Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology

Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

Grade Level: Biology 1/Grade 9

Subject / Topic: Support and Movement by the Skeletal System
Time Frame: 150 minutes
Number of Sessions: 3 sessions
Resources/Materials Needed: laptop and/or cellular phone with internet connection, notebook, paper, and pen

LESSON 1:

TARGET
After completing this learning module, you are expected to:

• Explain the functions of the skeletal system

• Describe the trends and compare various strategies used by organisms for support,
protection, movement, and locomotion (prokaryotes, protists, animals)
• Classify bones and joints according to types and functions
• Discuss the general process of bone formation
• Relate the structures of bone and cartilage to their supportive and protective functions
• Compare and contrast axial and appendicular skeletons
• Locate and identify important bones and joints in man and explain how they work

HOOK
As humans, the ability to walk upright and to perform many tasks with
amazing precision is often taken for granted. These abilities that give us an edge
over most other animals on our planet are the result of our skeletal systems. The
skeletal system is the body system composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and
other tissues that perform essential functions for the body. Most animals, excluding
insects, have internal skeletal systems that serve a variety of functions, including
support, protection, storage, and healing.

Our skeleton provides the framework that allows movement to take place and
our skeletal muscles provide the energy to pull our bones and joints into the correct
positions needed for different types of physical activity. In this chapter, we will look
at the structure and function of the skeletal system, which will help us understand
how we move our bodies during physical activity. We will learn to describe
anatomically the movements of our body whether you are a sport enthusiast, a FIGURE 1.1. The Human Skeleton
dancer, a singer, or a swimmer.

Skeleton
The bony framework upon which the rest of the body
is built. It provides attachments for the muscular
system and carries and protects the cardiovascular Ligament
and respiratory systems.
A tough band of fibrous, slightly elastic connective
Bone tissue that attaches one bone to another. It binds the
ends of bones together to prevent dislocation
It is also known as osseous tissue, is a connective
tissue that constitutes the endoskeleton. It contains
specialized cells and a matrix of mineral salts and
Tendon
collagen fibers. A very strong connective tissue that attaches skeletal
muscle to bone
Joint
The point at which two or more bones meet.

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

IGNITE
The typical human skeleton consists of 206 bones in adults. More bones are present at birth,
which gradually fuse together as the body matures. We all know that we use our bones and muscles
daily. When you write an essay, dribble a ball, chew your food, bake a cake, walk, run, and dance,
you make use of your bones, joints, cartilage, and ligaments.

The skeleton is the structure that gives us our shape, provides protection for our internal
organs, and offers a supportive framework for the attachment of muscles therefore facilitating
movement. Our bones also act as a site to produce blood cells and a store of minerals, particularly
calcium.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

SUPPORT
Some functions of the skeletal system are more readily
observable than others. When you move you can feel how your
bones support you, facilitate your movement, and protect the
soft organs of your body. Just as the steel beams of a building
provide a scaffold to support its weight, the bones and cartilages
of your skeletal system compose the scaffold that supports the
rest of your body. Without the skeletal system, you would be a
limp mass of organs, muscle, and skin. Bones facilitate
movement by serving as points of attachment for your muscles.

Many bones of the body provide support, but it is

FIGURE 1.2. Vertebrae (spinal column)
provide support and protection
not possible without strong bones.
especially true of the long bones. For example, the long bones
in legs help support the trunk. Bones other than long bones also
provide support. For example, the first vertebra supports the
skull, the second vertebra supports the first, and so on. With the
support of bones, animals were able to develop into larger
organisms with greater chest and organ capacities. Even the
massive bones found from dinosaurs prove that large growth is

PROTECTION
An important function of the skeletal system is the protection of vital internal organs. The
skeleton protects the internal organs from damage by surrounding them with bone. Bone is living
tissue that is hard and strong, yet slightly flexible to resist breaking. The strength of bone comes
from its mineral content, which is primarily calcium and phosphorus.

The flexibility is due to a substance called collagen. The combination of strength and flexibility
gives the skeleton the capacity to absorb the impact of blows to the body without breaking. The skull
protects the brain just as the rib cage protects the heart, lungs, and abdominal organs. Being
encased and protected allowed these organs to develop and to increase in size and performance.
Without protection from bones, a simple bump to the head or abdomen could be a fatal injury.

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

MOVEMENT
The skeletal bones are held together by ligaments, and tendons attach the muscles to the
bones of the skeleton. The muscular and skeletal systems work together as the musculoskeletal
system, which enables body movement and stability. When muscles contract, they pull on bones of
the skeleton to produce movement or hold the bones in a stable position.

The shape of the bones and how they fit together at the joints allows for different types of
movement. For example, the leg bones come together at the knee to form a hinge joint that enables
the knee to bend back and forth. The joining portions of the bones of the hip and shoulder have a
much different shape and form ball-and-socket joints that allow movement in multiple directions.

BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION

Larger bones contain bone marrow, a spongy tissue inside the bones. There are two main
types of marrow, red and yellow. Red marrow is responsible for production of all the body's red
blood cells and many of its white blood cells. Red blood cells are produced at an average rate
of approximately 200 million per day. These cells carry life-sustaining oxygen to the body tissues.

In adults, red marrow is found primarily in the breastbone, hips, ribs, skull, spinal bones and
at the end of long bones of the arms and legs. Several types of white blood cells, which protect the
body from infections, are also produced in red bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow contains primary
fat cells but can transform into red marrow if the body needs to increase blood cell production, such
as if anemia develops. As we age, the distribution of red and yellow bone marrow changes as seen
in Figure 1.3.

FIGURE 1.3. Bone Marrow: Bones contain variable amounts of yellow and/or red bone marrow. Yellow
bone marrow stores fat and red bone marrow is responsible for producing blood cells
(hematopoiesis).

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

MINERALS AND FAT STORAGE

The body uses calcium and phosphorous for bodily processes like muscle contraction. Some of
those minerals are found in our diet, but they are also taken from the bones in the human body. When the
body needs calcium, if there is not a ready supply in the blood, the endocrine system releases hormones that
initiate the process of taking calcium from bone and releasing it into the bloodstream. When there is a surplus
of blood calcium, it is put back into the bones.

Therefore, dietary calcium and vitamin D are so important. The body uses calcium constantly and, if
there is not enough calcium in the diet, it will consistently take calcium from the bone to compensate – leading
to osteoporosis. Having enough dietary calcium ensures that there is enough calcium for bodily functions and
replenishes the backup stores in the bone. Yellow marrow, found in the shaft of long bones and other mature
bones contains adipose tissue, and the triglycerides stored in the adipocytes of this tissue can be released
to serve as a source of energy for other tissues of the body.

The skeletal system has five main functions as

shown in Figure 4.

Give examples of how the functions of the

skeletal system enable you to carry out your
everyday needs and routine.

FIGURE 1.4. Functions of the Skeletal System

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

A skeletal system is necessary to support the body, protect internal organs, and allow for the movement
of an organism. There are three different skeleton designs that fulfill these functions: hydrostatic skeleton,
exoskeleton, and endoskeleton.
Hydrostatic skeletons are basically chambers filled with water.
This fluid-filled compartment is called coelom. Imagine an elongated
balloon full of water. If you pull on it, it lengthens and becomes thinner. It
does the same if you squeeze it. Conversely, if you push the ends toward
the center, it shortens and thickens. Many animals, including cnidarians
and annelids, have a hydrostatic skeleton that works something like a
balloon filled with water. Fluid in a closed compartment of the body is held
under pressure. When muscles in the compartment wall contract, they
push against the tube of fluid. Because fluids cannot be compressed, the
force is transmitted through the fluid, changing the shape and movement
of the body. Most cnidarians, flatworms, annelids, and roundworms have FIGURE 1.5. Hydrostatic Skeleton. Earthworm
hydrostatic skeletons. (A). Jellyfish (B). Starfish (C)

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

Over time, to refine movement and improve protection from

predators, some organisms developed a hard chitinous exoskeleton.
Exoskeletons first developed in the aquatic environment in ancient
arthropods. Animals with this type of skeleton include crustaceans like crabs
and lobsters. It is an external skeleton that consists of a hard encasement on
the surface of an organism. This skeleton type provides defense against
predators, supports the body, and allows for movement through the
contraction of attached muscles. As with vertebrates, muscles must cross a
joint inside the exoskeleton. Shortening of the muscle changes the
relationship of the two segments of the exoskeleton.
FIGURE 1.6. Crustaceans, such as this crab,
developed a protective exoskeleton.

You are probably most familiar with the endoskeleton of echinoderms and chordates. This living
internal skeleton consists of plates or shafts of calcium-impregnated tissue (such as cartilage or bone).
Composed of living tissue, the endoskeleton grows along with the animal. The internal vertebrate skeleton
provides support and protection and transmits muscle forces. Members of class Chondrichthyes (sharks and
rays) have skeletons of cartilage, but in most vertebrates the skeleton consists mainly of bone. Many bones
form systems of levers that transmit muscle forces.

Two Main Divisions of the Vertebrate Skeleton

The skeleton is divided into two parts: the axial skeleton, the bones that form the longitudinal axis of
the body, and the appendicular skeleton, the bones of the limbs and girdles that attach them to the axial
skeleton. Joints give these parts of the skeleton flexibility and allow movement to occur.

Axial Skeleton
It serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It also serves as the attachment site for
muscles that move the head, neck, and back, and for muscles that act across the shoulder and hip joints to
move their corresponding limbs.

The axial skeleton of the

adult consists of 80 bones,
comprising the skull, the vertebral
column, and the thoracic cage.
The skull is formed by 22 bones.
Also associated with the head are
an additional seven bones, including
the hyoid bone (found in the upper
neck) and the ear ossicles (three
small bones found in each middle
ear).
The vertebral column
consists of 24 bones, each called
a vertebra, plus the fused vertebrae
of the sacrum and coccyx. The
thoracic cage includes 12 pairs of
ribs, and the sternum, the flattened
bone of the anterior chest.
FIGURE 1.7. Major bones of the skeleton. (a) Anterior view. (b) Posterior view. The bones
of the axial skeleton are shown in blue gray, and those of the appendicular
skeleton are shown in tan/light brown

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 Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

For a more detailed discussion on axial skeleton, please refer to the educational video and
supplementary reading links below:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KyMCmIpKuCA
https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/skeleton/axial-skeleton

Appendicular Skeleton
Your skeleton provides the internal supporting structure of the body. The adult axial skeleton consists
of 80 bones that form the head and body trunk. Attached to this are the limbs, whose 126 bones constitute
the appendicular skeleton. These bones are divided into two groups: the bones that are located within the
limbs themselves, and the girdle bones that attach the limbs to the axial skeleton. The bones of the shoulder
region form the pectoral girdle, which anchors the upper limb to the thoracic cage of the axial skeleton. The
lower limb is attached to the vertebral column by the pelvic girdle.

Because of our upright stance, different functional demands are placed upon the upper and lower
limbs. Thus, the bones of the lower limbs are adapted for weight-bearing support and stability, as well as for
body locomotion via walking or running. In contrast, our upper limbs are not required for these functions.
Instead, our upper limbs are highly mobile and can be utilized for a wide variety of activities. The large range
of upper limb movements, coupled with the ability to easily manipulate objects with our hands and opposable
thumbs, has allowed humans to construct the modern world in which we live.

For a more detailed discussion on appendicular skeleton, please refer to the educational video link
below:

https://www.visiblebody.com/learn/skeleton/appendicular-skeleton

Bone Classification
So, what are the different types of bones?
How are they categorized? The 206 bones that
compose the adult skeleton are divided into five
categories based on their shapes (Figure 6). Their
shapes and their functions are related such that
each categorical shape of bone has a distinct
function. Let’s go through each type and see
examples.

FLAT BONES
There are flat bones in the skull (occipital,
parietal, frontal, nasal, lacrimal, and vomer), the
thoracic cage (sternum and ribs), and the pelvis
(ilium, ischium, and pubis). The function of flat
bones is to protect internal organs such as the
brain, heart, and pelvic organs. Flat bones are
somewhat flattened, and can provide protection,
like a shield; flat bones can also provide large areas
of attachment for muscles.

LONG BONES
FIGURE 1.8. Classification of Bones by Shape The long bones, longer than they are wide,

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

include the femur (the longest bone in the body) as well as relatively small bones in the fingers.
Long bones function to support the weight of the body and facilitate movement. Long bones are mostly located
in the appendicular skeleton and include bones in the lower limbs (the tibia, fibula, femur, metatarsals, and
phalanges) and bones in the upper limbs (the humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals, and phalanges).

SHORT BONES
Short bones are about as long as they are wide. Located in the wrist and ankle joints, short bones
provide stability and some movement. The carpals in the wrist (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral, hamate, pisiform,
capitate, trapezoid, and trapezium) and the tarsals in the ankles (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral
cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, and medial cuneiform) are examples of short bones.

IRREGULAR BONES
Irregular bones vary in shape and structure and therefore do not fit into any other category (flat, short,
long, or sesamoid). They often have a complex shape, which helps protect internal organs. For example, the
vertebrae, irregular bones of the vertebral column, protect the spinal cord. The irregular bones of the pelvis
(pubis, ilium, and ischium) protect organs in the pelvic cavity.

SESAMOID BONES
Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. These small, round bones are commonly found in
the tendons of the hands, knees, and feet. Sesamoid bones function to protect tendons from stress and wear.
The patella, commonly referred to as the kneecap, is an example of a sesamoid bone.

Summary of the Bone Classification

Classification Features Function(s) Examples

Femur, tibia, fibula,
Cylinder-like shape, longer than metatarsals, humerus, ulna,
Long Leverage
it is wide radius, metacarpals,
phalanges
Cube-like shape, approximately Provide stability, support,
Short equal in length, width, and while allowing for some Carpals, tarsals
thickness motion
Points of attachment for
Sternum, ribs, scapulae,
Flat Thin and curved muscles; protectors of
cranial bones
internal organs
Irregular Complex shape Protect internal organs Vertebrae, facial bones
Small and round; embedded in Protect tendons from
Sesamoid Patellae
tendons compressive forces

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

Why is the rib classified as a flat bone instead of a long bone?

Describe the features and functions of flat bones and long bones, then compare
these to the features and functions of a rib.

Joints
With one exception - the hyoid bone of the neck, every bone in the body forms a joint with at least one
other bone. Joints, also called articulations, are the sites where two or more bones meet. They have two
functions: They hold the bones together securely but also give the rigid skeleton mobility.

The graceful movements of a jazz dancer and the rough-and-tumble grappling of a kickboxer illustrate
the great variety of motion that joints allow. With fewer joints, we would move like robots. Nevertheless, the
bone-binding function of joints is just as important as their role in mobility. The immovable joints of the skull,
for instance, form a snug enclosure for the vital brain.

Joints are classified in two ways—functionally and structurally. Structural classifications of joints
consider whether the adjacent bones are strongly anchored to each other by fibrous connective tissue or

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

cartilage, or whether the adjacent bones articulate with each other within a fluid-filled space called a joint cavity.
Functional classifications describe the degree of movement available between the bones, ranging from
immobile, to slightly mobile, to freely moveable joints.

• FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS
Functional Classifications of Joints
Classification Range of Joint Motion Examples

Skull Sutures, articulations of bony sockets and teeth

Synarthrosis No movement in facial skeleton, and the joint found between the
first pair of ribs and the sternum
distal joint between the tibia and the fibula and the
Amphiarthrosis Little movement
pubic symphysis

Diarthrosis Full movement Elbow, shoulder, ankle

• STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATIONS
The structural classification divides joints into fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints depending
on the material composing the joint and the presence or absence of a cavity in the joint.

Structural Classifications of Joints

Structural
Classification Types Mobility
characteristics
Suture (short fibers) Immobile (synarthrosis)

bone ends/parts united by Syndesmosis (longer fibers) Slightly mobile (amphiarthrosis)

Fibrous
fibrous connective tissues and immobile
Gomphosis (periodontal
ligament) Immobile (synarthrosis)
Synchondrosis (hyaline cartilage) Immobile (synarthrosis)
bone ends/parts united by
Cartilaginous
cartilage
Symphysis (fibrocartilage) Slightly mobile (amphiarthrosis)
Plane
bone ends/parts covered
Condyloid
with articular cartilage Freely movable (diarthrosis.
Hinge
Synovial and enclose within an movements depend on design
Saddle
articular capsule lined of joint)
Pivot
with synovial membrane
Ball and socket

(A)

(C)
(B) FIGURE 1.9. Structural Classification of Joints. Fibrous Joints
(A). Cartilaginous Joints (B). Synovial Joints (C).

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c6RoLGVCu6E

Bone Formation and Development

The skeleton is formed from two of the strongest and most supportive tissues in the body—cartilage
and bone. In embryos, the skeleton is primarily made of fibrous membranes and hyaline cartilage, but in
young children, most of the cartilage has been replaced by bone. Cartilage remains only in isolated areas such
as the bridge of the nose, parts of the ribs, and the joints.
By the sixth or seventh week of embryonic life, the actual process of bone development, ossification
(osteogenesis), begins. There are two osteogenic pathways—intramembranous ossification and
endochondral ossification—but bone is the same regardless of the pathway that produces it.

Ossification
The process of creating bone, that is of transforming
cartilage (or fibrous tissue) into bone
Hyaline Cartilage
Cartilage
The most widespread cartilage type. This type of
a tough but flexible connective tissue located
cartilage is predominately collagen (yet with few
throughout the body that provides support and
collagen fibers), and its name refers to its glassy
cushioning for adjacent tissues
appearance.
Osteoblast Osteoclast
mononucleate cuboid cells that are responsible for specialized multinucleated giant cells responsible for
synthesis and mineralization of bone during both the dissolution and absorption of bone
initial bone formation and later bone remodeling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c6RoLGVCu6E

INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION
Intramembranous ossification is the process of bone development from fibrous membranes. It is
involved in the formation of the flat bones of the skull, the mandible, and the clavicles. Ossification begins as
mesenchymal cells form a template of the future bone. They then differentiate into osteoblasts at the
ossification center. Osteoblasts secrete the extracellular matrix and deposit calcium, which hardens the matrix.
The non-mineralized portion of the bone or osteoid continues to form around blood vessels, forming spongy
bone. Connective tissue in the matrix differentiates into red bone marrow in the fetus. The spongy bone is
remodeled into a thin layer of compact bone on the surface of the spongy bone.
There are four main steps in intramembranous ossification.

FIGURE 1.10. Intramembranous ossification. Steps 1 and 2

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

FIGURE 1.11. Intramembranous ossification. Steps 3 and 4

https://www.emouseatlas.org/emap/elearn/Monterde/html/intramembranous_ossification.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gh6J2CHR_q4&t=82s

ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION
The replacement of cartilage by bone is called endochondral ossification. Cartilage does not become
bone. Instead, cartilage serves as a template to be completely replaced by new bone. Endochondral
ossification takes much longer than intramembranous ossification.
Although most bones of the body are formed in this way, the process is best observed in a long bone.
It is the process of bone development from hyaline cartilage. All the bones of the body, except for the flat bones
of the skull, mandible, and clavicles, are formed through endochondral ossification. This type of ossification
follows five steps.

FIGURE 1.12. Endochondral ossification

https://www.emouseatlas.org/emap/elearn/Monterde/html/endochondral_ossification.html
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RpV1t9ZMSxY

As mentioned earlier, adult human skeleton is made up of 206 bones. It is quite difficult for some to
identify all 206 bones in our body.
The question now is - What are the important or major bones to human being?

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
Philippine Science High School – Central Visayas Campus

20 Major bones in the skeletal system

Cranium bone in the head that protects the brain
Mandible the lower jawbone
collar bone linking the scapula and the
Clavicle
sternum
flat bone connecting the clavicles and
Sternum
the first seven pairs of ribs
Humerus bone from the shoulder to the elbow
curved arches of bone from the spine to
Ribs
the sternum
Vertebrae bony segments of the spinal column
Pelvis the hip bones
Radius bone of the lower arm
the inner and longer of the two bones of
Ulna
the forearm
Carpals wrist bones
bones of the hand between the wrist
Metacarpals
and each finger
Phalanges (fingers) bones of the fingers
Femur bone of the upper leg
small flat triangular bone in front of the
Patella
knee
the inner and thicker of the two bones
Tibia
of the leg between the knee and ankle
the outer of the two bones of the leg
Fibula
between the knee and ankle
Tarsal the ankle bones
bones of the foot between the ankle
Metatarsal
and the toes
Phalanges (toes) bones of the toes
FIGURE 1.12. Major Bones in the Skeletal System

NAVIGATE
Now, let us test your understanding of the concepts discussed in this module. Read the question
carefully and write your answers in a clean sheet of intermediate paper.

1. Which function of the skeletal system would be especially important if you were in a car accident?
2. Bones serve as an important reservoir of __________.
A. cholesterol
B. vitamin A
C. calcium
D. protein
3. Bones meet at _______.
A. Joints
B. Ligaments
C. Tendons
D. Cartilage
4. Which of the following statement is INCORRECT?
A. Bone is where most blood cells are made.
B. Bone serves as a storehouse for various minerals.
C. Bone is a dry and non-living supporting structure.
D. Bone protects and supports the body and its organs.

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
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5. Which of the following bones listed is an example of a short bone?

A. Femur
B. Cranium
C. Carpals
D. Radius
6. During fetal development, intramembranous ossification takes place in __________.
A. cartilage
B. lamellae
C. the medullary cavity
D. fibrous connective tissue membranes
7. The bones of the skeleton store energy reserves as lipids in areas of __________.
A. yellow marrow
B. red marrow
C. spongy bone
D. the matrix of bone tissue
8. Which of the following statements about the axial skeleton is FALSE?
A. The sternum is considered part of the thoracic cage.
B. Eight bones form the cranium, in which the brain is located.
C. Both males and females have 12 pairs of ribs attached to the thoracic vertebrae.
D. There are two bones that are associated with the skull but are not actually part of its structure.
9. Which of the following does the appendicular skeleton include?
A. the pelvic girdle
B. the upper and lower limbs
C. the pectoral girdle
D. All the listed responses are correct.
10. Which of the following statements about bone development is FALSE?
A. Most bones of the body form by endochondral ossification.
B. Both kinds of ossification produce spongy and compact bone in the final bone product.
C. An ossification center develops in both endochondral and intramembranous ossification.
D. In both intramembranous and endochondral ossification, chondrocytes die as calcification
occurs.
11. What are the five classifications of bones?
12. A long bone is one of the five types of bone found in the skeleton. Identify and give examples of
the other four types of bone.
13. Suppose your red bone marrow could not be formed. What functions would your body not be able
to perform?
14. What type of joint allows a handball player’s fingers to spread apart so that they can control the
ball with one hand?
15. Contrast the general function of the axial skeleton to that of the appendicular skeleton.

KNOT

SUMMARY
✓ The major functions of the bones are body support, facilitation of movement, protection of internal organs,
storage of minerals and fat, and production of red blood cells. In an adult, there are 206 bones is divided
into two- the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. These bones are classified according to their
shapes. Long bones, such as the femur, are longer than they are wide. Short bones, such as the carpals,
are approximately equal in length, width, and thickness. Flat bones are thin, but are often curved, such as
the ribs. Irregular bones such as those of the face have no characteristic shape. Sesamoid bones, such
as the patellae, are small and round, and are in tendons.

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Learning Module in Biology 1: Fundamentals of Biology
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✓ Bones develop through Ossification or the process of bone connective tissue formation. In
intramembranous ossification, bone forms from mesenchyme. Endochondral ossification uses a hyaline
cartilage model that is gradually replaced by newly formed osseous tissue.
✓ Joints hold bones together and allow movement of the skeleton. Joints fall into three functional categories:
synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), and diarthroses (freely movable). They can
be classified structurally as fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial joints, depending on the substance
separating the articulating bones.

REFERENCES

Derrickson, B., & Tortora, G. (2009). Principles of Anatomy and Physiology (12th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Keller, S.M., & Marieb, E.N. (2018). Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology (12th ed.). Pearson
Education, Inc.

Biga, L.M., Dawson, S., Harwell, A., Hopkins, R., Kauffmann, J., LeMaster, M., Matern, P., Morrison-Graham,
K., Quick, D., & Runyeon, J. (n.d.). Anatomy and Physiology: Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System.
https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/6-0-introduction/

Prepared by:

PRINCESS GARNET Q. ALBISO

Subject Teacher

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