332 CHA PT ER 9 Gas Power Systems

Compressor Compressor
stage 1 stage 2 ·
Wc

1 c d
Intercooler

·
Qout

p T
2 2′
a
p2

T=c d c
pi 2 2′ pi
p1
c
s=c
b d 1
FIG. 9.18 Two-stage 1
compression with intercooling. v s

potential for regeneration, however, so when intercooling is used in conjunction with regener-
ation, an appreciable increase in thermal efficiency can result.
In the next example, we analyze a two-stage compressor with intercooling between the
stages. Results are compared with those for a single stage of compression.

E X AMP L E 9. 9 Evaluating a Two-Stage Compressor with Intercooling

Air is compressed from 100 kPa, 300 K to 1000 kPa in a two-
stage compressor with intercooling between stages. The inter-
cooler pressure is 300 kPa. The air is cooled back to 300 K in
the intercooler before entering the second compressor stage. Each
compressor stage is isentropic. For steady-state operation and
negligible changes in kinetic and potential energy from inlet to
exit, determine (a) the temperature at the exit of the second com-
pressor stage and (b) the total compressor work input per unit of
mass flow. (c) Repeat for a single stage of compression from the
given inlet state to the final pressure.
p2 = 1000 kPa
Solution
Known Air is compressed at steady state in a two-stage com-
pressor with intercooling between stages. Operating pressures and
temperatures are given.
Find Determine the temperature at the exit of the second com-
pressor stage and the total work input per unit of mass flow. Re-
peat for a single stage of compression.
Schematic and Given Data:

2
p 2 3
p2 = 1000 kPa
Compressor Compressor
stage 1 stage 2 ·
Wc
d c
pi = 300 kPa
1 c d
T1 = 300 K Intercooler
p1 = 100 kPa Td = 300 K
p1 = 100 kPa
1
v

·
Qout FIG. E9.9
 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 333

Engineering Model Interpolating in Table A-22, we obtain hc = 411.3 kJ/kg. Hence,

the total compressor work per unit of mass is
1. The compressor stages and intercooler are analyzed as con-
trol volumes at steady state. The control volumes are shown Wc
= (411.3 − 300.19) + (423.8 − 300.19) = 234.7 kJ/kg
on the accompanying sketch by dashed lines. m
2. The compression processes are isentropic.
c. For a single isentropic stage of compression, the exit state
3. There is no pressure drop for flow through the intercooler. would be state 3 located on the accompanying p– diagram.
4. Kinetic and potential energy effects are negligible. The temperature at this state can be determined using
5. The air is modeled as an ideal gas.
p3 1000
pr3 = pr1 = (1.386) = 13.86
Analysis p1 100
a. The temperature at the exit of the second compressor stage, Interpolating in Table A-22, we get T3 = 574 K and h3 = 579.9 kJ/kg.
T2, can be found using the following relationship for the The work input for a single stage of compression is then
isentropic process d–2:
Wc
p2 = h3 − h1 = 579.9 − 300.19 = 279.7 kJ/kg
pr 2 = prd m
pd
This calculation confirms that a smaller work input is required with
With prd at Td = 300 K from Table A-22, p2 = 1000 kPa, and pd = two-stage compression and intercooling than with a single stage of
300 kPa, compression. With intercooling, however, a much lower gas tempera-
ture is achieved at the compressor exit.
1000
pr 2 = (1.386) = 4.62
300 S KIL LS DEV ELOP ED

Interpolating in Table A-22, we get T2 = 422 K and h2 = 423.8 kJ/kg. Ability to…
b. The total compressor work input per unit of mass is the sum
of the work inputs for the two stages. That is, between the stages and the corresponding T–s diagram.
Wc
= (hc − h1) + ( h 2 − hd) retrieve necessary property data.
m
From Table A-22 at T1 = 300 K, h1 = 300.19 kJ/kg. Since
Td = T1, hd = 300.19 kJ/kg. To find hc, use pr data from Table A-22
together with p1 = 100 kPa and pc = 300 kPa to write Quick Quiz
In this case, what is the percentage reduction in compressor
pc 300
prc = pr1 = (1.386) = 4.158 work with two-stage compression and intercooling compared
p1 100 to a single stage of compression? Ans. 16.1%.

Referring again to Fig. 9.18, the size of the crosshatched area on the p– diagram represent-
ing the reduction in work with intercooling depends on both the temperature Td at the exit of the
intercooler and the intercooler pressure pi. By properly selecting Td and pi, the total work input
to the compressor can be minimized. For example, if the pressure pi is specified, the work input
would decrease (crosshatched area would increase) as the temperature Td approaches T1, the
temperature at the inlet to the compressor. For air entering the compressor from the surround-
ings, T1 would be the limiting temperature that could be achieved at state d through heat transfer
with the surroundings only. Also, for a specified value of the temperature Td, the pressure pi can
be selected so that the total work input is a minimum (crosshatched area is a maximum).
Example 9.10 provides an illustration of the determination of the intercooler pressure for
minimum total work using a cold air-standard analysis.

E X AMP L E 9. 10 Determining Intercooler Pressure for Minimum Total Compressor Work

For a two-stage compressor with fixed inlet state and exit pres-
sure, conduct a cold air-standard analysis to express in terms
of known property values the intercooler pressure required for
the minimum total compressor work per unit of mass flowing.
Assume steady-state operation and the following idealizations:
Each compression process is isentropic. There is no pressure
drop through the intercooler. The temperature at the inlet to the
second compressor is greater than, or equal to, that at the inlet
to the first compressor. Kinetic and potential energy effects are
negligible.
334 CHA PT ER 9 Gas Power Systems

Solution Collecting results

Known A two-stage compressor with intercooling operates at
steady state under specified conditions.   ( k − 1)/ k     ( k − 1)/ k 
Wc p p
= c p T1  i  − 1 + c p Td   2  − 1
Find Determine the intercooler pressure for minimum total m  p1    p i  
compressor work input, per unit of mass flowing.    

Schematic and Given Data: Hence, for specified values of T1, Td, p1, p2, and cp, the value
of the total compressor work input varies with the intercooler
p pressure only. To determine the pressure pi that minimizes the
total work, form the derivative
2
p2 specif ied
( k − 1)/ k ( k − 1)/ k
∂(Wc / m) ∂  pi  ∂  p2 
= c p T1   + c p Td  
∂ pi ∂ p i  p1  ∂ pi  pi 
s=c

 k − 1   p i   p2  
−1/ k −1/ k
 1  Td  p 2  
= c p T1       −    2 
d c  k   p1   p1  T1  p i   p 
pi variable  i 

T1 = c s=c
 k − 1 1   ( k − 1)/ k ( k − 1)/ k 
 pi T p  
= c p T1  − d  2
 k  pi  
 p1  T1  p i  
1  
Compressor inlet state specif ied

v FIG. E9.10 Setting the partial derivative to zero, we get

k / ( k − 1)
pi  p T 
Engineering Model =  2  d (a)
p1  p i   T1 
1. The compressor stages and intercooler are analyzed as con-
trol volumes at steady state. Alternatively,
2. The compression processes are isentropic.
3. There is no pressure drop for flow through the intercooler. k / ( k − 1)
T 
4. The temperature at the inlet to the second compressor stage 1 pi = p1 p2  d  (b)
obeys Td ≥ Tl.  T1 
5. Kinetic and potential energy effects are negligible.
6. The working fluid is air modeled as an ideal gas. By checking the sign of the second derivative, it can be verified
that the total compressor work is a minimum.
7. The specific heat cp and thus the specific heat ratio k are
constant.
Analysis The total compressor work input per unit of mass 1 Observe that when Td = T1, pi = p1 p 2 .
flow is
S KIL LS DEV ELOP ED
Wc
= (h c − h1) + (h2 − h d )
m Ability to…
Since cp is constant,
expression.
Wc
= c p (Tc − T1) + c p (T 2 − Td)
m
T  T 
= c p T1  c − 1 + c p Td  2 − 1 Quick Quiz
 T1   Td 
If p1 = 1 bar, p2 = 12 bar, Td = T1 = 300 K, and k = 1.4, deter-
Since the compression processes are isentropic and the spe- mine the intercooler pressure for minimum total compressor
cific heat ratio k is constant, the pressure and temperature ratios work, in bar, and the accompanying temperature at the exit of
across the compressor stages are related, respectively, by each compressor stage, in K. Ans. 3.46 bar, 428 K.

( k − 1)/ k ( k − 1)/ k
Tc p  T2 p 
=  i and =  2
T1  p1  Td  pi 
 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 335

10 Regenerator

· ·
Qin, 1 Qin, 2

Combustor 1 Combustor 2
5

4 6 7 8 9

Compressor Compressor Turbine Turbine

1 2 1 2 ·
Wcycle

1 2 3
Intercooler

T 6
8

· 7
Qout 5 9
7s
9s
4s 4 10
2s 2

3
1
s

FIG. 9.19 Regenerative gas turbine with intercooling and reheat.

9.8.3 Reheat and Intercooling

Reheat between turbine stages and intercooling between compressor stages provide two
important advantages: The net work output is increased, and the potential for regeneration
is enhanced. Accordingly, when reheat and intercooling are used together with regenera-
tion, a substantial improvement in performance can be realized. One arrangement incorpo-
rating reheat, intercooling, and regeneration is shown in Fig. 9.19. This gas turbine has two
stages of compression and two turbine stages. The accompanying T–s diagram is drawn
to indicate irreversibilities in the compressor and turbine stages. The pressure drops that
would occur as the working fluid passes through the intercooler, regenerator, and combus-
tors are not shown.
Example 9.11 illustrates the analysis of a regenerative gas turbine with intercooling
and reheat.

E X AMP L E 9. 11 Analyzing a Regenerative Gas Turbine with Intercooling and Reheat

A regenerative gas turbine with intercooling and reheat operates
at steady state. Air enters the compressor at 100 kPa, 300 K with
a mass flow rate of 5.807 kg/s. The pressure ratio across the two-
stage compressor is 10. The pressure ratio across the two-stage
turbine is also 10. The intercooler and reheater each operate at
300 kPa. At the inlets to the turbine stages, the temperature is
1400 K. The temperature at the inlet to the second compressor
stage is 300 K. The isentropic efficiency of each compressor and
turbine stage is 80%. The regenerator effectiveness is 80%. De-
termine (a) the thermal efficiency, (b) the back work ratio, (c) the
net power developed, in kW, (d) the total rate energy is added by
heat transfer, in kW.
Solution
Known An air-standard regenerative gas turbine with inter-
cooling and reheat operates at steady state. Operating pressures
and temperatures are specified. Turbine and compressor isen-
tropic efficiencies are given and the regenerator effectiveness is
known.
336 CHA PT ER 9 Gas Power Systems

Find Determine the thermal efficiency, back work ratio, net Schematic and Given Data:
power developed, in kW, and total rate energy is added by heat
transfer, in kW.

10 Regenerator

· ·
Qin, Qin,
1 2

Reheat
Combustor combustor
5

4 6 7 8 9

p4 = p5 = p6 =
1000 kPa
Compressor Compressor Turbine Turbine
1 2 1 2 ·
Wcycle

T6 = T8 = 1400 K p7 = p8 = 300 kPa

1 2 3
Intercooler

6 8
T1 = 300 K T
p1 = 100 kPa
m· = 5.807 kg/s p2 = p3 = 300 kPa 7
· 7s 9
Qout 5 9s

4s 4 10
2s 2

3 1
s FIG. E9.11

Engineering Model
1. Each component is analyzed as a control volume at steady
state. The control volumes are shown on the accompanying
sketch by dashed lines.
2. There are no pressure drops for flow through the heat ex-
changers.
3. The compressor and turbine are adiabatic.
4. Kinetic and potential energy effects are negligible.
5. The working fluid is air modeled as an ideal gas.
a. The thermal efficiency must take into account the work of
both turbine stages, the work of both compressor stages, and
the total heat added. The total turbine work per unit of mass
flow is
Wt
= (h 6 − h 7) + (h 8 − h 9)
m
= (1515.4 − 1179.8) + (1515.4 − 1205.2) = 645.8 kJ/kg
The total compressor work input per unit of mass flow is

Analysis Specific enthalpy values at states shown in Fig. E9.11 Wc

are provided in the following table. See note 1 for discussion. = (h 2 − h1) + ( h 4 − h 3)
m
= (439.1 − 300.19) + (454.7 − 300.19) = 293.4 kJ/kg
State h (kJ/kg) State h (kJ/kg)
The total heat added per unit of mass flow is
1 300.19 6 1515.4
2s 411.3 7s 1095.9 Qin
= (h 6 − h 5) + ( h8 − h 7)
2 439.1 7 1179.8 m
= (1515.4 − 1055.1) + (1515.4 − 1179.8) = 795.9 kJ/kg
3 300.19 8 1515.4
4s 423.8 9s 1127.6 Calculating the thermal efficiency
4 454.7 9 1205.2
645.8 − 293.4
5 1055.1 = = 0.443 (44.3%)
795.9
 9.8 Regenerative Gas Turbines with Reheat and Intercooling 337

b. The back work ratio is specific enthalpies at states 7 and 9 are obtained using the
isentropic efficiency of the first and second turbine stages,
Wc / m 293.4 respectively.
bwr = = = 0.454 (45.4%)
Wt / m 645.8 2 Comparing the thermal efficiency, back work ratio, and net
power values of the current example with the corresponding
c. The net power developed is values of Example 9.6, it should be evident that gas turbine
power plant performance can be increased significantly by
Wcycle = m(Wt /m − Wc / m ) coupling reheat and intercooling with regeneration.
3 With the results of parts (c) and (d), we get = 0.443, which
 kg  kJ 1 kW
2 =  5.807  (645.8 − 293.4) = 2046 kW agrees with the value obtained in part (a), as expected. Since
 s  kg 1 kJ/s the mass flow rate is constant throughout the system, the ther-
mal efficiency can be calculated alternatively using energy
d. The total rate energy is added by heat transfer is obtained transfers on a per unit mass of air flowing basis, in kJ/kg, or
using the specified mass flow rate and data from part (a) on a time rate basis, in kW.

Q in = m(Q in/ m)
 S KIL LS DEV ELOP ED
kg   kJ  1 kW
3 =  5.807   795.9    = 4622 kW
 s  kg  1 kJ/s Ability to…

1 The enthalpies at states 1, 2s, 3, and 4s are obtained from the intercooling and reheat and the T–s diagram for the
solution to Example 9.9 where these states are designated corresponding air-standard cycle.
as 1, c, d, and 2, respectively. Thus, h1 = h3 = 300.19 kJ/kg,
h2s = 411.3 kJ/kg, h4s = 423.8 kJ/kg. retrieve necessary property data.
The specific enthalpies at states 6, 7s, 8, and 9s are ob-
tained from the solution to Example 9.8, where these states developed, and total rate energy is added by heat transfer.
are designated as 3, a, b, and 4, respectively. Thus, h6 = h8 =
1515.4 kJ/kg, h7s = 1095.9 kJ/kg, h9s = 1127.6 kJ/kg.
Specific enthalpies at states 2 and 4 are obtained us-
Quick Quiz
ing the isentropic efficiency of the first and second com-
pressor stages, respectively. Specific enthalpy at state 5 Verify the specific enthalpy values specified at states 4, 5, and
is obtained using the regenerator effectiveness. Finally, 9 in the table of data provided.

9.8.4 Ericsson and Stirling Cycles

As illustrated by Example 9.11, significant increases in the thermal efficiency of gas turbine
power plants can be achieved through intercooling, reheat, and regeneration. There is an eco-
nomic limit to the number of stages that can be employed, and normally there would be no
more than two or three. Nonetheless, it is instructive to consider the situation where the num-
ber of stages of both intercooling and reheat becomes indefinitely large.

Ericsson Cycle Figure 9.20a shows an ideal regenerative gas turbine cycle with several
stages of compression and expansion and a regenerator whose effectiveness is 100%. As in
Fig. 9.8b, this is a closed gas turbine cycle. Each intercooler is assumed to return the working
fluid to the temperature TC at the inlet to the first compression stage, state 1, and each reheater
restores the working fluid to the temperature TH at the inlet to the first turbine stage, state 3.
The regenerator allows the heat input for Process 2–3 to be obtained from the heat rejected in
Process 4–1. Accordingly, all the heat added externally occurs in the reheaters, and all the heat
rejected to the surroundings takes place in the intercoolers.
In the limit, as an infinite number of reheat and intercooler stages is employed, all heat
added occurs while the working fluid expands at its highest temperature, TH, and all heat
rejected takes place while the working fluid is compressed at its lowest temperature, TC. The
limiting cycle, shown in Fig. 9.20b, is called the Ericsson cycle. Ericsson cycle
Since irreversibilities are presumed absent and all heat is supplied and rejected isother-
mally, the thermal efficiency of the Ericsson cycle equals that of any reversible power cycle
operating with heat addition at the temperature TH and heat rejection at the temperature TC:
338 CHA PT ER 9 Gas Power Systems

T T
3 4 3 4
TH TH

p=c p=c
p=c p=c

TC TC
2 1 2 1

s s

(a) (b)

FIG. 9.20 Ericsson cycle as a limit of ideal gas turbine operation using
multistage compression with intercooling, multistage expansion with reheating,
and regeneration.

max = 1 − TC/TH. This expression is applied in Secs. 5.10 and 6.6 to evaluate the thermal
efficiency of Carnot power cycles. Although the details of the Ericsson cycle differ from those
of the Carnot cycle, both cycles have the same value of thermal efficiency when operating
between the temperatures TH and TC.

Stirling Cycle Another cycle that employs a regenerator is the Stirling cycle, shown on the
p– and T–s diagrams of Fig. 9.21. The cycle consists of four internally reversible processes
in series: isothermal compression from state 1 to state 2 at temperature TC, constant-volume
heating from state 2 to state 3, isothermal expansion from state 3 to state 4 at temperature TH,
and constant-volume cooling from state 4 to state 1 to complete the cycle.
A regenerator whose effectiveness is 100% allows the heat rejected during Process 4–1
to provide the heat input in Process 2–3. Accordingly, all the heat added to the working fluid
externally takes place in the isothermal process 3–4 and all the heat rejected to the surround-
ings occurs in the isothermal process 1–2.
It can be concluded, therefore, that the thermal efficiency of the Stirling cycle is given by
the same expression as for the Carnot and Ericsson cycles. Since all three cycles are revers-
ible, we can imagine them as being executed in various ways, including use of gas turbines
and piston–cylinder engines. In each embodiment, however, practical issues prevent it from
actually being realized.

Stirling Engine The Ericsson and Stirling cycles are principally of theoretical interest as
examples of cycles that exhibit the same thermal efficiency as the Carnot cycle. However, a

p 3 T

T=c 3 4
TH
4
2
T=c v=c v=c
TH

1 TC
TC 2 1

v s

FIG. 9.21 p– and T–s diagrams of the Stirling cycle.

 9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles 339

practical engine of the piston–cylinder type that operates on a closed regenerative cycle hav-
ing features in common with the Stirling cycle has been under study for years. This engine
is known as a Stirling engine. The Stirling engine offers the opportunity for high efficiency Stirling engine
together with reduced emissions from combustion products because combustion takes place
externally and not within the cylinder as for internal combustion engines. In the Stirling en-
gine, energy is transferred to the working fluid from products of combustion, which are kept
separate. It is an external combustion engine.

9.9 Gas Turbine–Based Combined Cycles

In this section, gas turbine–based combined cycles are considered for power generation.
Cogeneration, including district heating, is also considered. These discussions comple-
ment those of Sec. 8.5, where vapor power systems performing similar functions are
introduced.
The present applications build on recognizing that the exhaust gas temperature of a sim-
ple gas turbine is typically well above ambient temperature and thus hot gas exiting the turbine
has significant thermodynamic utility that might be harnessed economically. This observation
provides the basis for the regenerative gas turbine cycle introduced in Sec. 9.7 and for the
current applications.

9.9.1 Combined Gas Turbine–Vapor Power Cycle

A combined cycle couples two power cycles such that the energy discharged by heat transfer
from one cycle is used partly or wholly as the heat input for the other cycle. This is illustrated
by the combined cycle involving gas and vapor power turbines shown in Fig. 9.22. The gas and

·
Qin

Combustor
2
3

Gas turbine
Compressor Turbine ·
Wgas

Air inlet 1
4
Exhaust
5

7
Heat-recovery
steam generator
Turbine ·
6 Vapor Wvap
cycle
8
11

Pump Condenser
9 10
Cooling
water

FIG. 9.22 Combined gas turbine–vapor power plant.