is introduced.

J= dt (1.7)

where Q = Q′ ≥0, R=diag (Ri)>0, i=1,2,…......,k; and to determine

the optimal control law which minimizes (1.7) subject to dynamic

constraints :

= A x(t) + Bu(t) (1.8)

where , B=[B1, B2,.....Bk] & U′= [Ul′, U2′,.......Uk′ ]

The solution is given by (1.9).

u(t) = F x(t)

F = R-1B′ K (1.9)

Where, K is the positive definite solution of the algebraic Riccati

equation:

A′K + KA - KBR-1B′K + Q = 0 (1.10)

 44

Having the full state feedback, the next step is to reduce this to

a specified decentralized structure, i.e., a control given by (1.6).

Method II:

The second method is based on minimization of the de-centralized

quadratic performance index

J= dt (1.11)

Q = Q′ ≥ 0, R i =Ri ′ > 0, and i = 1, 2,.....,k

Both approaches lead to the control law of the form

ui(t ) = Eiлi x(t ) (1.12)

where, the values of the matrices Ei and лi depend on the specific

approach chosen.

1.3.5.3 Robust Controller

The main objective of a control engineer is to design a system that

works satisfactorily in real environment. The control system must be

able to withstand to the changing operating conditions as they are

likely to change with time. Robustness is the particular property of a

control system to operate properly in realistic conditions i.e., the

controller must perform satisfactorily for a family of plants. A robust

controller is a controller that can satisfactorily control a class of

system with specified uncertainties in the process model, and the

problem of designing controllers that satisfy robust stability and

performance requirements is called robust control.

 45

For satisfactory operation of modern power systems, controllers have

to guarantee robustness over a wide range of system operating

conditions. Hence, robustness is one of the major issues in the design

of power system controllers. Attempts have been made to apply robust

control theory to the design of HVDC modulation controllers [73]-[79].

Apart from linear, optimal and robust controllers, adaptive controllers

can also be employed which are known to give better performance.

1.3.5.4 Adaptive Controller

An adaptive controller is defined as a controller with adaptable

parameters and a mechanism for adjusting the parameters. Adaptive

control theory is an attractive control technique for HVDC systems

because the dynamic response of the HVDC system changes with

variations in the operating conditions.

References [80]-[84] report the investigations carried out with adaptive

techniques which use modern control theory for developing the

necessary modulation signals to respective control strategies. In the

design of the controller, these techniques need accurate mathematical

models of the system under consideration. It becomes difficult to

develop precise mathematical models for the practical power systems

as they are complex and highly non-linear. Hence, mathematical

based schemes face some disadvantages. In order to overcome these

 46

disadvantages, many applications of artificial intelligence have been

investigated in different areas of power systems.

1.3.5.5 Intelligent Control Schemes

The extensive application of AI techniques to a wide range of power

system problems has been witnessed in the literature. These

techniques fall into four categories: expert systems, artificial neural

networks, fuzzy sets, and heuristic search. ANN applications are more

numerous than fuzzy sets or heuristic search and expert system

applications are more advanced than the other categories.

Expert systems: These systems are computer programs that possess

expertise in a given area. This expert knowledge is normally stored in

one of many forms, including rules, decision trees, models, and

frames. Many of the expert systems abilities like decision making,

archiving knowledge, heuristics or judgment, matches with different

application areas of power systems. Expert systems are particularly

useful for these problems when a large amount of data must be

processed in a short time period.

Knowledge acquired from human experience can be used to solve

complex problems of power systems and in taking decisions on its

planning, design and operation with the aid of expert systems. They

are best suited for real time control and operations planning. Design
 47

of HVDC controls [85]-[88] is one such area where expert systems find

application.

Artificial Neural Networks : (ANNs) are biologically inspired systems

that transform a set of inputs into a set of outputs through a network

of neurons, each of which generates one output as a function of its

inputs. The inputs and outputs are usually normalized, and the

output is a nonlinear function of the inputs that is controlled by

weights on the inputs. The network can be supervised or

unsupervised and it learns these weights during training. Numerous

ways of connecting the network and its training methods are available.

The power system problems that are best suited for ANN applications

are classification or encoding of an unspecified nonlinear function.

ANNs have the ability to generate quick results soon after receiving

the inputs. This feature of ANNs is best suited for real time operation

of power systems. Also they are most suitable for finding quick

approximations of complex numerical calculations and to

classification related problems. ANNs also have been applied to the

design of HVDC modulation controllers [89]-[91].

Heuristic Search: Simulated annealing and Genetic algorithms are

two forms of heuristic search, which solves optimization problems by

randomly generating new solutions and retaining the better ones. In

 48

searching processes, generation of solution is important. The

generated solution should lead to a better solution which can

minimize the chances of settling around a local minimum. Both the

above mentioned techniques can be applied to optimization problems

with arbitrary objective functions and constraints. These search

techniques find application in HVDC controls [92]-[94].

Fuzzy Logic: Compared with the traditional logic systems, fuzzy logic

is very close to human thinking and natural language. Fuzzy control

which is based on this fuzzy logic, provides an effective means of

extracting the inexact nature of the real system. FL controller is

based on a set of linguistic control rules and is related by the dual

concepts of fuzzy implication and the compositional inference rule.

The above mentioned controller provides a sequence of operations to

be performed to convert the linguistic control strategy based on expert

knowledge into an automatic control strategy. The results obtained by

the FLC are more accurate than those obtained by the conventional

controllers. These fuzzy logic based controllers are well suited for

applications involving complex analyses or when the available source

of information involves uncertainty or inexactness.

Fuzzy logic is appropriate in many areas of power systems where the

available information involves uncertainty. With fuzzy logic both the

input and output data are translated to symbolic form from numeric
 49

form and the control knowledge is specified as fuzzy rules. Fuzzy logic

theory is used for real-time control operations and operations

planning.

In the design of a fuzzy logic controller, mathematical model of the

system is not needed. To generate a desired control objective, it

requires a qualitative knowledge on the behavior of the system. And it

is very easy to add expert / heuristic knowledge about the system

behavior into the controller structure. The change in parameters or

operating conditions will not affect the performance of the fuzzy logic

controller. The applications of FL based controllers in the power

systems have been an active research area for the last two decades

[95, 96].

To modulate the DC power, Fuzzy logic based controllers can be

applied to HVDC systems. This can be achieved in response to a

control signal derived from the AC system. The effectiveness of the

control can be enhanced by increased overload rating of the converters

which permit short – term overloads. Thus, the rapid controllability of

power in a DC link can be used to advantage in improving the

transient stability of the AC system in which the DC link is embedded.

The power flow can even be reversed in a short time (less than

0.25sec).
 50

1.4 THESIS OBJECTIVE

For a power system with an embedded HVDC link, the fast acting

converter control offers a feature for hierarchical control of the

system following a system disturbance.

Many researchers investigated the fuzzy logic-based controller

applications in the HVDC transmission systems [97-108], but the

application of such a controller in the HVDC systems has been

studied in a limited manner mostly confining to SMIB systems. The

objective of this research work is to develop fuzzy logic based control

schemes for more general multi machine power systems, which are

simple and effective in damping the oscillations.

1.5 WORK PRESENTED IN THE THESIS

The work presented in this thesis mainly focuses on application of

different types of auxiliary controllers employing different types of

control signals derived from the ac system. Studies are made on single

machine infinite bus system as well as on multi machine system.

Initially, a single machine system is considered with parallel AC and

DC transmission link, having a Type–0 Auxiliary controller and a

Proportional Integral type current controller for the HVDC system. The

control signals derived from variation of active power in the parallel

AC line, generator speed deviation, generator power angle deviation

 51

and generator acceleration. These are used individually and in

combination. The signals derived from the machines and their

combinations may be viewed as P, D, P-D, P-I and P-I-D controllers

derived from speed deviation.

Later, a typical multi machine system is considered with similar

current controller for the HVDC system and auxiliary controllers with

control signals derived from local as well as remote machines. The

signals used are average of relative power angles, average of relative

speed variations and average accelerations of different generators. In

addition, the signal derived from adjacent AC line power flow is also

used. These signals are used individually and in combination. In both

the above cases, the gains associated with the error signals are chosen

by trial and error.

Finally, application of Fuzzy Logic based modulation controllers have

been studied for multi machine system. This study has been carried

out in two ways:

In the first case, fuzzy logic approach has been used to tune the gains

of PID controller. The gains of the three error signals are adjusted in

every sampling interval in accordance to a set of linguistic control

rules and in conjunction with fuzzy logic. In the second case, the

inputs to the fuzzy logic modulation controller are taken as error and
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its derivative and the output of this controller is used as the auxiliary

signal. The error signal used in this case is the average of relative

speed deviations of all the machines in the system. The performance

of this controller is compared with the conventional PID controller.

1.6 OUTLINE OF THE THESIS

Chapter wise summary of the work done in the thesis is briefly given

below:

In chapter 1, the salient features of HVDC transmission highlighting

its role in the improvement of AC system stability are presented.

Literature survey reviewing different DC power modulation controllers

is presented.

In chapter 2, transient stability analysis of AC-DC system is

discussed. AC/DC load flow study which is a prerequisite for the

transient stability analysis is discussed in detail. Eliminated variable

method which dispenses with the DC variables thereby modifying the

AC Jacobean matrix is used in the load flow study. Models of

Generators, Loads and HVDC systems used in the stability study are

described.

In chapter 3, a single machine infinite bus system with parallel AC

and DC transmission link is considered and applications of different

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types of auxiliary controllers for improvement of system stability are

discussed. In this analysis different control signals derived from

generator speed deviation, generator power angle deviation, deviation

of generator accelerating power and variation of power in the parallel

AC line are used individually and in combination. The gains

associated with these control signals are chosen by trial and error.

In chapter 4, the analysis carried out in chapter 3 is extended to a

multi machine system with an embedded DC link. Effects of different

control signals like average of relative power angles, average of relative

speed variations, average accelerations of different generators and

variation of adjacent AC line power flow are analyzed individually and

in combination. In this analysis also, the gains associated with the

control signals are chosen by trial and error.

In chapter 5, Fuzzy Logic Controller application has been studied for

the multi machine system presented in chapter 4. A variable gain

Fuzzy Logic controller is developed for the system which adjusts the

gains associated with the control signals in every sampling interval in

accordance to a set of linguistic control rules and in conjunction with

fuzzy logic. The performance of this controller is compared with that

obtained in chapter 4.
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In chapter 6, a new fuzzy logic control scheme is developed for the

same multi machine system presented in chapters 4 and 5. This

scheme makes use of average of relative angular speeds of all the

machines and its derivative as inputs and output as auxiliary

stabilizing signal. The performance of this controller is analyzed.

Conclusions arrived from the above analysis on single and multi

machine ac-dc systems are presented in chapter 7.