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Thermodynamics, along with thermal hydraulic analysis, deals with the transfer of
heat to and from a working fluid and the performance of work by that fluid. Since
the transfer of heat to a working fluid is central to thermodynamics, a short
excursion into the technology of heat transfer is useful to tie thermodynamics to
real world devices. Heat transfer processes are never ideal and a study of the
technology of heat transfer will develop an understanding of the trade-offs in the
design of the devices that actually accomplish the heat transfer. Heat transfer
technology provides the basis on which heat exchangers are designed to accomplish
the actual transfer of thermal energy.
8.1 Introduction
∂T
Qx ¼ kA Btu=h or W ð8:1aÞ
∂x
or
Qx ∂T
qx ¼ ¼ k Btu=h=ft2 or W=m2 ð8:1bÞ
A ∂x
Simply stated the heat flow per unit area is proportional to the negative of the
temperature gradient. The proportionality constant is called the thermal conductiv-
ity, and it has units of Watts/meter/K or Btus/ft/ R. The thermal conductivities of
typical materials vary widely by material, and it also depends on the temperature of
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308 8 Conduction Heat Transfer
the materials. Some typical values are given in the Appendices A, B, and C for
solids, liquids, and gases. There are different techniques available to solve the
energy equation for conduction heat transfer: shell balance, conformal mapping,
numerical methods, and graphical methods.
The more complete version of version of heat conduction equation can be
written as Eq. 8.1c, where α is the thermal diffusivity, k is the thermal conductivity,
and q_ is the heat flux.
q_ 1 ∂T
∇2 T þ ¼ ð8:1cÞ
k α ∂x
or
2 2 2
∂ T ∂ T ∂ T
∇2 T ¼ þ þ ð8:1eÞ
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2
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8.2 Basic Heat Conduction Equations 309
∂ ∂T ðx; tÞ ∂T ðx; tÞ
k þ g ¼ ρcp ð8:2aÞ
∂x ∂x ∂x
The compact version of Eq. 8.2 can be established using Rectangular, Cylindrical,
and Spherical coordinates systems for one-dimensional, time-dependent heat con-
duction as
1 ∂ n ∂T ∂T
r k þ g ¼ ρcp ð8:3Þ
r ∂r
n ∂r ∂t
where
8
< 0 for rectangular coordinates
n ¼ 1 for cylindrical coordinates
:
2 for spherical coordinates
and again remember in case of rectangular coordinate system the variable r should
be replaced by variable x as a customary procedure.
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310 8 Conduction Heat Transfer
Several special cases of Eq. 8.3 are of practical interest in usage of thermal
hydraulic subject. For constant thermal conductivity k, Eq. 8.3 reduces to a simpli-
fied form as
1 ∂ n ∂T 1 1 ∂T
r þ g ¼ ð8:4aÞ
r n ∂r ∂r k α ∂t
where
k
α ¼ thermal diffusivity of material, m2 =s ð8:4bÞ
ρcp
For steady-state heat conduction with energy sources within the medium, Eq. 8.3
becomes
1 ∂ n ∂T
r k þg¼0 ð8:5aÞ
r n ∂r ∂r
and for the case of constant thermal conductivity, this result reduces to
1 ∂ n ∂T 1
r þ g¼0 ð8:5bÞ
r n ∂r ∂r k
For steady-state heat conduction with no energy sources within the medium,
Eq. 8.3, forms a more simplified version as
d n ∂T
r k ¼0 ð8:6aÞ
dr ∂r
In all the equations from Eqs. 8.4 to 8.6, the exponent variable is defined as
before
8
< 0 for rectangular coordinates
n ¼ 1 for cylindrical coordinates
:
2 for spherical coordinates
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8.3 Heat Conduction in a Cylinder with a Uniform Heat Flux 311
This problem corresponds loosely to the generation of heat in a fuel rod in a nuclear
reactor. From the second law of thermodynamics we know that the heat flows
whenever there is a temperature difference, i.e., temperature gradient. The knowl-
edge of the temperature distribution is essential to evaluate the heat flow. The
temperature distribution and the heat flow constitute two basic elements in the
design of thermal equipments such as boilers, heat exchangers, and nuclear reactor
coresc. Since in nuclear reactors, under normal operating conditions, radiation heat
transfer has limited application, the present discussion will be mainly focused on
conduction and convection heat transfers.
Consider a cylinder with length L and outside radius r0, as shown in Fig. 8.1.
Look at a shell of thickness Δr and length L in the cylinder, and consider the various
components, which contribute to the heat transport, in the r ‐ direction
Sum these contributions and set equal to zero. Divide by 2πΔrL and take the
limit
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312 8 Conduction Heat Transfer
ðrqr ÞjrþΔr þ ðrqr Þjr
lim ¼ q000 r ð8:10Þ
Δr!0 Δr
The left side is the definition of the first derivative, d(rqr)/dr. It can be integrated
easily to give
q000 r C1
qr ¼ þ ð8:11Þ
2 r
dT q000 r
qr ¼ k ¼ ð8:12Þ
dr 2
q000 r 2
T¼ þ C2 ð8:13Þ
4k
This is a parabolic temperature profile and can be sketched as shown in Fig. 8.2.
The maximum temperature occurs at the centerline, T max ¼ T 0 þ q000 r 20 =4k.
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8.3 Heat Conduction in a Cylinder with a Uniform Heat Flux 313
For the case where a cylinder with heat generation is surrounded by a cladding
material, as shown in Fig. 8.3, two additional boundary conditions are added at the
interface between the two materials
Tc ¼ T1 at r ¼ rc ð8:15Þ
dT f dT c
qf ¼ qc or kf ¼ kc at r ¼ r f ð8:16Þ
dr dr
The solution for the inner cylinder is already known. Now, it is desired to derive
the solution for the cladding materials.
The solution for the jacket comes from the differential equation developed above
d
ðrq Þ ¼ 0 ð8:17Þ
dr r
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314 8 Conduction Heat Transfer
This implies that the product of the heat flux with radius is constant, and equal to
the heat flux at r ¼ rf, which is known from the above problem to be
q000 r 2f
rqr ¼ ð8:18Þ
2
so
dT c q000 r 2f
qr ¼ kc ¼ ð8:19Þ
dr 2r
q000 r 2f
Tc ¼ ðln r þ CÞ ð8:20Þ
2kc
q000 r 2f r c
T c T co ¼ ln ð8:21Þ
2kc r
q000 r 2f
T max T fo ¼ ð8:23Þ
4kf
or
q000 r 2f 1 1 rc
T max ¼ T co þ þ ln ð8:24Þ
2 2kf kc rf
For layers of materials (no internal heat generation), the total heat transport can be
calculated using an analogy to electrical resistances. Consider, for example, a
layered cylinder per demonstration in Fig. 8.4.
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8.4 Composite Walls: Summed Resistance 315
From Eqs. 8.18 and 8.19, we know that the heat transfer and temperature drop
across any layer are related, r0q0 ¼ r1q1 ¼ r2q2 ¼
r 0 q0 r1 q0 r1
T2 T1 ¼ ln ¼ ln ð8:25Þ
k12 r2 2πLk12 r2
where q0 is the total heat transferred per unit length of the cylinder. We can write
similar equations for the other layers
q0 r2
T3 T2 ¼ ln ð8:26Þ
2πLk23 r3
etc. In addition, the heat transfer resistance at the inner and outer fluid/solid
interfaces can be expressed in terms of a heat transfer coefficient.
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316 8 Conduction Heat Transfer
2πLðT fo T fi Þ
q0 ¼ ð8:28Þ
1 ln ðr 2 =r 1 Þ ln ðr 3 =r 2 Þ ln ðr 4 =r 3 Þ 1
þ þ þ
r 1 hi k12 k23 k34 r 4 ho
ðT fo T fi Þ ðT fo T fi Þ
q0 ¼ ¼ ð8:29Þ
ð R1 þ R 2 þ R3 þ R 4 þ R5 Þ RTotal
1 ln ðr 2 =r 1 Þ
R1 ¼ R2 ¼ ð8:30Þ
2πr 1 Lhi 2πLk12
1
RTotal ¼ RTotal ¼ R1 þ R2 þ R3 þ ð8:31Þ
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
R1 þ R2 þ R3 þ
1 1 1
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl
ffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} ðserialÞ
ðparallelÞ
A variety of materials have been proposed and used as reactor fuels. Breeder
reactors have used PuO2 and UO2, and interest is renewing in metal fuels for fast
reactors. For thermal reactors, UO2 has shown satisfactory chemical and irradiation
tolerance, which overshadows the disadvantages of low thermal conductivity and
uranium atom density. Table 8.1 compares the oxide form of uranium to the metal,
carbide, and nitride forms. Because current and near-term reactors both use UO2,
discussion in this section focuses on the properties of that material.
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8.5 Conduction in Complex Systems: Fuel Elements 317
3824
k¼ þ 6:1256 1011 ðT Þ3 ð8:32Þ
402:4 þ T
where T is Kelvin and k in watts per meter and Kelvin (W/m K). The thermal
conductivity of UO2 also changes with porosity, oxygen to metal atom ratio, PuO2
content, cracking, and burnup.
Oxide fuel is manufactured by sintering pressed powdered UO2 or mixed oxides
at high temperature to create ceramic pellets. The pellets are deliberately
manufactured with 5–10% porosity to prevent pellet swelling from gaseous fission
product species. With a void fraction ϕ defined as the void volume divided by the
total volume, Kampf and Karsten [1] derived for negligible pore conductance a
relationship between the thermal conductivity with zero voids, kTD and with finite
void fraction, k,
k ¼ 1 ϕ2=3 kTD ð8:33Þ
The variation of the oxygen to metal ratio from the stoichiometric value of two
decreases the thermal conductivity of UO2. Likewise, the addition of PuO2 results
in a decrease in thermal conductivity of UO2.
The cracking of fuel pellets introduces additional thermal resistance and thus
decreases the effective thermal conductivity. Empirical relationships are available
for predicting the change in effective thermal conductivity as a function of the fuel/
cladding gap dimensions under cold and hot conditions [2, p. 303].
Fission gas release from the fuel is important, in that it degrades the relatively
high thermal conductivity of the helium used to pressurize the fuel pin. The fraction
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318 8 Conduction Heat Transfer
of gas released from the pellets increases with increased operating temperature. The
thermal conductivity of the gas mixture should be calculated using the Lindsay-
Bromley approach because a simple mole balance will under-predict the degrading
effect of the higher molecular weight fission gases.
The gap between the fuel and cladding introduces a significant thermal resis-
tance. It is normally accounted for using an effective heat transfer coefficient, added
in series as discussed in the previous section. For an open, non-contacting gap, the
effective heat transfer coefficient is given by
4
kg 1 1 T s T 4sc
hc ¼ þ σ þ 1 ð8:34Þ
δ εs εsc T s T sc
where kg is the conductivity of the gas mixture, δ he gap thickness, σ the Stefan–
Boltzmann constant, εs and εsc the emissivity of the fuel and cladding surfaces, and
Ts and Tsc the surface temperatures of the fuel and cladding. Contact between the
fuel and cladding increases the effective heat transfer coefficient, with the coeffi-
cient increasing with increasing contact pressure.
For a contacting gap, Majumdar and Tien [3] have shown that the contact
conductance due to contact is related to the load F as h / FηD/2, where D is the
fractal dimension for the surface and η is a variable ranging from 1 to 1.33 as a
function of D. For machined surfaces, at small scales the fractal dimension takes on
the Brownian value of 1.5, while at larger length scales the fractal dimension is
larger due to the machining, approaching a value of 2.0. Due to the surface
roughness, only a fraction of the total surface area comes in contact with flow.
The gaps can then be viewed as creating a large number of parallel heat flow paths.
From experimental data, heat transfer measurements for machined surfaces were
found to be correlated with fractal dimensions varying from 1.7 to 1.99.
Under sustained operation at high power, the large temperature gradients cause
migration of material from the pellet center, condensing in and filling voids at the
outer radius. This results in void formation at the center of the pellets, and crystal
structure changes in the fuel. For regions with temperatures above 1500 C, the
average grain size increases due to equiaxed grain growth. For temperatures above
1700 C, columnar grains are formed in radial orientation within the fuel.
Heat conduction in fins: must set up energy balance, determine that [4, 5]
d2 T hP
¼ ðT T 1 Þ ð8:35Þ
dz2 kA
where h is the heat transfer coefficient, A the fin area, and P the fin perimeter
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8.7 Problems 319
Transient heat conduction to a semi-infinite slab has the same solution as that for flow
near a wall suddenly set in motion. This step change problem was discussed in Chap. 5.
Solutions to the heat conduction equation (Laplace’s equation) can also be
solved by conformal mapping, such as Laplace Transformation or Fourier Trans-
formation depends on boundary or initial conditions, as was done for the potential
flow problem.
8.7 Problems
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320 8 Conduction Heat Transfer
T1
T2
x
O L
r
ro
To
Configuration
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References 321
Problem 8.11: Using the results obtained as solution for the lateral part of Problem
8.4, we see that the heat flux falls off inversely with radius. That is reasonable
since the same heat flow must pass through an increasingly large surface as the
radius increases. Show if this is the case for a cylinder of length ‘.
Problem 8.12: The temperature of a gas changes from 17 to 487 C while the
pressure remains constant at 0.2 MPa. Compute the heat transfer and entropy
change if the gas is (a) air, (b) helium, or (c) carbon dioxide.
Problem 8.13: The fuel element of a pool type reactor is composed of a plate of
metallic uranium of thickness 2L1, placed in sandwich between two aluminum
plates (cladding) of thickness (L2 L1), This fuel element is illustrated in
Fig. P8.13. Heat energy, due to the fission of U235, is generated in the fuel
plate at a uniform rate q 000 . The fission energy deposited in the cladding plates is
negligible. The convection heat transfer coefficient and the temperature of the
fluid washing the fuel element are h and tf, respectively. Determine the temper-
ature distribution in the fuel element.
2L2
h 2L1 h
CLADDING FUEL
tf q''' tf
C x
References
1. H. Kampf, G. Karsten, Effects of different types of void volumes on the radial temperature
distribution of fuel pins. Nucl. Appl. Technol 9, 288 (1970)
2. N.E. Todreas, M.S. Kazimi, Nuclear Systems, vol I (CRC, Boca Raton, 1990)
3. A. Majumdar, C.L. Tien, Fractal network model for contact conductance. J Heat Transfer 113,
517–525 (1991)
4. B. Zohuri, P. McDaniel, Thermodynamics in nuclear power plant systems, 1st edn. (CRC, Boca
Raton, 2013)
5. B. Zohuri, Heat pipe design and technology: a practical approach (CRC, Boca Raton, 2011)
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