Energía y Exergía

CHAPTER 2
Energy and Exergy Assessments
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Psychrometrics involves the use of thermodynamics to analyze conditions and
processes involving moist air. A thorough understanding of psychrometrics
is important in the heating, ventilating, air conditioning, and refrigeration
(HVACR) community. Psychrometrics is used not only in assessing and design-
ing heating and cooling processes and ensuring the comfort of building occu-
pants but also in constructing building materials (e.g., insulation and roofing)
and in assessing their stability and fire resistance (Dincer and Rosen, 2013).
Numerous researchers in their related publications and books (e.g., Dincer
et al., 2007; Wepfer et al., 1979; Stecco and Manfrida, 1986; Dincer and
Rosen, 2011; Dincer and Rosen, 2013; Kanoglu et al., 2007; Ratlamwala and
Dincer, 2012) illustrate the application of exergy analysis to a variety of heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) processes.
This chapter describes energy and exergy assessments of the components and
psychrometric processes in HVAC systems and illustrates this material by asses-
sing a novel integrated system for HVACR applications. The basic components
in HVACR systems include heat exchangers, pumps, compressors, throttles,
and turbines, and these are introduced, classified, and thermodynamically
analyzed. This chapter also describes the energy and exergy assessments of psy-
chrometric processes. Mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balances for all com-
ponents and processes are provided.
In this chapter, kinetic and potential energy changes are considered to be neg-
ligible and all processes are assumed to be steady-flow and steady-state. Of
course, transient processes can be assessed if required.
For a proposed integrated system involving psychrometric processes, thermo-
dynamic analyses are performed. The energy and exergy efficiencies for individ-
ual components and the integrated system are calculated and parametric
studies are performed that determine the impact on system performance of
varying dead-state properties and system operating conditions. 43
Exergy Analysis of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-417203-6.00002-8

© 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
44 C HA PT E R 2 : Energy and Exergy Assessments
2.2 HEAT EXCHANGERS (HEATING/COOLING)

Closed heat exchangers (see Fig. 2.1) transfer heat from one fluid to another
without the fluids coming in direct contact with each other. Heat transfer in
a heat exchanger can occur without the fluid undergoing phase change or with
phase change (e.g., from a liquid to a vapor, as in an evaporator, or from a vapor
to a liquid, as in a condenser). The transfer of heat is driven by a temperature
difference. In most HVACR applications, heat exchangers are selected to trans-
fer either sensible or latent heat. Sensible heat applications involve heat transfer
that results in a temperature change without phase change. Latent heat transfer
involves a phase change of one of the liquids, for example, transferring heat to a
liquid by condensing steam.
Heat exchanger performance is commonly evaluated with one of two methods,
which are described in the next two subsections.
2.2.1 Log Mean Temperature Difference Method

One method of evaluating heat exchanger performance is the logarithmic mean
temperature difference method. When heat is exchanged between two fluids
flowing through a heat exchanger, the rate of heat transfer may be expressed as
Q ¼ UAΔtm (2.1)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient from fluid to fluid, A is the heat
transfer surface area of the heat exchanger associated with U, and △tm is the log
mean temperature difference (LMTD or △tm).
For a heat exchanger with a constant U, the LMTD can be calculated as
ðT1 T4 Þ ðT2 T3 Þ
Δtm ¼ Cf (2.2)
ln ðT1 T4 Þ=ðT2 T3 Þ
where Cf is a correction factor (less than 1.0) that is applied to heat exchanger
configurations that are not truly counterflow. Figure 2.1 illustrates a temperature
cross, where the outlet temperature of the heating fluid is less than the outlet
temperature of the fluid while heated (T2 < T4). A temperature cross is only
FIGURE 2.1 Closed heat exchanger.

2.2 Heat Exchangers (Heating/Cooling) 45
possible with a heat exchanger with a counterflow arrangement. The physical

arrangement of the surface area affects the overall coefficient UA. Not every heat
exchanger with identical surface area carry out equally for a given load. Hence-
forth, for specific applications, defining load conditions when selecting a heat
exchanger is critical.
The load for each fluid stream can be calculated as
Q_ ¼ mc
_ p ðTin Tout Þ (2.3)
value of △tm is an significant factor in selection of heat exchanger. For a

given load, if △tm has a high value, a comparatively minor heat exchanger sur-
face area is necessary. The commercial effect is that the design of the heat
exchanger must accommodate the forces and actions convoying with huge
difference in temperatures. When the approach temperature is small i.e. the
change in T2 and T4 is minor, △tm is also insignificant and a fairly large A is
obligatory.
2.2.2 ε-NTU (Effectiveness Analysis)

An substitute method of assessing heat exchanger performance includes the
calculation of exchanger heat transfer effectiveness ε and number of exch-
anger transfer units (NTU). This method is grounded on the identical assump-
tions as the logarithmic mean temperature difference technique designated
earlier.
Equations (2.1) and (2.2) for △tm are more conveniently applied when inlet
and outlet temperatures are known for both fluids. Though during most times,
the temperatures of fluids leaving the heat exchanger are unidentified. To avoid
trial-and-error calculations, the ε-NTU method uses three dimensionless param-
eters: effectiveness ε, number of transfer units (NTU), and capacity rate ratio cr.
The mean temperature difference in Eq. (2.2) is not needed.
Heat exchanger effectiveness ε is the ratio of actual heat transfer rate to the max-
imum possible heat transfer rate in a counterflow heat exchanger of infinite sur-
face area with the same mass flow rates and inlet temperatures. The maximum
possible heat transfer rate for hot fluid entering at Thi and cold fluid entering at
Tci is
qmax ¼ Cmin ðThi Tci Þ (2.4)
where Cmin is the smaller of the hot and cold fluid capacity rates in W/K.
The actual heat transfer rate can be written as
q ¼ εqmax (2.5)
Heat exchanger effectiveness can generally be expressed as a function of the

NTU and the capacity ratio cr:
ε ¼ 1 expðNTUÞ (2.6)
The mean temperature difference in then given by

ðThi Tci Þε
Δtm ¼ (2.7)
NTU
After finding the heat transfer rate q, the exit temperature for constant-density
fluids can be found from
q
jTe Ti j ¼ (2.8)
_ p
mc
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy rate balance equations can be written for
a closed heat exchanger.
Mass rate balance
For the hot fluid : m_ h, i ¼ m_ h, o ¼ m_ h (2.9)
For cold fluid : m_ c, i ¼ m_ c, o ¼ m_ c (2.10)
Energy rate balance

m_ h, i h1 + m_ c, i h3 ¼ m_ h, o h2 + m_ c, o h4 + Q_ surr (2.11)
If we consider each flow independently, we have
Q_ c ¼ m_ c ðh4 h4 Þ (2.12)
Q_ h ¼ m_ h ðh2 h1 Þ (2.13)
Note that Q_ c is positive while Q_ h is negative, because the cold fluid gains heat
and the hot fluid loses it. The energy loss rate to the surroundings Q_ surr is
therefore
Q_ surr ¼ Q_ c + Q_ h (2.14)
Entropy rate balance

Q_ surr
m_ h, i s1 + m_ c, i s3 + S_gen ¼ m_ h, o s2 + m_ c, o s4 + (2.15)
T
Exergy rate balance

_ D + Q_ surr 1 To
m_ h, i ex1 + m_ c, i ex3 ¼ m_ h, o ex2 + m_ c, o ex4 + Ex (2.16)
T
2.2.3 Efficiencies
Heat exchangers are a significant component in many engineering systems.
However, various methods are used to evaluate their thermodynamic
2.2 Heat Exchangers (Heating/Cooling) 47
efficiencies, and sometimes, these do not reflect the quality of the heat
exchanger from an energy point of view.
For example, Mikheev (1956) suggested that the efficiency of a heat exchanger η
is the fraction q1 of the available heat Qavail from a hot fluid that is used to pro-
vide heat Q1 to a cold one:
m_ 2 ðh3 h4 Þ
η¼ (2.17)
m_ 1 ðh1 h0 Þ
where h0 is the specific enthalpy of the hot fluid at the ambient temperature, ṁ1
and ṁ2 are the mass flow rates of the hot and cold fluids, h1 is the specific
enthalpy of the hot fluid at the inlet to the heat exchanger, and h3 and h4
are the specific enthalpies of the cold fluid at the inlet and outlet.
Andreev and Kostenko (1965) examined the exergy efficiency of a heat
exchanger, defined as the ratio of the exergy changes of cold and hot flows
through the exchanger:
_ 3 Ex
Ex _ 4
ηex ¼ (2.18)
_ 1 Ex
Ex _ 2
where Ėx3 and Ėx4 are the exergy flow rates of the cold fluid and Ėx1 and Ėx2 are
the exergy flow rates of the hot fluid at the inlet and outlet, respectively.
We can express the exergy efficiency using the exergy rate balance:
X
_ out
Ex _ D
Ex _ D
Ex
ηex ¼ X ¼1X ¼1 (2.19)
_
Exin Exin _
m h, i 1 + m
ex _ c, i ex3
2.2.4 Illustrative Example

In large steam power plants, feedwater is frequently heated in closed feedwater
heaters by steam extracted from the turbine at some stage. Steam enters the
feedwater heater at 1 MPa and 200 °C and leaves as saturated liquid at the same
pressure, as shown in Fig. 2.2. Feedwater enters the heater at 2.5 MPa and 50 °C
and leaves 10 °C below the exit temperature of the steam.
T0
Steam from
turbine
1.6 MPa 1 2
250 °C Sat. liquid
4 3
Feedwater
4 MPa
30 °C
FIGURE 2.2 Feedwater heater.
The following assumptions are used in the analysis:
• Heat loss from the device to the surroundings is negligible, and thus, heat
transfer from the hot fluid is equal to the heat transfer to the cold fluid.
• The surrounding temperature is at 25 °C.
2.2.4.1 Results and Discussion

Based on the data provided and assumptions, details about the thermodynamic
properties at each state point in the feedwater heater are determined (see
Table 2.1). Also, the following parameters are calculated using EES software:
ηex ¼ 0:5632 ηen ¼ 1 S_gen ¼ 0:3755kJ=kgK Ex

_ d ¼ 111:9kW
2.2.4.2 Parametric Study

The effect of varying selected parameters (ambient temperature and inlet
feedwater temperature) on feedwater heater efficiencies is investigated. Figure 2.3
demonstrates that ambient temperature variations do not affect heat exchanger
Table 2.1 Thermodynamic Properties at Each State Point in the Feedwater Heater
State No. P (kPa) T (K) h (kJ/kg) s (kJ/kg K) ex (kJ/kg) m_ (kg/s)
1 1600 523 2918 6.671 934.5 1

2 1600 474.6 858.7 2.344 164.7 3.005
3 4000 303 128.7 0.4332 4.081
4 1600 464.6 814 2.249 148.4
1 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
hen
hex
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
hen
hex
0.4 0.4
273 283 293 303 313 323
To (K)
FIGURE 2.3 Effect of ambient temperature on feedwater heater energy and exergy efficiencies.
2.3 Pumps 49
1 1
0.9 0.9
0.8 0.8
hen
hex
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
hen
hex
0.5 0.5
373 393 413 433 453 473
T1 (K)
FIGURE 2.4 Effect of inlet steam temperature on feedwater heater energy and exergy efficiencies.
energy efficiency, but that exergy efficiency decreases with increasing ambient tem-
perature. Figure 2.4 shows that energy efficiency also does not change as inlet feed-
water temperature varies and that exergy efficiency decreases with increasing inlet
steam temperature.
2.3 PUMPS
A pump transfers mechanical energy to a fluid by raising its pressure. It is a
device that moves fluids (liquids or gases) by mechanical action. Pumps can
be classified into three major groups according to the method they use to move
the fluid: direct lift, displacement, and gravity.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy rate balances for an adiabatic pump can
be written as follows:
Mass balance : m_ in ¼ m_ out (2.20)
Energy balance : m_ in hin + W_ in ¼ m_ out hout (2.21)
Entropy balance : m_ in sin + S_gen ¼ m_ out sout (2.22)
Exergy balance : m_ in exin + W_ in ¼ m_ out exout + Ex

_ d (2.23)
2.3.1 Energy Efficiency

Pump energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of the mechanical energy increase of
the fluid as it flows through the pump to the mechanical energy input to the pump:
m_ in ðhout hin Þ
ηen ¼ (2.24)
W_ in
2.3.2 Exergy Efficiency

The exergy efficiency for a pump is defined as the ratio of the mechanical exergy
increase of the fluid as it flows through the pump to the mechanical energy
input to the pump:
m_ in ðexout exin Þ
ηex ¼ (2.25)
W_ in

Water enters a pump at 100 kPa and 30 °C at a rate of 1.35 kg/s and leaves at
4 MPa, as shown in Fig. 2.5. The pump has an isentropic efficiency of 70%. The
following parameters are calculated: (a) the actual power input, (b) the rate of
frictional heating, (c) the exergy destruction, and (d) the exergy efficiency for an
environment temperature of 20 °C, respectively.

For the given data, the following parameters are calculated using EES software:
ηs ¼ 0:7 ηen ¼ 1 Q_ loss ¼ 2:266kW W_ rev ¼ 5:224kW

Here, ηex ¼ 0:6944 _ d ¼ 2:308kW
Ex W_ a ¼ 7:552kW W_ s ¼ 5:286kW
Note that Q_ loss is the frictional heat loss rate for the pump, which is the differ-
ence between the actual and the reversible work rates.

The effect of varying selected parameters (ambient and inlet temperatures) on
pump efficiencies is investigated. Figure 2.6 demonstrates that the energy effi-
ciency and the isentropic efficiency of the pump do not change with ambient
temperature, while the exergy efficiency decreases with increasing ambient tem-
perature. Figure 2.7 shows the effect of inlet temperature on efficiencies. It can be
seen that, while energy efficiency and isentropic efficiency of the pump do not
change, exergy efficiency increases as the pump inlet temperature with increases.
1 2
Water
100 kPa
30°C
1.35 kg/s 4 MPa
FIGURE 2.5 Pump.
2.4 Compressors 51
1 1
hen hs hex
0.9 0.9
hex, hs
hen
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
273 280 287 294 301 308 315 322
T0 (K)
FIGURE 2.6 Effect of ambient temperature on pump isentropic, energy, and exergy efficiencies.
1 1
hen hex hs
0.9 0.9 hex, hs

hen
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
274 281 288 295 302 309 316 323
T1 (K)
FIGURE 2.7 Effect of inlet temperature on pump isentropic, energy, and exergy efficiencies.
2.4 COMPRESSORS
Compressors are commonly employed. For example, a compressor (Fig. 2.8) is
one of the four main components of the basic vapor compression refrigeration
system (the others are the condenser, the evaporator, and the expander). In that
application, the compressor circulates refrigerant through the system and
FIGURE 2.8 Compressor.
increases refrigerant vapor pressure to create a pressure difference between the

condenser and the evaporator.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy rate balances for a compressor can be
written as follows:
Energy balance : m_ in hin + W_ in ¼ m_ out hout (2.27)

_ d (2.29)
2.4.1 Efficiencies
Compressor-related efficiencies can be grouped by category. There are multiple
efficiencies because deviations from ideal performance can be evaluated in various
ways, to measure different parameters. Various compressor efficiencies follow:
Volumetric efficiency (ηv) is the ratio of actual volumetric flow to the ideal vol-
umetric flow (i.e., the geometric compressor displacement).
Compression isentropic efficiency (ηs) considers only what occurs within the
compression volume and is a measure of the deviation of actual compression
from isentropic compression. This efficiency is defined as the ratio of work
required for isentropic compression of the gas (ws) to work delivered to the
gas within the compression volume (wa):
2.4 Compressors 53
ws
ηs ¼ (2.30)
wa
For a multicylinder or multistage compressor, this equation applies only for

each individual cylinder or stage.
Mechanical efficiency (ηm) is the ratio of work delivered to the gas to work input
to the compressor shaft (wm):
wa
ηm ¼ (2.31)
wm
Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) efficiency (ηi) is the ratio of work required

for isentropic compression of a gas (ws) to work input to the compressor
shaft (wm):
ws
ηi ¼ (2.32)
wm
Motor efficiency (ηe) is the ratio of work input to the compressor shaft (wm) to
work input to the motor (we):
wm
ηe ¼ (2.33)
we
Total compressor efficiency (ηcomp) is the ratio of work required for isentropic
compression (ws) to actual work input to the motor (we):
ws
ηcomp ¼ (2.34)
we
The energy efficiency of a compressor can be defined as the ratio of the total
energy change of the fluid passing through the compressor to the net input
compressor work:
m_ ðhout hin Þ
ηen ¼ (2.35)
W_ c
The exergy efficiency of a compressor can be expressed as the ratio of the revers-
ible work to the net input compressor work:
W_ rev
ηex ¼ (2.36)
W_ c

Air is compressed steadily by an 8 kW compressor from 100 kPa and 17 °C to
600 kPa and 167 °C at a rate of 2.1 kg/min, as shown in Fig. 2.9. The following
600 kPa
167 °C 2
.
Win = 8 kW
Air
100 kPa
1
17 °C
FIGURE 2.9 Compressor example.
parameters are calculated: (a) the increase in the exergy of the air and (b) the
rate exergy destroyed during this process. The surroundings are assumed to be
at 17 °C.

Based on the data provided and assumptions, the following parameters are
determined using EES software:
ηen ¼ 0:6629 ηex ¼ 0:7819 _ dest ¼ 1:745kW

Ex
ηs ¼ 0:7778 S_gen ¼ 0:006014kW=K W_ rev ¼ 6:255kW

The effect of varying selected parameters (ambient and compressor outlet tem-
peratures) on compressor efficiencies is investigated. Figure 2.10 demonstrates
that the energy and isentropic efficiencies of the compressor do not vary with
changing ambient temperature but that the exergy efficiency increases as ambi-
ent temperature rises. Figure 2.11 shows the effect of varying compressor outlet
temperature on efficiencies. It can be seen that all the three efficiencies consid-
ered increase with increasing compressor outlet temperature.
2.5 FANS
A fan creates a pressure difference and causes flow of a gas, often air. The
impeller does work on the gas, imparting to it both static and kinetic
2.5 Fans 55
0.8 0.8
0.76 0.76
0.72 0.72
hen, hs
hex
0.68 0.68
0.64 0.64
hen hex hs
0.6 0.6
0 10 20 30 40 50
T0 (C)
FIGURE 2.10 Effect of ambient temperature on compressor isentropic, energy, and exergy efficiencies.
1 1
hen
hex
0.9 0.9
hs
0.8 0.8
hen, hs
hex
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
150 160 170 180 190 200
T2 (C)
FIGURE 2.11 Effect of outlet temperature on compressor isentropic, energy, and exergy efficiencies.
energies, in different proportions depending on the fan type. Fan efficiency

ratings are usually based on ideal conditions, with some fans having ratings
of more than 90% total efficiency. However, actual connections normally
cause the actual efficiencies in the field to be lower than the corresponding
ideal efficiencies.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy rate balances for a fan are as follows:
2
v
Energy balance : m_ in hin + W_ in ¼ m_ out hout + m_ out exit (2.38)
2
v2exit
_ d + m_ out (2.40)
2
2.5.1 Efficiencies
The energy (and exergy) efficiency of a fan is the ratio of the kinetic energy flow
rate of the gas at the fan exit to the mechanical power input:
v2exit
ΔE_mech m_ 2
η¼ ¼ (2.41)
W_ in W_ in

Figure 2.12 shows a fan increasing the air velocity from 0 to 12 m/s with a work
input rate of 50 kW at constant pressure and mass flow rate. Using Eq. (2.41),
the efficiency of the fan is calculated as
v2exit
ΔE_mech m_ 2
η¼ ¼ ¼ 72%
W_ in W_ in
2.6 THROTTLING VALVES

In a throttling (or expansion) valve, the pressure of the fluid passing through
the valve is reduced suddenly, and the temperature decreases simultaneously.
FIGURE 2.12 Fan.

2.6 Throttling Valves 57
The pressure reduction when a fluid passes through the orifice (i.e., small open-
ing) of a throttling valve is due to sudden expansion into a larger space and
frictional effects. A throttling valve is another common component in refriger-
ation, air conditioning, and other systems.
In refrigeration applications, for instance, the refrigerant exiting the compres-
sor at high pressure and temperature passes through the condenser and leaves
at medium temperature and high pressure and passes through a throttling
valve. There, the pressure and the temperature of the refrigerant drop suffi-
ciently so the refrigerant is then able to produce the cooling effect in the evap-
orator of the refrigerator. A similar operation is observed for the cooling coil
of an air conditioner. The throttling valve also controls the amount of the
refrigerant entering the evaporator, which depends on the refrigeration load.
Specifically, the refrigerant flow rate through the throttling valve depends on
cross-sectional area of the orifice and the pressure difference across the
throttling valve.
2.6.1 Functions Performed by Throttling Devices

in Refrigeration Systems
When the high-pressure refrigerant from the condenser enters the throttling
valve in a refrigeration system, the pressure of the refrigerant decreases sud-
denly, and due to this, the temperature of the refrigerant drops significantly.
The two main functions performed by the throttling (or expansion) valve are
to reduce refrigerant pressure and meeting the refrigerant load.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy rate balances for a throttling valve can be
written as follows:
Energy balance : m_ in hin ¼ m_ in hin (2.43)
_ d
Exergy balance : m_ in exin ¼ m_ out exout + Ex (2.45)
2.6.2 Types of Throttling Devices

Some of the most commonly used types of throttling valves are listed as follows:
1. Capillary tube
2. Constant pressure or automatic throttling valve
3. Thermostatic expansion valve
4. Float valve
2.6.3 Throttle Efficiencies

Efficiencies are not straightforwardly defined for throttling devices as they are
dissipative in nature. Nonetheless, they are sometimes defined for convenience
or to allow component comparisons.
The energy efficiency of a throttle valve can be defined as the ratio of the total
output energy to the total input energy:
m_ ðhout Þ
ηen ¼ (2.46)
m_ ðhin Þ
Correspondingly, the exergy efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the useful
exergy output to the total exergy input:
m_ ðexout Þ Exd
ηex ¼ ¼1 (2.47)
m_ ðexin Þ m_ ðexin Þ
For an adiabatic throttling operation, which is often the case, the energy effi-
ciency is often 100%. The exergy efficiency is lower than 100% due to irrevers-
ibilities associated with unconstrained expansion.

R-134a at 1 MPa and 100 °C is throttled to a pressure of 0.8 MPa, as shown in
Fig. 2.13. The reversible work and exergy destroyed during this throttling pro-
cess are determined. The surroundings are assumed to be at 30 °C.

Based on the data provided and assumptions, the following parameters are cal-
culated for the throttling valve using EES software:
ηen ¼ 1 S_gen ¼ 0:03176kW=K Ex

_ d ¼ 9:464kW

The effect of varying selected parameters (ambient temperature and inlet pres-
sure) on throttling valve efficiencies is investigated. Figure 2.14 shows that
1 2
T1 T1 = T2
h1 h1 = h2
FIGURE 2.13 Throttling valve.
2.6 Throttling Valves 59
1 1
hen hex
0.98 0.98
0.96 0.96
hen
hex
0.94 0.94
0.92 0.92
0.9 0.9
273 283 293 303 313 323
T0 (K)
FIGURE 2.14 Effect of ambient temperature on throttling valve energy and exergy efficiencies.
1 1
hen hex
0.96 0.96
0.92 0.92
hen
hex
0.88 0.88
0.84 0.84
0.8 0.8
1000 2000 3000 4000
P1 (kPa)
FIGURE 2.15 Effect of inlet pressure on throttling valve energy and exergy efficiencies.
ambient temperature has almost no effect on the energy efficiency of a throt-

tling valve but that increasing the ambient temperature decreases the exergy
efficiency. Figure 2.15 demonstrates that varying the throttling valve inlet pres-
sure does not affect the energy efficiency, while increasing the throttling valve
inlet pressure decreases the device’s exergy efficiency.
2.7 TURBINES
A turbine is a device that extracts energy from a pressurized fluid as it expands
and yields mechanical work, often in the form of a rotating shaft. Turbines are
used in many systems for electrical power generation (Fig. 2.16).
In an ideal Rankine cycle, for instance, superheated vapor from a boiler
enters a vapor turbine at high temperature and pressure. The vapor passes
through a nozzle, where some of its pressure is converted into kinetic energy
as the velocity increases. The high velocity vapor enters the turbine and
flows over the turbine blades. A force is created on the blades due to kinetic
energy of the vapor and the expansion of the vapor as it flows over the
blades, causing them to move. An electrical generator or another device
is attached to the shaft. The fluid often exits the turbine as a saturated vapor
at a reduced temperature and pressure and is conveyed to the condenser
where it is cooled.
a turbine as follows:
Energy balance : m_ in hin ¼ m_ in hin + W_ out (2.49)
_ d + W_ out
Exergy balance : m_ in exin ¼ m_ out exout + Ex (2.51)
FIGURE 2.16 Turbine.

2.7 Turbines 61
2.7.1 Turbine Efficiencies

The energy efficiency of a turbine can be defined as the ratio of the work output
to the total change in energy between states 1 and 2:
W_ out
ηen ¼ (2.52)
m_ ðhin hout Þ
The isentropic efficiency of a turbine is defined as ratio of the work output from
the turbine to the work output if the process were isentropic:
h1 h2 T1 T2
ηs ¼ ¼ (2.53)
h1 h2s T1 T2s
The exergy efficiency of a compressor can be defined in several ways, one being
the ratio of work output to the reversible work:
W_ out W_ out
ηex ¼ ¼ (2.54)
W_ rev m_ ðexin exout Þ

Air expands in an adiabatic turbine from one specified state to another, as
shown in Fig. 2.17. The exergy efficiency is to be determined.
Assumptions:
1. The working fluid, air, behaves like an ideal gas with constant
specific heats.
2. Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
FIGURE 2.17 Turbine example.


determined using EES software:
ηs ¼ 0:7584 ηen ¼ 1 W_ a ¼ 101:1kW

ηex ¼ 0:6372 _ d ¼ 56:95kW
Ex W_ rev ¼ 158:7kW

The effect of varying selected parameters (ambient and inlet temperatures) on
turbine efficiencies is investigated. Figure 2.18 shows that ambient temperature
has no effect on the energy and isentropic efficiencies but that increasing the
ambient temperature decreases slightly the exergy efficiency of a turbine.
Figure 2.19 demonstrates that varying the turbine inlet temperature does not
affect the energy efficiency. But raising the turbine inlet temperature increases
the isentropic and exergy efficiencies of the turbine.
2.8 ENERGY AND EXERGY ASSESSMENTS OF

PSYCHROMETRIC PROCESSES
In this section, we consider several psychrometric processes that are commonly
encountered in HVAC systems, including the following:
• Sensible cooling
• Sensible heating
1 1
hen hex hs
0.9 0.9
hen, hs
hex
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
273 283 293 303 313 323
T0 (K)
FIGURE 2.18 Effect of ambient temperature on turbine isentropic, energy, and exergy efficiencies.
2.8 Energy and Exergy Assessments of Psychrometric Processes 63
1 1
hen hex hs
0.9 0.9
hen, hs
hex
0.8 0.8
0.7 0.7
0.6 0.6
430 440 450 460 470
T1 (K)
FIGURE 2.19 Effect of inlet temperature on turbine isentropic, energy, and exergy efficiencies.
• Heating with humidification

• Cooling with dehumidification
• Evaporative cooling
• Adiabatic mixing of air streams
All of these can be treated as steady-state, steady-flow processes. For computa-

tional purposes in the examples, several air and water vapor properties are taken
to be constant. Values for these properties are listed in Table 2.2, and the values
of the reference environment (i.e., dead-state) properties are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.2 Material Properties

cp,a 1.004 kJ/kg K
cp,v 1.872 kJ/kg K
Ra 0.287 kJ/kg K
Rv 0.4615 kJ/kg K
Tav 323.15 K
(x)3 0.055
(xv)0 0.024
Source: Dincer and Rosen (2013).
Table 2.3 Dead-State Properties

T0 298 K
P0 101.325 kPa
ϕ0 0.7
FIGURE 2.20 Sensible heating and cooling processes: schematic (left) and representation on
psychrometric chart (right).
The rate balances for various commodities can be written in a general form for
common air conditioning processes (see Fig. 2.20) in which one or more moist
air flows enter and exit. These are given below:
X X
Mass balance f or dry air : m_ a ¼ m_ a (2.55)
in out
X X X X
Mass balance f or water : m_ w ¼ m_ w or m_ a ω ¼ m_ a ω or (2.56)
in out in out
where
m_ w ¼ m_ a ðωout ωin Þ (2.57)
X X
Energy balance : Q_ in + _ ¼ Q_ out +
mh _
mh (2.58)
in out
Entropy balance : S_in S_out + S_gen ¼ 0 (2.59)

X X X X
or S_Q_ + _
ms S_Q_ _ + S_gen ¼ 0
ms (2.60)
in in out out
X Q_ X X Q_ X
or + _
ms _ + S_gen ¼ 0
ms (2.61)
in
T in out
T out
X X X X
Exergy balance : _ _+
Ex _
mex _ _
Ex mex _ dest ¼ 0
_ + Ex (2.62)
Q Q
in in out out
X T0
X X T0
X
or Q_ 1 + _
mex Q_ 1 mex _ dest ¼ 0
_ + Ex (2.63)
in
T in in
T out
Here, the specific flow exergy for a stream is given by

ex ¼ h h0 T0 ðs s0 Þ (2.64)
2.9 Sensible Cooling (ω1 ¼ω2 ) 65
The exergy destruction rate is directly proportional to the entropy generation

rate due to irreversibilities:
_ dest ¼ T0 S_gen
Ex (2.65)
When considering dry air and water vapor as an ideal gas, the flow exergy for a
stream can be defined as

T T P
ex ¼ cp, a + ωcp, v T0 1 ln e ÞRa T0 ln
+ ð1 + ω
T0 T0 P0

1+ωe e
ω
e Þ ln
+ Ra T0 ð1 + ω e ln
+ω (2.66)
e
1+ ω e0
ω

1+ωe e
ω
e Þ ln
Note that the last term Ra T0 ð1 + ω e ln
+ω is the specific chem-
e
1+ ω e0
ω
ical exergy. Here,
ω
e ¼ 1:608ω (2.67)
The humidity ratio ω is defined as
ω ¼ mv =ma (2.68)
For any process or system, the exergy efficiency is defined as the ratio of exergy
of the products to the input exergy as follows:
_ products
Ex _ dest
Ex
ηex ¼ ¼1 (2.69)
_ in
Ex _ in
Ex
2.9 SENSIBLE COOLING (ω15ω2)

Cooling of air is one a common psychrometric process in air conditioning sys-
tems. The basic function of the air conditioners is to cool the air in the room,
which often includes some air from the atmosphere, and sometimes to dehumid-
ify the air. Sensible cooling of air is the process in which only the sensible heat of
the air is removed so as to reduce its temperature, and there is no change in the
moisture content of the air (as measured by the specific or absolute humidity, in
units of kg/kg of dry air). During a sensible cooling process, the dry bulb (DB)
temperature and wet bulb (WB) temperature of the air are reduced, while the
absolute humidity and the dew point (DP) temperature of the air remain con-
stant. There is an overall reduction in the specific enthalpy of the air.
In an ordinary window or the air conditioner, sensible cooling of air is carried
out by passing it over an evaporator coil, also called the cooling coil. The coil
carries the refrigerant at a relatively low temperature. The lower-temperature air

passes through the space, which is to be maintained at desired conditions, usu-
ally for human comfort.
In central air conditioners, the cooling coils are cooled by the chilled water,
which is chilled by flowing over the evaporator of the refrigeration unit accom-
panying large air conditioning systems. In certain cases, the cooling coil uses a
gas as a working fluid that passes through it.
The sensible cooling process is represented by a straight horizontal line on a
psychrometric chart. The line starts from the initial DB temperature of the
air and ends at the final DB temperature, at the left. The cooling line is also
the constant DP temperature line since the moisture content of the air remains
constant. All properties of the moist air, including the initial and final points,
can be read off of the psychrometric chart.
a sensible cooling process:
Dry air mass balance : m_ a1 ¼ m_ a2 (2.70)
Water mass balance : m_ w1 ¼ m_ w2 (2.71)
Energy balance : m_ a1 h1 ¼ m_ a2 h2 + Q_ c (2.72)
Q_
Entropy balance : m_ a1 s1 + S_gen, c ¼ m_ a2 s2 + c (2.73)
Ts

T0
Exergy balance : m_ a1 ex1 ¼ m_ a2 ex2 + Q_ c 1 _ dest, c
+ Ex (2.74)
Ts
_
_ dest, c ¼ T0 S_gen, c ¼ T0 m_ a2 s2 m_ a1 s1 + Qc
Ex (2.75)
Ts
2.9.1 Efficiencies
Various efficiencies can be defined for sensible cooling. Ratlamwala and Dincer
(2012) performed a comprehensive study to investigate all possible efficiency
options for psychrometric processes and comparatively assessed them for some
selected applications. The first defines the efficiency as the ratio of change in
energy/exergy of the air to the energy/exergy input to the system. In this defi-
nition, change in energy/exergy means the difference between the energy/
exergy of the stream entering the system and the energy/exergy of the stream
exiting the process. Moreover, this definition presumes that the energy/exergy
output for this process is heat rejected from the system. Then, we can write
m_ a2 h2 + Q_ c
ηen, 1 ¼ (2.76)
m_ a1 h1
2.9 Sensible Cooling (ω1 ¼ω2 ) 67

T0
m_ a2 ex2 + Q_ c 1
Ts
ηex, 1 ¼ (2.77)
m_ a1 ex1
Another efficiency definition is based on the concept that the required output
of the system is the energy/exergy of the stream leaving the system and that the
required input to the system is the amount of heat rejected from the system to
attain the desired output. In this case,
m_ a2 h2
ηen, 2 ¼ (2.78)
Q_ c
m_ ex
ηex, 2 ¼ a2 2 (2.79)
T0
Q_ c 1
Ts
A third efficiency definition defines the efficiency of the process as the energy/
exergy of output stream plus the amount of heat rejected from the process,
divided by the energy/exergy of the input stream. For this case,
m_ a2 h2 + m_ w2 hw2 + Q_ c
ηen, 3 ¼ (2.80)
m_ a1 h1

T0
m_ a2 ex2 + m_ w2 exw2 + Q_ c 1
Ts
ηex, 3 ¼ (2.81)
m_ a1 ex1

Humid air at 1 atm, 50 °C DB, and 80% relative humidity is sensibly cooled at
constant pressure to 32 °C DB and 100% relative humidity. The energy and
exergy efficiencies of the process are to be determined.
The following assumptions are made:
• Steady-flow, steady-state process.

• Dry air and water vapor behave as ideal gases.
• Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.

Based on the data provided and assumptions, the following parameters (shown
in Table 2.4) are determined using EES software:
The rate of exergy destroyed, the rate of cooling, and the rate of entropy gener-
ation are calculated as follows:
_ dest ¼ 1:478kW Q_ c ¼ 70:06kW S_gen ¼ 0:00496kJ=kgK
Ex
Table 2.4 Thermodynamic Properties at all State Points in a Sensible Cooling Process
State Point P (kPa) T (K) h (kJ/kg) RH s (kJ/kg K) ex (kJ/kg) ω m_ (kg/s)
1 101.3 323 223.1 0.8 6.350 5.162 0.066 0.618

2 101.3 305 109.8 1.0 5.987 0.174 0.066 0.0040
3 101.3 323 2546 – 8.559 – – –
4 101.3 – 2559 – 8.414 56.000 – –
FIGURE 2.21 Sensible cooling example.
Using the efficiency expressions in Eqs. (2.76)–(2.81), the energy and exergy
efficiencies for sensible cooling in the example (Fig. 2.21) become as follows:
ηen, 1 ¼ 1 ηen, 2 ¼ 0:97 ηen, 3 ¼ 0:567 ηex, 1 ¼ 0:537 ηex, 2 ¼ 0:067 ηex, 2 ¼ 0:105
2.9.2.2 Parametric Studies

The effect of varying selected parameters (ambient temperature and relative
humidity) on the various efficiencies for sensible cooling discussed earlier is
investigated. Figure 2.22 demonstrates that ambient temperature has no effect
on the various energy efficiencies considered, while increasing the ambient
temperature decreases the various exergy efficiencies considered, for a sensible
cooling process. Figure 2.23 demonstrates that ambient relative humidity also
has no effect on the energy efficiencies but that increasing the ambient relative
humidity increases the three exergy efficiencies for a sensible cooling process.
2.10 SENSIBLE HEATING (ω15ω2)

Sensible heating is essentially the opposite of sensible cooling. In a sensible
heating process, the temperature of air is increased without changing its mois-
ture content. During this process, the DB and WB temperatures of the air
increase while the absolute humidity and DP point temperature of the air
remain constant.
In general, heating of air is often carried out by passing it over a heating coil.
This coil may be heated by passing a heated fluid (e.g., hot water or steam)
through it or by using an electric resistance heating coil. Hot water and steam
are often used as heating media in industrial applications.
2.10 Sensible Heating (ω1 ¼ω2 ) 69
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
hen
hex
0.4 0.4
hen,1 hex,1
0.2 0.2
hen,2 hex,2
hen,3 hex,3
0 0
275 280 285 290 295 300
T0 (K)
FIGURE 2.22 Effect of ambient temperature on sensible cooling of various energy and exergy efficiencies.
1 1
hen,1 hex,1
0.8 hen,2 hex,2 0.8

hen,3 hex,3
0.6 0.6
hen
hex
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
RH0
FIGURE 2.23 Effect of ambient relative humidity on sensible cooling of various energy and
exergy efficiencies.
Like sensible cooling, the sensible heating process is represented by a straight

horizontal line on the psychrometric chart, as shown in Fig. 2.20. The line starts
from the initial DB temperature of air and ends at the final temperature,
towards the right. The sensible heating line is also the constant DP
temperature line.
Note that heating of air is also important in heat pumps that provide space
heating. In a heat pump, the air is heated by passing it over a condenser coil
(or the heating coil) that contains a high-temperature working fluid (often a
refrigerant). In some cases, the heating of air is also done to suit different indus-
trial and comfort air conditioning applications where large air conditioning
systems are used.
2.10.1 Rate Balance Equations

a sensible heating process:
Water maas balance : m_ w1 ¼ m_ w2 (2.83)
Energy balance : Q_ h + m_ a1 h1 ¼ m_ a2 h2 (2.84)
Q_ h _
Entropy balance : m_ a1 s1 + + Sgen, h ¼ m_ a2 s2 (2.85)
T0

T0
Exergy balance : m_ a1 ex1 + Q_ h 1 _ dest, h
¼ m_ a2 ex2 + Ex (2.86)
Ts

Q_
_ dest,
Ex h ¼ T0 S_gen, h ¼ T0 m_ a2 s2 m_ a1 s1 h (2.87)
T0
2.10.2 Efficiencies
Various efficiencies can be defined for sensible heating. The first defines the effi-
ciency as the ratio of the change in energy/exergy of the air to the energy/exergy
input to the process. In this definition, change in energy/exergy denotes the dif-
ference between the energy/exergy of the stream entering and exiting the pro-
cess. Moreover, this definition states that energy/exergy input to this system is
heat provided to the process to drive the heating operation. That is,

m_ a2 h2 m_ a1 h1
ηen, 1 ¼ (2.88)
Q_ h
m_ a2 ex2 m_ a1 ex1
ηex, 1 ¼ (2.89)
T0 _
1 Qh
T
The second definition of efficiency is based on the concept that the required
output of the system is the energy/exergy of the stream leaving the process
and that the required input by the process is the amount of heat added to
the process. Then,
2.10 Sensible Heating (ω1 ¼ω2 ) 71

m_ a2 h2
ηen, 2 ¼ (2.90)
Q_ h
m_ a2 ex2
ηex, 2 ¼ (2.91)
T0 _
1 Qh
T
The third efficiency defines the efficiency of the system as the energy/exergy of
output stream divided by the amount of heat added to the process plus the
energy/exergy of the input stream. This definition states

m_ a2 h2
ηen, 3 ¼ (2.92)
Q_ h + m_ a1 h1
m_ a2 ex2
ηex, 3 ¼ (2.93)
T0
m_ a1 ex1 + Q_ h 1
Ts

The saturated humid air at 15 °C DB is heated to a higher temperature. The
energy and exergy efficiencies of the process are to be determined.
The following assumptions are made:
• Steady-flow, steady-state process.

• Mass flow rate of dry air remains constant throughout the process.
• Dry air and water vapor behave like ideal gases.
In the analysis, the amount of moisture in the air remains constant ðω1 ¼ ω2 Þ as
it flows through the heating section since the process involves no humidifica-
tion or dehumidification. The inlet state of the air is completely specified, and
the total pressure is 101.325 kPa. The properties of the air at the inlet and exit
states are determined by EES.

calculated using EES software. Table 2.5 gives details about the thermody-
namic properties at each state point in the heating with humidification
process.
The rate of exergy destruction, the rate of cooling, and the rate of entropy gen-
eration are calculated as follows:
_ dest ¼ 2:466kW Q_ h ¼ 59:91kW S_gen ¼ 0:008277kJ=kgK
Ex
Table 2.5 Thermodynamic Properties at Each State Point for Heating with Humidification Process
State Point P (kPa) T (K) h (kJ/kg) RH s (kJ/kg K) ex (kJ/kg) ω m_ (kg/s)
1 101.3 288 41.61 1 5.758 0.1122 0.0105 0.6188

2 101.3 313 138.4 0.8 6.081 0.7664 0.0105 0.004068
3 101.3 313 2546 – 8.559 – – –
4 101.3 – 2573 – 8.258 116.8 – –
FIGURE 2.24 Sensible heating example.
Using the efficiency expressions in Eqs. (2.88)–(2.93), the energy and exergy
efficiencies for sensible heating in the example (Fig. 2.24) are found to be as
follows:
ηen, 1 ¼ 1 ηen, 2 ¼ 1 ηen, 3 ¼ 0:699 ηex, 1 ¼ 0:161 ηex, 2 ¼ 0:141 ηex, 2 ¼ 0:165

humidity as well as outlet temperature) on the various efficiencies for sensible
heating discussed earlier is investigated. Figure 2.25 demonstrates that ambient
temperature has no effect on all the energy efficiencies and increasing the ambi-
ent temperature decreases the exergy efficiency of a sensible heating process.
Figure 2.26 demonstrates that ambient relative humidity also has no effect
on all the energy efficiencies and increasing the ambient relative humidity
increases the three exergy efficiencies of a sensible heating process. Figure 2.27
shows the effect of outlet temperature on sensible heating process efficiencies.
It is seen that increasing the outlet temperature increases the exergy efficiency
of the heating process.
2.11 HEATING WITH HUMIDIFICATION

In heating and humidification processes for air, the DB temperature and rela-
tive humidity of the air increase. Heating and humidification are carried out by
passing air over a spray of water, which is maintained at a temperature higher
than the DB temperature of air or by mixing air and steam.
2.11 Heating with Humidification 73
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
hen
hex
0.4 0.4
hen,1 hex,1
0.2 0.2
hen,2 hex,2
hen,3 hex,3
0 0
275 280 285 290 295 300
T0 (K)
FIGURE 2.25 Effect of ambient temperature on sensible heating energy and exergy efficiencies.
1 1
hen,1 hex,1
hen,2 hex,2
0.8 hen,3 hex,3 0.8
0.6 0.6
hen
hex
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
RH0
FIGURE 2.26 Effect of ambient relative humidity on sensible heating energy and exergy efficiencies.
When ordinary air is passed over a warm spray of water, moisture particles from
the spray evaporate partially and the vapor is added to the air, increasing its
moisture content. Also, since the temperature of the moisture is greater than
the DB temperature of the air, there is overall increase in temperature.
During heating and humidification processes, the DB, WB, and DP tempera-
tures of the air increase, along with its relative humidity. The heating and
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
hen,1 hex,1
hen
hex
hen,2 hex,2
0.4 0.4
hen,3 hex,3
0.2 0.2
0 0
310 315 320 325 330
T2 (K)
FIGURE 2.27 Effect of outlet temperature on sensible heating energy and exergy efficiencies.
humidification process is represented on the psychrometric chart by a line start-

ing from the initial condition and extending up and right.

heating with humidification (Fig. 2.28):
Dry air mass balance : m_ a1 ¼ m_ a2 ¼ m_ a3 (2.94)
m_ w2 + m_ w ¼ m_ w3 ! m_ a2 ω2 + m_ w ¼ m_ a3 ω3
Energy balance : Q_ in, 12 + m_ a1 h1 ¼ m_ a2 h2 ðprocess 1 2Þ (2.96)

Humidity ratio
Sat. vapor
Heating
coils
T1
T3 3
RH1 Air P = 1 atm RH3
V1 1 2
1 2 3
Dry bulb temperature
FIGURE 2.28 Heating with humidification process: schematic (left) and representation on psychrometric chart (right).
2.11 Heating with Humidification 75
m_ a2 h2 + m_ w hw ¼ m_ a3 h3 ðprocess 2 3Þ (2.97)
Q_ in, 13 + m_ a1 h1 + m_ w hw ¼ m_ a3 h3 ðprocess 1 3Þ (2.98)
Q_ in, 13 _
Entropy balance : m_ a1 s1 + m_ w sw + + Sgen, 13 ¼ m_ a3 s3 ðprocess 1 3Þ (2.99)
T0

T0
Exergy balance : Q_ in, 12 1 _ dest, 12
+ m_ a1 ex1 ¼ m_ a2 ex2 + Ex (2.100)
Ts
_ dest, 23 ðprocess 2 3Þ

m_ a2 ex2 + m_ w exw ¼ m_ a3 ex3 + Ex (2.101)

T0
Q_ in, 13 1 _ dest, 13 ðprocess 1 3Þ
+ m_ a1 ex1 + m_ w exw ¼ m_ a3 ex3 + Ex (2.102)
Ts
!
Q_ in, 13
_ dest, 13 ¼ T0 S_gen, 13 ¼ T0 m_ a3 s3 m_ a1 s1 m_ w sw
Ex ðprocess 1 3Þ
T0
(2.103)
2.11.2 Efficiencies
Various efficiencies can be defined for heating with humidification. The first is
based on taking the desired output of the system to be the amount of energy
gained by the system and the required input to the system to be the energies
added to the system via heat and hot water. The desired output is the difference
between the energy rates of the stream exiting and entering the system, while
the required input to the system is the sum of the heat rate added to the system
and the energy rate input via the hot water entering the system. In this case,

m_ a3 h3 m_ a1 h1
ηen, 1 ¼ (2.104)
Q_ in + m_ w hw
m_ a2 ex3
ηex, 1 ¼ (2.105)
T0
m_ a1 ex1 + m_ w exw + Q_ in, 13 1
Ts
The second definition of the efficiency treats the desired output of the system as
the energy rate of the exiting stream and the required input as the energy rate
added to the system through heat and hot water. Then,

m_ a3 h3
ηen, 2 ¼ (2.106)
Q_ in + m_ w hw
0 1
B m_ a3 ðexÞ3 m_ a1 ðexÞ1 C
ηex, 2 ¼ B
@ C
A (2.107)
T0 _
1 Qin + m_ w hw
T
The third efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy rate of the exiting stream
to the heat addition rate to the system, carried by the inlet stream and energy of
the hot water:

m_ a3 h3
ηen, 3 ¼ (2.108)
Q_ in + m_ a1 h1 + m_ w hw
0 1
B m_ a3 ðexÞ3 C
ηex, 3 ¼ B
@ C
A (2.109)
T0 _
1 Qin + m_ w ðexÞw
T

Stated air at 1 atm, 10 °C DB, and 70% relative humidity is heated and then
humidified at constant pressure to 25 °C DB and 60% relative humidity. The
energy and exergy efficiencies of the process are to be determined.

Table 2.6 gives thermodynamic properties at each state in the heating with
humidification example (Fig. 2.29).
_ dest ¼ 12:1kW Q_ h ¼ 41:84kW S_gen ¼ 0:04276kJ=kg K
Ex
Table 2.6 Thermodynamic Properties at State Points for Heating with Humidification Example
State Point P (kPa) T (K) h (kJ/kg) RH s (kJ/kg K) ex (kJ/kg) m_ (kg/s)
101.3 283 27.02 0.9 5.707 – –

1 101.3 265 4.925 0.7 5.59 1.06 0.6188
2 101.3 373.1 2676 0.5 7.355 595 0.004068
3 101.3 308 80.28 – 5.889 1.742 –
4 101.3 373.1 2519 – 8.902 – –
FIGURE 2.29 Heating with humidification example.

2.12 Cooling with Dehumidification 77
Using the efficiencies in Eqs. (2.88)–(2.93), the energy and exergy efficiencies
for heating with humidification in the example are as follows:
ηen, 1 ¼ 1 ηen, 2 ¼ 0:942 ηen, 3 ¼ 1 ηex, 1 ¼ 0:033 ηex, 2 ¼ 0:069 ηex, 2 ¼ 0:081

humidity) on the various efficiencies for heating with humidification discussed
earlier is investigated. Figure 2.30 demonstrates that ambient temperature has
no effect on the energy efficiencies, but increasing the ambient temperature
decreases the exergy efficiencies. Figure 2.31 shows that ambient relative
humidity also has no effect on all the energy efficiencies of the heating and
humidification process but that increasing the ambient relative humidity raises
the three corresponding exergy efficiencies.
2.12 COOLING WITH DEHUMIDIFICATION

Cooling with dehumidification is a process in which air is cooled sensibly and,
at the same time, the moisture is removed. Cooling and dehumidification
occurs when the air at a given DB and DP temperature is cooled below the
DP temperature.
1
0.2
0.8
0.16
0.6 0.12
hen
hex
0.4 0.08
hen,1 hex,1
0.2 0.04
hen,2 hex,2
hen,3 hex,3
0 0
273 276 279 282 285
T0 [K]
FIGURE 2.30 Effect of ambient temperature on heating with humidification energy and exergy
efficiencies.
1 0.1
0.8 0.08
0.6 0.06
hen
hex
0.4 0.04
hen,1 hex,1
0.2 0.02
hen,2 hex,2
hen,3 hex,3
0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
RH0
FIGURE 2.31 Effect of ambient relative humidity on heating with humidification energy and exergy
efficiencies.
It is instructive to consider the cooling and dehumidification process in more

detail. When the air comes in contact with a cooling coil that is maintained at a
temperature below the DP temperature, the air’s DB temperature decreases. The
cooling process continues until it reaches the DP temperature of the air. At this
point, water vapor in the air starts to condense and dew particles form on the
surface of the cooling coils. The moisture content of the air declines, reducing
its relative humidity. Thus, when air is cooled below its DP temperature, there,
cooling and dehumidification occur.
The cooling and dehumidification process is most widely applied in air
conditioning. It is used in all types of window, split, packaged, and central air’s
DB temperature decreases after the air comes in interaction with a cooling coil
that is upheld at a temperature below the DP temperature. The cooling proce-
dure remains up until it hits the DP temperature of the air. At this point, water
vapor in the air begins to condense and dew particles appear on the surface of
the cooling coils. The moisture content of the air drops, dipping its relative
humidity. Therefore, once air is refrigerated lower than its DP temperature,
at that point, cooling and dehumidification take place. The cooling and dehu-
midification process is most extensively useful in air conditioning. It is applied
in all types of packaged, split, window, and central air conditioning systems for
creating the comfort situations preferred inside a space. In window and split air
conditioners, the evaporator (or cooling) coil is preserved at a temperature
lower the DP temperature of the room air by passing cool refrigerant over it.
When the room air moves above this coil, its DB temperature decreases and
moisture is removed since the air is cooled below its DP temperature. The dew
formed on the cooling coil is removed with tubing. In central air conditioning
systems, the cooling coil is cooled by a refrigerant or chilled water.
In a general cooling and dehumidification process, air passes over a coil
through which a cool refrigerant, chilled water, or cooled gas passes. During
the process, the DB, WB, and DP temperatures of air are reduced. As both sen-
sible and latent heats are removed from the air, a reduction is observed in the
enthalpy of the air. The cooling and dehumidification process is represented on
a psychrometric chart as shown in Fig. 2.32 (right side) by a line extending from
the initial condition down and to the left.

The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy rate balances can be written for cooling
with dehumidification:
Water mass balance : m_ w1 ¼ m_ w2 + m_ w ! m_ a1 ω1 ¼ m_ a2 ω2 + m_ w (2.111)
Energy balance : m_ a1 h1 ¼ Q_ out + m_ a2 h2 + m_ w hw (2.112)
Q_ out
Entropy balance : m_ a1 s1 + S_gen ¼ m_ a2 s2 + m_ w sw + (2.113)
Ts

T0
Exergy balance : m_ a1 ex1 ¼ m_ a3 ex3 + m_ w exw + Q_ out 1 _ dest
+ Ex (2.114)
Ts
_
_ dest ¼ T0 S_gen ¼ T0 m_ a3 s3 m_ a1 s1 m_ w sw Qout
Ex (2.115)
Ts
Humidity ratio
Cooling
coils
x 1
1 T1 T
2 RH2 2
RH1
Air P 2
Condensate
Dry bulb temperature
FIGURE 2.32 Cooling with dehumidification: schematic (left) and representation on psychrometric
chart (right).
2.12.2 Efficiencies
Various efficiencies can be defined for cooling with dehumidification. For the
first definition, the energy efficiency is defined as the ratio of thermal energy
released by the system plus the energy of the exiting stream to the energy carried
by the incoming stream. The corresponding exergy efficiency is defined simi-
larly, but with exergy quantities. That is,
Q_ out + m_ a2 h2
ηen, 1 ¼ (2.116)
m_ a1 h1

T0 _
1 Qout + m_ a2 ex2
T
ηex, 1 ¼ (2.117)
m_ a1 ex1
The second efficiency definition is based on the ratio of energy of the exiting
stream to the heat rejected by the system. This definition presumes that the pur-
pose of the system is to cool the incoming stream, so the heat rejected by the
system is the actual input to the system. Then,
m_ a2 h2
ηen, 2 ¼ (2.118)
Q_ out
m_ a2 ex2
ηex, 2 ¼ (2.119)
T0 _
1 Qout
T
The third definition of efficiency states that the desired output of the system is
the sum of the heat released by the system, the energy of the exiting stream, and
the energy carried by the water, following the approach of Ratlamwala and
Dincer (2012). However, the required input is the energy of the entering
stream. For this case,
Q_ out + m_ a2 h2 + m_ w hw
ηen, 3 ¼ (2.120)
m_ a1 h1

T0
m_ a2 ex2 + m_ w exw + Q_ out 1
Ts
ηex, 3 ¼ (2.121)
m_ a1 ex1

Air at 1 atm, 28 °C DB, and 25 °C DP is cooled and dehumidified at constant
pressure to 20 °C DB and 60% relative humidity. The energy and exergy effi-
ciencies of the process are to be determined.
Table 2.7 Thermodynamic Properties at State Points for Cooling with Dehumidification Example
State Point P (kPa) T (K) h (kJ/kg) RH s (kJ/kg K) ex (kJ/kg) m_ (kg/s)
0 101.3 292 51.84 0.95 5.793 – –

1 101.3 301.2 86.79 0.95 5.911 0.4952 1.105
2 101.3 293.2 42.3 0.6 5.76 0.1428 0.01989
3 101.3 301.2 117.3 – 0.4088 0.5891 –
4 101.3 292 51.84 0.95 5.793 – –

Table 2.7 gives the thermodynamic properties at each state in the cooling with
dehumidification example.
_ dest ¼ 0:43kW Q_ h ¼ 46:34kW S_gen ¼ 0:0015kJ=kg K
Ex
Using the efficiencies in Eqs. (2.116)–(2.121), the energy and exergy efficien-
cies for cooling with dehumidification example (Fig. 2.33) are found to be as
follows:
ηen, 1 ¼ 0:976 ηen, 2 ¼ 0:999 ηen, 3 ¼ 1 ηex, 1 ¼ 0:624 ηex, 2 ¼ 0:859 ηex, 2 ¼ 0:645

humidity) on the various efficiencies for heating with humidification discussed
earlier is investigated. Figure 2.34 illustrates that ambient temperature does not
affect the energy efficiencies, while increasing the ambient temperature
decreases the exergy efficiency of the cooling with dehumidification process.
FIGURE 2.33 Cooling with dehumidification example.

1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 hen,1 hex,1 0.6

hen,2 hex,2
hex
hen 0.4
hen,3 hex,3
0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
273 276 279 282 285 288
T0 [K]
FIGURE 2.34 Effect of ambient temperature on cooling with dehumidification energy and exergy
efficiencies.
Similarly, Fig. 2.35 demonstrates that ambient relative humidity also has no
effect on all the energy efficiencies, while increasing the ambient relative
humidity causes one of the exergy efficiencies to increase and the other two
to decrease, for the cooling and dehumidification process.
1 1
0.9 0.9
hen
hex
0.8 0.8
hen,1 hex,1
hen,2 hex,2
hen,3 hex,3
0.7 0.7
0.8 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88 0.9
RH0
FIGURE 2.35 Effect of ambient relative humidity on cooling with dehumidification energy and exergy
efficiencies.
2.13 Adiabatic Mixing of Air Streams 83
2.13 ADIABATIC MIXING OF AIR STREAMS

Many air conditioning applications require the mixing of two air streams.
This is particularly true for large buildings, production and process plants,
and hospitals, which require that the conditioned air be mixed with a cer-
tain fraction of fresh outdoor air before it is processed and routed to the
building spaces. Mixing is accomplished by merging the two air streams,
as shown in Fig. 2.36. The heat interaction with the surroundings is usually
small during the process, and thus, the mixing processes can normally be
assumed to be adiabatic. Mixing processes normally involve no work inter-
actions, and changes in kinetic and potential energies, if any, are usually
negligible.

Then, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy rate balances for the adiabatic mix-
ing of two air streams are written as follows:
Dry air mass balance : m_ a1 ¼ m_ a2 ¼ ma3 (2.122)
Water mass balance : m_ w1 + m_ w2 ¼ m_ w3 ! m_ a1 ω1 + m_ a2 ω2 ¼ m_ a3 ω3 (2.123)
Energy balance : m_ a1 h1 + m_ a2 h3 ¼ m_ a3 h3 (2.124)
Entropy balance : m_ a1 s1 + m_ a2 s2 + S_gen ¼ m_ a3 s3 (2.125)
_ dest
Exergy balance : m_ a1 ex1 + m_ a2 ex2 ¼ m_ a3 ex3 + Ex (2.126)
_ dest ¼ T0 S_gen ¼ T0 ðm_ a3 s3 m_ a1 s1 m_ a2 s2 Þ

Ex (2.127)
For this process, only one efficiency definition is possible based on either
energy or exergy. The efficiency of this process is defined as the ratio of the
energy rate of the exiting stream to the energy rate of the two entering streams.
1 36 °C
8 kg/s
Twb1 = 30 °C
w3
P = 1 atm f3 3
Air T3
10 kg/s
12 °C
2 100%
FIGURE 2.36 Adiabatic mixing of air streams.

Thus, energy and exergy efficiencies, respectively, for adiabatic mixing of two air
streams can be written as follows:

m_ a3 h3
ηen ¼ (2.128)
m_ a1 h1 + m_ a2 h2
m_ a3 ex3
ηex ¼ (2.129)
m_ a1 ex1 + m_ a2 ex2

A stream of warm air is mixed with a stream of saturated cool air. The temper-
ature, the specific humidity, and the relative humidity of the mixture are to be
determined.
The assumptions made are listed as follows:
• Steady-flow, steady-state operating conditions exist.
• Dry air and water vapor behave like ideal gases.
• The mixing section is adiabatic.

Table 2.8 gives the details of the thermodynamic properties at each state in the
cooling with dehumidification example.
The rate of exergy destroyed and the rate of entropy generation are calculated as
follows:
_ dest ¼ 8:82kW S_gen ¼ 0:0312kJ=kg K
Ex
Using the efficiencies in Eqs. (2.128)–(2.129), the energy and exergy

efficiencies for heating with humidification example are found to be as follows:
ηen ¼ 1 ηex ¼ 0:602
Table 2.8 Thermodynamic Properties at State Points for Adiabatic Mixing Example
State ex
Point h (kJ/kg) m_ (kg/s) P (kPa) RH Tdb (K) Twb (K) ω s (kJ/kg K) (kJ/kg)
1 98.65 8 101.3 0.647 309 303 0.024 5.95 2.726

2 33.73 10 101.3 1 285 285 0.0085 5.73 0.03912
3 62.58 18 101.3 0.899 295.8 294.6 0.0153 5.83 0.7433
2.13 Adiabatic Mixing of Air Streams 85

humidity) on the energy and exergy efficiencies for adiabatic mixing is inves-
tigated. Figure 2.37 demonstrates that ambient temperature has no effect on
the energy efficiency of the adiabatic mixing process but that the exergy effi-
ciency increases with decreasing ambient temperature. Figure 2.38 shows
1 1
hen,1 hex,1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
hen
hex
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
273 278 283 288 293
T0 [K]
FIGURE 2.37 Effect of ambient temperature on adiabatic mixing energy and exergy efficiencies.
1 1
hen
hex
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
hen
hex
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
RH0
FIGURE 2.38 Effect of ambient relative on adiabatic mixing energy and exergy efficiencies.
that ambient relative humidity also does not affect the energy efficiency,
while the exergy efficiency of adiabatic mixing increases with ambient rela-
tive humidity.
2.14 EVAPORATIVE COOLING

A common application of cooling with humidification is the evaporative
cooling, also called desert cooling. An evaporative cooler contains a water
tank, a small water pump, and a fan. Water from the tank is circulated
by the pump and sprayed into the airflow. The fan blows air over the water
spray, simultaneously humidifying and cooling the air. Cooling with
humidification can be used for space cooling only in dry and hot climates
like desert areas. Although this cooling process cannot operate in hot cli-
mate and high humidity, it is effective for cooling in hot, dry environments
and has very low initial and operating costs compared to unitary air
conditioners.

The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy rate balances for evaporative cooling can
be written as follows:
Water mass balance : m_ w1 + m_ w ¼ m_ w2 ! m_ a1 ω1 + m_ w ¼ m_ a2 ω2 (2.131)
Energy balance : m_ a1 h1 ¼ m_ a2 h2 ! h1 ¼ h2 (2.132)
Entropy balance : m_ a1 s1 + m_ w sw + S_gen ¼ m_ a2 s2 (2.133)
_ dest
Exergy balance : m_ a1 ex1 + m_ w exw ¼ m_ a2 ex2 + Ex (2.134)
_ dest ¼ T0 S_gen ¼ T0 ðm_ a2 s2 m_ a1 s1 m_ w sw Þ

Ex (2.135)
2.14.2 Efficiencies
Various efficiencies can be defined for evaporative cooling (Fig. 2.39), that is,
cooling with humidification. The first defines the efficiency as the ratio of the
energy rate gained by the system to the energy rate provided to the system. In
this definition, the rate energy gained by the system is calculated by subtracting
the energy rate of the exiting stream from the energy rate of the entering stream.
However, the energy rate provided to the system is the energy rate of the input
stream and the energy rate of the water. Hence, the first energy and exergy effi-
ciencies can be written as follows:
2.15 Integrated System 87
FIGURE 2.39 Evaporative cooling: schematic (left) and representation on psychrometric chart (right).
m_ a2 h2 + m_ a1 h1
ηen, 1 ¼ (2.136)
m_ a1 h1 + m_ w hw
m_ a2 ex2
ηex, 1 ¼ (2.137)
m_ a1 ex1 + m_ w exw
The second efficiency definition considers the ratio of the energy rate of the exit-
ing stream to the energy rate of the water for the energy efficiency, and the cor-
responding exergy efficiencies then becomes
m_ a2 h2
ηen, 2 ¼ (2.138)
m_ w hw
m_ a2 ðexÞ2
ηex, 2 ¼ (2.139)
m_ w ðexÞw
The third efficiency definition is based on the ratio of energy rate of the exiting
stream to the energy rate of the inlet stream and water, based on the approach of
Ratlamwala and Dincer (2012). In this case,
m_ a2 h2
ηen, 3 ¼ (2.140)
m_ a1 h1 + m_ w hw
m_ a2 ðexÞ2 + m_ a1 ðexÞ1
ηex, 3 ¼ (2.141)
m_ a1 ðexÞ1 + mw ðexÞw
2.15 INTEGRATED SYSTEM

An integrated system, proposed by Ghosh and Dincer (2015), consists of two
open cycles, that is, a heating and cooling cycle and a closed refrigerant cycle.
The heating and cooling cycle uses atmospheric air and a water mixture as the
working fluid, while the refrigerant cycle uses R-134a.
The following psychrometric processes are utilized in the integrated system:
• Cooling with dehumidification

• Space cooling
• Evaporative cooling (in a cooling tower)
• Heating with humidification
• Space heating
• Ventilation
The integrated system produces multiple outputs depending on the load con-
ditions. On a hot day, atmospheric air is first cooled in the evaporator of the
vapor-compression cycle. The heat rejected by the atmospheric air is utilized
by the evaporator to increase the temperature of R-134a. The cooled air is then
used for space cooling and further utilized to cool hot water for residential pur-
poses. But on a cold day, atmospheric air is first heated and humidified using
the heat rejected by the condenser of the vapor compression cycle. The air is
then used for space heating and further used for ventilation purposes.
On a hot day, atmospheric air at 32 °C is first cooled and dehumidified to 20 °C
at state point 2. This air is used for space cooling for residential applications,
leaving at 28 °C at state point 4. This air is further used to cool water from
40 to 32 °C in a cooling tower for residential purposes. The air leaves the cool-
ing tower at an atmosphere at 33 °C.
On a cold day, atmospheric air at 10 °C is first heated and humidified to 48 °C,
from state points 12-15. The heated air is then used for space heating for res-
idential and/or industrial purposes, leaving the building at 32 °C.

The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy rate balances for each component in the
integrated system are written as follows:
Cooling with humidification (A in Fig. 2.40)
Water mass balance : m_ w1 ¼ m_ w2 + m_ w ! m_ a1 ω1 ¼ m_ a2 ω2 + m_ w (2.143)
Energy balance : m_ a1 h1 ¼ Q_ A + m_ a2 h2 + m_ w3 hw3 (2.144)
Q_
Entropy balance : m_ a1 s1 + S_gen ¼ m_ a2 s2 + m_ w3 sw3 + A (2.145)
Ts

T0
Exergy balance : m_ a1 ex1 ¼ m_ a2 ex2 + m_ w3 exw3 + Q_ A 1 _ dest, A
+ Ex (2.146)
Ts
Space cooling (B in Fig. 2.40)

FIGURE 2.40 Integrated system process flow diagram.
Energy balance : Q_ B + m_ a2 h2 ¼ m_ a4 h4 (2.149)
Q_ B _
Entropy balance : m_ a2 s2 + + Sgen, B ¼ m_ a2 s4 (2.150)
T0

T0
Exergy balance : m_ a2 ex2 + Q_ B 1 _ dest, B
¼ m_ a4 ex4 + Ex (2.151)
Ts

_ _ Q_ B
_ _
Exdest, B ¼ T0 Sgen, B ¼ T0 ma4 s4 ma2 s2 (2.152)
T0
Evaporative cooling (C in Fig. 2.40)

Water mass balance : m_ w4 + m_ w6 ¼ m_ 52 ! m_ a4 ω4 + m_ w6 ¼ m_ a5 ω5 (2.154)
Energy balance : m_ a4 h4 ¼ m_ a5 h5 ! h4 ¼ h5 (2.155)
Entropy balance : m_ a4 s4 + m_ w4 sw4 + S_gen, C ¼ m_ a4 s4 (2.156)
_ dest, C
Exergy balance : m_ a4 ex4 + m_ w4 exw4 ¼ m_ a4 ex5 + Ex (2.157)
_ dest, C ¼ T0 S_gen, C ¼ T0 ðm_ a5 s5 m_ a4 s4 m_ w4 sw4 Þ

Ex (2.158)
Heating with humidification (D in Fig. 2.40)
Dry air mass balance : m_ a12 ¼ m_ a13 ¼ m_ a15 (2.159)

m_ w12 + m_ 14 ¼ m_ w15 ! m_ a12 ω12 + m_ w14 ¼ m_ a15 ω15
Energy balance : Q_ in, 1232 + m_ a12 h12 ¼ m_ a13 h13 ðprocess 1 2Þ
m_ a12 h12 + m_ w14 h14 ¼ m_ a15 h15 ðprocess 2 3Þ
Q_ in, 1215 + m_ a12 h12 + m_ w14 h14 ¼ m_ a15 h15 ðprocess 1 3Þ (2.161)
Q_ in, 1215 _
Entropy balance : m_ a12 s12 + m_ w14 s14 + + Sgen, 1215 ¼ m_ a3 s3 ðprocess 1 3Þ
T0
(2.162)

T0
Exergy balance : Q_ in, 1215 1 _ dest, 1215
+ m_ a12 ex12 ¼ m_ a15 ex15 + Ex
Ts
m_ a12 ex15 + m_ w14 ex14 ¼ m_ a15 ex15 + Ex_ dest, 1315 ðprocess 2 3Þ

T0
Q_ in, 1215 1 _ dest, 1215 ðprocess 1 3Þ
+ m_ a12 ex12 + m_ w14 ex14 ¼ m_ a15 ex15 + Ex
Ts
!
Q_ in, 1215
_ dest, 1215 ¼ T0 S_gen, 1215 ¼ T0 m_ a15 s15 m_ a12 s12 m_ w14 s14
Ex (2.163)
T0
Space heating (E in Fig. 2.40)

Energy balance : Q_ E + m_ a15 h15 ¼ m_ a15 h15 (2.166)
Q_ E _
Entropy balance : m_ a15 s15 + + Sgen, E ¼ m_ a16 s16 (2.167)
T0

T0
Exergy balance : m_ a15 ex15 + Q_ E 1 _ dest, E
¼ m_ a16 ex16 + Ex (2.168)
Ts
_
_ dest, E ¼ T0 S_gen, E ¼ T0 m_ a15 s15 m_ a16 s16 QE
Ex (2.169)
T0
Compressor (I in Fig. 2.40)

Mass balance : m_ 8 ¼ m_ 9 (2.170)
Energy balance : m_ 8 h8 + W_ comp ¼ m_ 9 h9 (2.171)
Entropy balance : m_ 8 s8 + S_gen, comp ¼ m_ 9 s9 (2.172)
Exergy balance : m_ 8 ex8 + W_ comp ¼ m_ 9 ex9 + Ex

_ d, comp (2.173)
Condenser (II in Fig. 2.40)

Mass balance : m_ 9 ¼ m_ 10 (2.174)
Energy balance : m_ 9 h10 ¼ m_ 10 h10 + Q_ cond (2.175)
Q_
Entropy balance : m_ 9 s9 + S_gen, cond ¼ m_ 9 s9 + cond (2.176)
T0

_ d, cond + Q_ cond 1 T0
Exergy balance : m_ 9 ex9 ¼ m_ 10 ex10 + Ex (2.177)
Ts
Throttling valve (III in Fig. 2.40)

Mass balance : m_ 10 ¼ m_ 11 (2.178)
Energy balance : m_ 10 h10 ¼ m_ 11 h11 (2.179)
Entropy balance : m_ 10 s10 + S_gen, val ¼ m_ 10 s10 (2.180)
_ d, val
Exergy balance : m_ 10 ex10 ¼ m_ 10 ex10 + Ex (2.181)
Evaporator (IV in Fig. 2.40)

Mass balance : m_ 11 ¼ m_ 8 (2.182)
Energy balance : m_ 11 h11 + Q_ evap ¼ m_ 8 h8 (2.183)
Q_ evap
Entropy balance : m_ 11 s11 + S_gen, evap + ¼ m_ 8 s8 (2.184)
T0

T0
Exergy balance : m_ 11 ex11 + Q_ evap 1 _ d, comp
¼ m_ 8 ex8 + Ex (2.185)
Ts
2.15.2 Results and Discussion

2.15.2.1 The Results of Exergy Destruction Rates
Figure 2.41 presents the ratio of exergy destruction rate for each component in the
integrated system to the total exergy destruction rate of the system. It is seen that the
condenser has the greatest exergy destruction rate while the compressor has the
lowest exergy destruction, for the components present. This is because the com-
pressor is assumed to be isentropic, precluding it from exhibiting entropy gener-
ation or exergy destruction. Space heating also has a high exergy destruction rate
due to the large change in exergy rates between the inlet and outlet streams.
Table 2.9 presents the exergy destruction rate for each component as well as the
total exergy destruction rate for the integrated system, that is, the summation of
the exergy destruction rates for each component (see last column).
0.40
0.35
Exergy destruction ratio

0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Cooling Compressor Condenser Space Evaporator Space Throttling
tower cooling heating valve
FIGURE 2.41 Ratio of exergy destruction rate of component to the total exergy destruction rate.
Table 2.9 Exergy Destruction Rates for the Overall Integrated System
and its Components
Component Exergy Destruction Rate (kW)
Cooling tower 77
Compressor 0
Condenser 6425
Space cooler 109
Evaporator 4600
Space heater 5929
Throttling valve 1819
Integrated system 18,959
2.15.2.2 Efficiency Results

The efficiencies of the integrated system can be defined under different loading
conditions. For instance, on a hot summer day with ambient temperature of
32 °C, the requirement would be of 100% cooling load and 0% heating load.
The energy efficiency for this loading condition would be the total useful energy
output rate (Q_ c for space cooling, the change in energy rate between hot and
cold waters in the cooling tower and Q_ cond , the useful heat rate from the con-
denser) divided by the total input energy rate (input air and compressor work
input rates). Then,
Q_ c + m_ w, 6 ðh7 h6 Þ + Q_ cond
ηen, c ¼ (2.186)
m_ a, 1 ha, 1 + W_ comp
Correspondingly, the exergy efficiency for a 100% cooling load can be defined as

_ T0 _ T0
Qc 1 + m_ w, 6 ðex7 ex6 Þ + Qcond 1
T2 T9
ηex, c ¼ (2.187)
m_ a, 1 exa, 1 + W_ comp
On a cold winter day with an ambient temperature of 10 °C, the requirement

would be of 0% cooling load and 100% heating load. The energy efficiency for
this loading condition would be the total useful energy output rate (Q_ h for
space heating) divided by the total input energy rate (input air, compressor
work input, and the evaporator input energy rates). Then,
Q_ h
ηen, h ¼ (2.188)
m_ a, 1 ha, 12 + W_ comp + Q_ evap
Correspondingly, the exergy efficiency for 100% heating load is

T12
Q_ h 1
T15
ηex, h ¼ (2.189)
T12
m_ a, 1 exa, 12 + W_ comp + Q_ evap 1
T15
The overall energy and exergy efficiencies of the integrated system on an average
day with an ambient temperature of 24 °C can be defined according to a
requirement of 50% cooling load and 50% heating load:
Q_ c + m_ w, 6 ðh7 h6 Þ + Q_ h
ηen, sys ¼ (2.190)
m_ a, 1 ha, 1 + W_ comp

T0 T0
Q_ c 1 + m_ w, 6 ðex7 ex6 Þ + Q_ h 1
T2 T15
ηex, sys ¼ (2.191)
_ _ _
ma, 1 exa, 1 + ma, 1 exa, 12 + W comp
The energy and exergy efficiencies for the integrated system can be evaluated
with the above expressions as follows:
ηen, c ¼ 18:4% ηex, c ¼ 18:1% ηen, h ¼ 77:8%
ηex, h ¼ 75:4% ηen, sys ¼ 18:6% ηex, sys ¼ 33:3%

humidity) on the energy and exergy efficiencies for integrated system and its
FIGURE 2.42 Effect of ambient temperature on energy and exergy efficiencies of integrated system for
100% cooling load.
components is investigated. Figure 2.42 demonstrates that for a 100% cooling

load, an increase in ambient temperature increases the energy efficiency of the
system while decreasing the exergy efficiency of the system. Figure 2.43 shows
that for a 100% heating load, an increase in ambient temperature increases the
energy and exergy efficiencies of the system. Figure 2.44 shows the for a 50%
100% heating load.
50% cooling load and 50% heating load.
heating load and 50% cooling load, an increase in the ambient temperature
increases the energy and exergy efficiencies of the system. Figure 2.45 demon-
strates the effect of ambient relative humidity on energy and exergy efficiencies
of the system under different loading conditions. In general, increasing the
ambient relative temperature increases the energy and exergy efficiencies of
the system.
FIGURE 2.45 Effect of ambient relative humidity on energy and exergy efficiencies of integrated system
under different loading conditions.
2.16 CLOSING REMARKS

In this chapter, energy and exergy assessments of basic components, psychro-
metric processes, and an integrated system for HVACR applications are
described and illustrated. The basic components in HVACR systems such as
heat exchangers, pumps, compressors, throttles, and turbines are introduced,
classified, and thermodynamically analyzed. Energy and exergy assessments
of psychrometric processes are considered, including sensible heating, sensible
cooling, heating with humidification, cooling with dehumidification, evapora-
tive cooling, and adiabatic mixing of air streams. Mass, energy, entropy, and
exergy rate balances for all components and psychrometric processes are writ-
ten. The integrated system presented in this chapter produces multiple outputs
for HVACR applications such as space heating, space cooling, and cooling of
water. The energy and exergy efficiencies for individual components and the
overall integrated system are determined and parametric analyses of the effects
of varying dead-state properties and operating conditions are provided. The
energy and exergy efficiencies of the system are calculated to be 18.6% and
33.3%, respectively. It is observed that increasing the ambient relative humidity
and the ambient temperature increases the energy and exergy efficiencies of the
system.
Nomenclature
Ėx exergy rate (kW)
ex specific exergy (kJ/kg)
h specific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
ṁ mass flow rate (kg/s)
P pressure (kPa)
Q heat transfer (kJ)
Q̇ heat rate (kW)
s specific entropy (kJ/kg K)
S entropy rate
T temperature (K or °C)
ρ density (kg/m3)
v specific volume (m3/kg)
Ẇ work rate (kW)
V volume (m3)
Greek symbols
η efficiency
ρ density (kg/m3)
ω specific humidity or humidity ratio (kg/kg)
References 97
Subscripts
a air
c cooling
cd cooling with dehumidification
cond condenser
comp compressor
ct cooling tower
d/dest destruction
en energy
evap evaporator
ex exergy
gen generation
h heating
hh heating with humidification
in input
ref refrigerant
s source
sc space cooling
sh space heating
sys system
val valve
w water
0–17 state points
References
Andreev, L.P., Kostenko, G.N., 1965. Exergetic characteristics of the efficiency of heat exchangers.
Izv. Vuzov Ser. Energetika 3, 53–60.
Dincer, I., Rosen, M.A., 2011. Thermal Energy Storage: Systems and Applications, second ed. Wiley,
London.
Dincer, I., Rosen, M.A., 2013. Exergy-Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development, second
ed. Elsevier, New York.
Dincer, I., Kanoglu, M., Rosen, M.A., 2007. Exergy analysis of psychrometric processes for HVAC&R
applications. ASHRAE Trans. 113, 172–180.
Ghosh, S., Dincer, I., 2015. Development and performance assessment of a new integrated system
for HVAC&R applications. Energy 80, 159–167.
Kanoglu, M., Dincer, I., Rosen, M.A., 2007. Exergy analysis of psychometric processes for HVAC&R
applications. ASHRAE Trans. 113, 172–180.
Mikheev, M.A., 1956. Fundamentals of Heat Transfer. Gosénergoizdat, Moscow.
Ratlamwala, T.A.H., Dincer, I., 2012. Efficiency assessment of key psychrometric processes. Int. J.
Refrig. 36 (3), 1142–1153.
Stecco, S.S., Manfrida, G., 1986. Exergy analysis of compression and expansion processes. Energy
11 (6), 573–577.
Wepfer, W.J., Gaggioli, R.A., Obert, E.F., 1979. Proper evaluation of available energy for HVAC.
ASHRAE Trans. 85 (I), 214–230.

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CHAPTER 2

Energy and Exergy Assessments

Exergy Analysis of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-417203-6.00002-8

2.2 HEAT EXCHANGERS (HEATING/COOLING)

2.2.1 Log Mean Temperature Difference Method

FIGURE 2.1 Closed heat exchanger.

possible with a heat exchanger with a counterflow arrangement. The physical

value of △tm is an significant factor in selection of heat exchanger. For a

2.2.2 ε-NTU (Effectiveness Analysis)

Heat exchanger effectiveness can generally be expressed as a function of the

The mean temperature difference in then given by

For cold fluid : m_ c, i ¼ m_ c, o ¼ m_ c (2.10)

Energy rate balance

If we consider each flow independently, we have

Entropy rate balance

Exergy rate balance

2.2.4 Illustrative Example

The following assumptions are used in the analysis:

2.2.4.1 Results and Discussion

ηex ¼ 0:5632 ηen ¼ 1 S_gen ¼ 0:3755kJ=kgK Ex

2.2.4.2 Parametric Study

1 1600 523 2918 6.671 934.5 1

Energy balance : m_ in hin + W_ in ¼ m_ out hout (2.21)

Entropy balance : m_ in sin + S_gen ¼ m_ out sout (2.22)

Exergy balance : m_ in exin + W_ in ¼ m_ out exout + Ex

2.3.1 Energy Efficiency

2.3.2 Exergy Efficiency

2.3.3 Illustrative Example

2.3.3.1 Results and Discussion

ηs ¼ 0:7 ηen ¼ 1 Q_ loss ¼ 2:266kW W_ rev ¼ 5:224kW

2.3.3.2 Parametric Study

0.9 0.9 hex, hs

FIGURE 2.8 Compressor.

increases refrigerant vapor pressure to create a pressure difference between the

Energy balance : m_ in hin + W_ in ¼ m_ out hout (2.27)

Entropy balance : m_ in sin + S_gen ¼ m_ out sout (2.28)

Exergy balance : m_ in exin + W_ in ¼ m_ out exout + Ex

For a multicylinder or multistage compressor, this equation applies only for

Isentropic (reversible adiabatic) efficiency (ηi) is the ratio of work required

2.4.2 Illustrative Example

FIGURE 2.9 Compressor example.

2.4.2.1 Results and Discussion

ηen ¼ 0:6629 ηex ¼ 0:7819 _ dest ¼ 1:745kW

2.4.2.2 Parametric Study

energies, in different proportions depending on the fan type. Fan efficiency

2.5.2 Illustrative Example

2.6 THROTTLING VALVES

FIGURE 2.12 Fan.

2.6.1 Functions Performed by Throttling Devices

Energy balance : m_ in hin ¼ m_ in hin (2.43)

Entropy balance : m_ in sin + S_gen ¼ m_ out sout (2.44)

2.6.2 Types of Throttling Devices

2.6.3 Throttle Efficiencies

2.6.4 Illustrative Example

2.6.4.1 Results and Discussion

ηen ¼ 1 S_gen ¼ 0:03176kW=K Ex

2.6.4.2 Parametric Study

ambient temperature has almost no effect on the energy efficiency of a throt-

Energy balance : m_ in hin ¼ m_ in hin + W_ out (2.49)

Entropy balance : m_ in sin + S_gen ¼ m_ out sout (2.50)

FIGURE 2.16 Turbine.

2.7.1 Turbine Efficiencies

2.7.2 Illustrative Example