Constructivism- 1

CONSTRUCTIVISM
By Andrew P. Johnson
Minnesota State University, Mankato
Andrew.johnson@mnsu.edu
www.OPDT-Johnson.com

This is an excerpt from my book: Education Psychology: Theories of Learning and

Human Development (2014). National Science Press: www.nsspress.com

CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is a theory of learning that aligns most closely with cognitive psychology;
however, it also seems to reinforce and be reinforced by research in the areas of cognitive
neuroscience, humanistic learning theory, and holistic learning theory. Remember, a theory is a
way to explain a set of facts. Different theories explain similar facts differently.
The Basics
Learning occurs when new knowledge and understanding is constructed based on what
we already know and believe (NRC, 2000). This is the essence of constructivism. We do not
simply replicate in our heads what we read, hear, or experience; rather, we use what’s in our
head to help us understand new information and construct meaning.
For example, this chapter contains information about constructivism. As you read below
you will use any related knowledge already contained in your LTM (semantic memory) along
with your own experiences as learners (episodic memory) to help you construct or build a
meaningful concept of constructivism. If you have an abundance of related knowledge and
experiences this well be fairly easy. If you have very little related knowledge and experiences,
you will have to work a little harder to build a meaningful concept. And since no two human
experiences are alike, no two conceptions of constructivism will be exactly the same.
Learning
What is learning? Some descriptors that align with cognitive learning theory are
provided below:.
Learning is an active process. When you build or construct something you can’t just sit
in a chair. You have to do something. In the same way, a constructivist perspective sees
learning as an active, not a passive process. You cannot be learned. You cannot be learned at.
Nobody can learn you. Instead, you must learn. It is something you must actively strive to do.
To illustrate, if you are simply reading the words on this page without making any
attempt to understand what the words might mean, it will be very hard for you to construct a
meaningful concept. Instead, you need to be actively involved in constructing meaning. This
means that as you read you have to (a) check for understanding as you read, (b) identify
interesting or important ideas, (c) make a conscious effort to connect this information with what
you already know about teaching and learning, (d) pause every once in a while to see if what you
are reading makes sense, (e) connect the information to your own experiences, and then (f) think
about possible applications for this new knowledge.

© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.

 Constructivism- 2

Real learning is meaningful. Here’s a question for you: If you memorized a list of
psychological terms but you did not understand any of them would you have learned? Answer:
yes. However, you would have engaged in what’s called rote learning, a very low quality of
learning. This is when information is taken in but there are little or no connections to anything
currently in LTM (see Figure 1). Rote learning does not lead to understanding or meaning and
thus, is fairly useless. In order to understand new information it must be connected to
information that is understood. This is called meaningful learning. As the name implies,
meaningful learning has meaning or makes sense and it can be easily encoded, stored, retrieved,
and applied. And, the more connections to known things that you can make the more meaningful
this new information becomes. Thus we see the importance of a having a well-organized body
of knowledge in the teaching and learning process (see below). We also see the importance of
connecting the new to the known when you are introducing a new topic.

Figure 1. Rote and meaningful learning.

Memorizing is different from learning. We know that memory is important in

learning. We need to be able to be able to hold new information in STM. We need to be able to
encode and store new information in LTM. And, we need to be able to use knowledge currently
existing in LTM in order to understand new information. But memorizing is not the same as
learning. Again, you could memorize a list of psychological terms, but if they were meaningless
you would not have learned anything. Real learning involves creating meaning. There are many
memory strategies that can be helpful for recalling certain things (such as mnemonic devices).
But these are simply memory tools. Do not confuse memorizing with learning. Whether
reading, listening, doing, or experiencing, if you are not creating meaning you are not engaged in
meaningful learning. Real learning is associated with something. To be meaningful it makes
sense or carries some significance. To do this, new information must be connected to known
information.
Learning is a cognitive process. As described above, learning takes place inside the
head as new information combines with existing knowledge. This reflects Piaget’s description of
assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation occurs when new information adds to and
enhances existing knowledge structures or schemas. From a neurological perspective, this would
be when neural pathways are strengthened and neural networks are expanded. Accommodation
occurs when new information conflicts with existing knowledge or does not match any existing
knowledge structures or schemas. Old structures need to be modified. From a neurological
perspective, this would be when new neural pathways are formed and new neural networks are
created.
Since learning takes place inside the head, we can measure and observe only the effects
of learning, but not learning itself. We can never fully account for the new knowledge structures
created. As well, learning often goes far beyond what is taught or measured. That is, as students

© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.

 Constructivism- 3

use their background knowledge and experience to infer and fill in the blanks, the whole of what
they learn is usually far greater than the sum of the individual parts.
Learning is something humans do naturally. Humans are hard-wired to search for
meaning. We have a natural tendency to make sense of their world, to look for patterns, and to
creating meaning out of chaos. It is this natural tendency that has enabled our species to evolve
from the earliest times. Piaget described children as natural scientists who explore their world.
By acting upon the world the world acts upon them in terms of changing schema. When they
encounter new information that coincides with existing schema it enhances or expands these
cognitive structures (assimilation). When new information conflicts with current thinking it
creates a state of disequilibrium that can only be resolved by reforming old structures or creating
new ones (accommodation).
Learning is not a standardized process. Learners are not standardized products. Our
brains are all unique. We all process information and learn a little bit differently. We all bring
different knowledge and experiences to a learning experience. Since learning is not a
standardized process, it would be silly to assume that teaching could be a standardized process.
One size does not fit all when it comes to teaching strategies, pedagogy, approaches, or
methodology. Thus, insisting that all teachers utilize a standard approach reduces the amount of
real learning that takes place.
Learning is enhanced when it occurs in authentic situations or involves and
authentic task. The goal is for students to be able use knowledge and skills, not in school
environments, but out in the world (see ‘transfer’ below). Learners learn best when the
knowledge and skills taught in the setting or situation in which they will be used or which
replicate real life situations to the greatest degree. This is called situated learning. This means,
instead of assigning a grammar worksheet with a list of fill-in-the blank questions we would ask
students to write to express their ideas or describe their experiences (just like adults do in real
life) and then teach grammar in the context of their authentic writing. Also, we would teach
math and science using inquiry or problem-based learner.
The Importance of Knowledge
A constructivist view of learning places great emphasis on what students know. What
you know affects what you might know. Since meaningful learning involves connecting the new
to the known, the more we know the better we are able to learn. Among other things, a well-
organized body of knowledge in LTM improves problem solving, reasoning, reading
comprehension, and as we saw in Chapter 14, our ability to learn. Knowledge also affects our
ability to perceive and remember (Goldstein 2008).
One of the differences between experts and novices in any field is an organized body of
knowledge. Experts have acquired a great deal of content knowledge that is organized in LTM
in ways that reflect a deep understanding of the subject matter. This organization helps them
easily retrieve important aspect of knowledge when necessary with very little attention
(automaticity). It also helps them notice patterns and use chunking when working with
information in STM. In comparison, the knowledge base of a novice relative to a given area is
shallow and disjointed.
An important part of any teacher’s job is to help students develop an organized body of
knowledge. Some tips for this include the following:
• Teach using well-structured lessons that present knowledge in an organized fashion.
Strive to create a logical sequence of instructional events and links activities to instructional
objectives (Johnson, 2010).

© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.

 Constructivism- 4

• Use advanced organizers, graphic organizers, and concepts maps to show the structure
of what is to be learned or what was learned. Advanced organizers show students the structure
of or key points related to what is to be learned. Concept maps and graphic organizers show
students the hierarchical structure of a concept and how one thing relates to another.
• Use a well-structured organized curriculum that includes planned redundancy of key
concepts and important points.
• Instead of trying to cover too many subjects superficially, teach fewer subjects more in
depth (NRC, 2000).
Constructivist Teaching
Constructivism is a theory that describes how people construct knowledge and create their
view of the world (see below). There are a variety of teaching strategies that align with
constructivism and could be considered to be constructivist teaching practices. These include:
discovery learning, cooperative learning, inquiry learning, reading and writing workshop, and
problem-based learning (described in Book II – Advanced Pedagogy). One of the biggest
misconceptions of constructivist teaching is that it does not involve direct teaching, explicit
instruction, or lecture/telling. This is not the case. The difference between constructivist
teaching and some of the more top-down approaches is that a constructivist approach recognizes
that providing organized, well-structured information is only one part of creating effective
learning experiences.
Constructing Memories
What do you remember about what you did yesterday? Are you sure? Find a friend who
may have shared an experience with you. Ask that friend to list the details of that experience
while you do the same. Compare your lists. What do you notice about what was listed and in
what order?
According to the constructivist view, human memory, like knowledge, is constructed
using what we know and believe along with context, expectations, and past experiences
(Sternberg & Williams, 2009). Even though we think we are remembering events from our lives
exactly has they happened, our memories never exactly replicate. Instead, our memories
reconstruct a version of reality using all the information and experiences stored in LTM. Just as
we construct knowledge when we encode and store information, we do that same as we retrieve
information from LTM. Because of the emotional content, episodic memories are especially
susceptible to memory reconstruction.

RELATED VIDEO MINI-LECTURES

Constructivism 1: Overview of a Learning Theory
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nuS6E2mXqNE

Constructivism 2: Teaching Practices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2c1WcM76eM

Constructivism Basics
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ELPsKhd9lWs

Schema Theory, Learning, and Comprehension

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V4_Kio9pPwE

© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.

 Constructivism- 5

Constructing Memories
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6uguEWRP6hA

References
Eggen P. & Kauchak, D. Educational psychology: Windows on classrooms (7th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Goldstein, E.B. (2008). Cognitive psychology (2nd ed.) Belmont, CA: Thomson Higher Education
Dabrowski, K. (1964). Positive disintegration. Boston: Little, Brown.
Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget’s theory. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (4th ed.,
Vol. 1). New York: Wiley.
Silverman, L.K. (1993). The gifted individual. In L.K. Silverman (Ed.) Counseling the gifted
and talented. Denver, CO: Love Publishing Company, pp. 3-28.
Sisk, D. and Torrance, E.P. (2001). Spiritual intelligence: Developing higher consciousness.
Buffalo, NY: Creative Education Foundation Press.
Sternberg, R.J. & Williams, W.M. (2009). Educational psychology (2nd ed). Boston, MA:
Pearson.
Wallas, G. (1926). The art of thought. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and World.

© Andrew P. Johnson, Ph.D.