12

Pogitive DisplacementMachines

The function of a compressoris to take a definitequantity of fluid (usuallya

gas,and most often air) and deliver it at a requiredpressure.The most efficient
machineis one which will accomplishthis with the minimum input of mechanical
work. Both reciprocatingand rotary positive displacementmachinesare used
for a variety of purposes.On the basisof performancea generaldistinction can
be made betweenthe two types by defining the reciprocatingtype as having
the characteristicsof a low massrate of flow and high-pressureratios, and the
rotary type as having a high mass rate of ffow and low-pressureratios. The
pressurerangeof atmosphericto about 9 bar is commonto both types.
Somerotary machinesare suitableonly for low-prcssureratio work, and are
applied to the scavengingand superchargingof engines,and the various
applications of exhaustingand vacuum pumping. For pressuresabove 9 bar
the vane-typerotary machine can be used to supply boost pressures,but for
sustainedhigh-pressurework up to 500bar and above,for specialpurposes,
the reciprocatingtype is used.
Both basic types exist in many difrerent forms each having its own
characteristics.They may be singleor multistage,and have either air or water
cooling. The reciprocatingmachineis pulsating in action which limits the rate
at which fluid can be delivered,but the rotary machineis continuousin action
and does not have this disadvantage.The rotary machinesare smaller in size
for a given flow, lighter in weight and mechanically simpler than their
reciprocatingcounterparts.The treatment and scopeof the following sections
is fundamental and is not exhaustive.Many compressorsare designedto
overcome the deficiencies of the basic machines and to satisfy spccid
requirements.For descriptionsof thesemachinestheexcellentliteraturesupplied
by the manufacturersconcernedshould be consulted.
For a compressorwhich operatesin a cyclic or pulsating manner,such rs
a reciprocatingcompressor,the propertiesat inlet and outlet arc thc averiNgc
valuestaken over the cycle.Alternatively the boundary of the control vslrrrrp
is chosensuchthat statesI and 2 are constant with time, the positioossdcrld
beingremotefrom the pulsatingdisturbance.
 br*-drrltm*nrn-

72.1 Reciprocating comprossors FE IZ

volume
Typical reciprocatingcompressorcylinder arrangem€ntsare shom i 'rccipro
Fig. I 2.I (a) and(b).Themechanism
involvedis thebasicpiston,connecting-m{, comprc
clearan
rt l?-r
Singlc-acting(a) and
doublc-acting(b)
Rctiivcr...+
- Atmospheric
rcciprocating air pressurc -;> Induction E
+- pressurre
comprcssors

He
8E
o'

To reccivcr
or next stage

Double-acting
compressoror stage

cylinder arrangement.Initially the clearancevolume in the cylindcr

"tll!,,and
will be considerednegligible.Also the working fluid wilt be assumedto bc e
perfect gas. The cycle takes one revolution of the crankshaft for compkrir
and the basicindicator diagramis shown in Fig. 12.2.
The valvesemployedin most air compressorsare designedto give autometb
action. They are of the spring-loadedtype operated by a small differere i
pressureacross them, the light spring pressuregiving a rapid closing actir

&
 let frclrrtr;n

try-.lzz Pressurc-
volume diagram for a
rcciprocating
compressorwith
clcarance neglected

The lift of the valvg to give th€ required.air0ow should,be as small as possiblc
and should operatewithout shock.
In Fig. 12.2 the line d:-a representsthe induction stroke. The massin the
cylinder increasesfrom zero at d to that required to fill the cylinder at a. In
tEnr the ideal casethc tcmperatureis constantat T1for this processand thereis no
rr* :heatexchangewith the surroundings.Induction commdnceswhcn the pressure
differenceacoss the valve is sufficient to opcn it. Line abc representsthe
compressionand delivery stroke, As the piston begrns'its return stroke the
pressurein the cylinderrisesand closesthe inlet valve.The pressurerisecontinues
with the returning piston as shown by line ab until the pressureis:reachedat
which the delivery valve opens(a value decidedby the valve and the pressure
I
I *-r*i in the receiver).The delivery takes place as shown by the line bc, which is a
processat constant temperatureT2, constant pressurep7, zQtoheat exchangg
and decreasingmass.At the end of this stroke the:cycleis repeated.The value
of the delivery temperature?r dependsupon the law of compressionbetween
a and b, which in turn dependsupon the heat exchangewith the surroundings
during this process.It may be assumedthat the generalform of compression
is the reversiblepolytropic (i.e. pV' = constant).
h:-5c :fffi
The net work done in the cycleis given by the 4rea of the p-V diagram and
rec ro bt
is the work done on the gas.
Indicated work done on the gas per cycle
: afea abcd
: area abef * area bcOe- area ad0f

/El
 turir d-pLcrnfit mac{rincr

Using equation(3.24)for areaabef"

workinput:W#9 t pzva

: ( p z v b -p , n 1 ( - 1 _ * ,
)
\n-l /
Le. "' I +n- I
W o r k i n p u:t( p z v o - Prv")-
nlf-

=n . Q z V a- P r 4 ) (12.1)

From equation(2.6) we can write

plVr: mRT, and p.rVo= mRT2
wheren is the massinducedand deliveredper cycle.Then

n
Work input per cycle- : mR(T,- T,l (r2.2)
n-l
work done on the air per unit time is equarto the work done per
cycletimes
the number of cyclesper unit time. The rate of massflow is more
often used
than the mass per cycle; if the rate of mass ffow is given the symbor
rh, and
replacesm in equation(12.2),then the equationgivei the rateit which
work
I
I
is done on the aiq or the indicated.po*ei.
The working ffuid changesstatebetweena and b in Fig. 12.2,from p1
and
Tt to pz and Tr, the changebeing shown in Fig. 12.3,which is a diagiam
of
properties(i.e.p againstu).
Fig. 123 Compression
process Thedeliverytemperature
is givenby theequation{3.29),
ona p-u diagram
/' \(a-tYa
i.e. T- " : T. I\ 2
p ,l /

Example12.1 A single-stagereciprocating compressortakes I m3 of air per minute at

l.0l3bar and l5'c and delivers it at 7 bar. Assumingthat the law of
compressionis pyr'ts : constant,and that clearaneeis nigli!;ible, calculate
the indicatedpower.

Solution Massdeliveredpermin, n : P:!t

R?i
l.0l3xlx105
:1.226 kglrnin
287 x 288
whereT, : 15 * 273:288K.

Detivery rz : rr(f)"
temp., "'" : zas(#)(1'3'-rvr'!5

:475.4K

M
 T
12.1 ReciprocetingcomprolaoF

From equation( 12.2)

n-;p1
Indicatedpower : - Tz - Ttl
n-l
wherem is the massflow rate,
1.35x 1.226x 787 x (475.4- 28t)
l.e. Indicatedpow€r =
l03x(1.35-l)x6O
: 4 . 2 3 8k W

rlllf
The actual power input to the compressoris larger than thc indicatcdpower,
due to the work necessaryto overcomethe lossesdue to friction' ac.
i.e. Shaft power = indicated power + friction power ( r2.3)
The mechanicalefficiencyof the machineis given by
indicatedpower
r12.2) CompressormechanicalefficiencY: (114)
shaftpower

dc tirncs To determinethe power input required the efficiencyof the driving motor
lfcn uscd must be taken into account,in addition to the mechanicalefficiency.Then
lnad shaftpower
ich qort Input power = ( 12.5)
efficiencyof motor and drive
I p, aod
gmm of
Example12.2 If the compressorof Exaniple12.1is to be driven at 300rev/min and is a
single-acting,single-cylindermachine,calculatethe cylinder bore required,
assumingaitrot<i to bore ratio of 1.5/1.Calculatethe power of the motor
requiredlo drive the compressorif the mechanicalefficiencyof the compressor
is gS9/.and that of the motor transmissionis 90%'
Solution Volume dealt with per unit time at inlet: I m3/min
jnute at
r lan of therefore
calculatc
Volume drawn in per cycle= : 0'00333 m3/cycle
*

i.e. Cylinder volume: 0.00333 m3

therefore
n
d'L = o.oo3
33
4
where d is the bore and Lthe stroke,

i.e. la'fij x d) : o.oo3

33
4
{G
 Hthlr dbplcrmcrrt mecfrinc

therefore Fig. 12.4 l

compressio
d3 :0.00283 m3 on a p-o di
i.e. Cylinderbore = 141.4mm
4,'.'l
Powerinput to the compresro,
' : = 4.ggkw
0.85
therefore
4.gg
Motor power= 5.54kW
6:

Proceedingfrom equation(lz.2l, otherexpressions

for thc indicatedwork
canbe derived,i.e.

Indicated :
power Tz- Tr)= - t)
fi**1 fi*^rr(?
Also from equation(3.29)
T2 ( Pr\{n-rttn
T: \P'/
Therefore

power:-!-,;,p7r{(g)t"-t"'-
Indicated 't\ptz ,} 1rr.uy
n-l )
or Indicated
power: - ,}
*o,o{(f)"-"" e2.7)
wheretz is the volumeinducedper unit time.

The condition for minimum work

The work done on the gas is given by the area of the indicator diagram,and
the work done will be a minimum when the areaof the diagram is a minimum.
The_heightof the diagram is fixed by the required pt rrui. ratio (when p, is
lrr{): and the length of the line da is fixed by the cylinder volume, which is
itselffixed by the requiredinduction ofgas.The only prooesswhich can influene
the area of the diagram is the line ab. The position taken by this line is decidcd
by the value of the index n; Fig. r2.4 showsthe limits of thi possiblcprooesscs.
Line abt is accordingto the law pll: constant(i.e. isothermar)
Line ab2 is according to the law pyr = constant(i.e. isentropic)
Both processesare reversible.
Isothermalcompressionis the most desirableprocessbetweena and b, giving Eral
-
the minimum work to be done on the gas. ihis means that in an rcrnl

1{16
 12.1 RcciwocdilrO compr=.t

Fg. 12.4 Possible p

compressionprocesses
Pz
on a p-v diagram
plz] = const.
pZ'= const.
pZ : const.

rork
compressorthe gas temp€raturemust be kept as closeas possibleto its initial
value,and a meansofcooling thegasis alwaysprovided,eitherby airor by water.
The indicated work done when the gas is compressedisothermallyis givcn
by the areaablcd.
Area ablcd : ateaabref + area brc0e- area ad0f

Area ablef: pzVa,6&

' lfrom equation(3.9))
Pr

i.e. indicatedwork per clcle = p2V6,ln!2* PtVt,- PrV"

Pt
Jra0i
Also p1Vr: p276,,sincethe processab1is isothermal,therefore

[o', workpercycle: p2V6,lnPf,

indicated

= PrVrhA ( 12"8)
Pt

: mRThU ( l2.e)
I Pt
Ld When m and % in equations( 12.8)and ( 12.9)are the massand volumeinduccd
F. per unit time, then theseequationsgive the isothermalpower.
f:tr
!

lsothermal efficiency

By definition, basedon the indicator diagram

isothermalwork
Isothermalefficiency: ( l z t0)
indicatedwork

Example12.3 emAary d
Using the data of Example l2.l calculatethe isothermal fu
,tv43 compressor.
EI
t3
 F!S. l2f
Solution From equation(12.9) indicator r
t.225x0.287x288 7 reciprocati
Isothermalpower: rhRTlrr.U ,,ln comprEsg
Pt 60 1.013 clearance
: 3.265
kW
FromExample.l2.l,
Indicatgdpower:4.238 kW
usingequation(12.10)above
Therefore

' :3.?91 :0.77 ot 77oh

efficiencv
Isothermal
4.238

Theleastdesirableform of compression compressors

in reciprocating is that
givenby the isentropicprocess(seeFig. 12.4).The actualform of compression
will usuallybe one betweenthesetwo limits.The threeprocesses are shown
represented on a T-s diagram in Fig' 12.5:
isothermalcompression
1-2' represents
I -2" represents
isentropiccompression
1-2 representscompression accordingto a law putr= constant

Fig.125 Isothermal,
polytropic, and
iscntropic comPression
processeson a T-s
diagram Fig. 12.?
and re-cx
massesol
reciproca
compress

The valueof n is usuallybetween1.2and 1.3for a reciprocatingair compressor'

The main method usedfor cooling the air is by surroundingthe cylinderby a
water jacket and designingfor the best ratio of surfacearea to volume of the
cylinder.

12.2 Reciprocating comprossors including clearance

Clearanceis necessaryin a compressorto give mechanicalfreedom to ttrc
working parts and allow the necessaryspacefor valve operations.
Figure 12.6showsthe ideal indicator diagram with the clearancevolumc
included.For good-qualitymachinesthe clearancevolumeis about 6% of the
swept volume,and with a sleeve-valve machineit can be as low as 2%, but
machines with clearances of 30-35Yo are also common'

tm
 12.2 Reciprcceting corprrt -c|rfi -ro

) Fig. f2.6 Ideal

I indicator diagrarn for a
reciprocating
compressorwith
3 clearance

When the delivery stroke bc is completedthe clearancevolume 7" is full of

gas at pressurep, and temperature Tz. As the piston proceedson the next
induction stroke the air expands behind it until the pressurept is reached.
Ideally as soon as the pressurereachespr, the induction offresh gaswill begin
and continueto the end of this strokeat a. The gasis then compressed
according
to the law pV' : C, and delivery beginsat b as controlled by the valves.The
effect of clearanceis to reduce the induced volume at p, and I from ( to
(V - Vi. The massesof gasat the four principal points are suchthat m" : flt
and rh,: nra.The massdeliveredpef unit time is givenby (mu'- fr"I, which is
equal to that induced,given by (n" - fri.The propertiesof the working fluid
changein processes a-b and c-d as shownin Fig. 12.7.

Fig. 12.7 Compression

and re-expansionof
massesof gasin a
reciprocating
compressor

Referring to Fig. 12.6the indicated work done is given by the area of the
p-V diagram.
Indicatedwork : area abcd
= areaabef- areacefd
Then, usingequation( 12.2)

Indicatedpower = -!-rrr^n(Tz - Tr) - - 1i)

r\,nrn(T,

,n I
/t?
Hin dbphcrncrt machincl

i.e. : - rt,dl(T2
- Ttl Fig. l2t I
Indicatedpower
;lR(m" volumedia
Examplel!
: fr**1r,_r,) (r2.11)

where m is the massinduced per unit time : Qh, - rhi.

A comparisonof equations( 12.11) and (12.2)showsthat they are identical.
The work done on compressingthe mass of gas n" (or mu) on compression"
a-b, is returned when the gas expandsfrom c to d. Hencethe work done per
unit massof air deliveredis unafrectedby the sizeof the clearancevolume.
Other expressionscan be derived as before.From equation (12.7)

power:
Indicated "'" - ,}
n\o,t{(f)"
Also, if there arelcycles per unit time, then we have:
V: f V"- Yal (t2.12)
therefore

power:
Indicated
;\o,f( % - n ){( "'" - r} (1 2 . 1 3 )
?)"
Themassdeliveredper unit timecanbeincreased by designing themachinc
to h doubleacting,i.e.gasis dealtwith on bothsidesof thepiiton,theinduction
strokefor onesidebeingthecompression strokefor theother(seeFig. 12.1).

Example12.4 A single-stage,double-actingair compressoris required to deliver 14m3 of

air per minute measuredat 1.013barand 15"C. The deliverypressurcb
7 bar and the speed300 rev/min. Take the clearancevolume as 5% of tb
swept volume with a compressionand re-expansionindex of n = lJ.
Calculate the swept volume of the cylinder, the delivery temperaturg rd
the indicatedpower.
Solution Referringto Fig. 12.8
Sweptvolume* (V^- V"): V"
and Clearancevolume, V": 0.05V"
i.e. V, - 1.05V,
Using equation(12.12)for a double-actingmachine
t4
Volumeinducedpercycle,(V,- Yi =
300x2
- 0.0233m3/cycle
(cyclesper minute = revolutions per min{te x cyclesper revolutioo}

410
 -
12.2 Rcciprocating comprur.on including clcaruncc

Fig. l2.E Pressure-

volumediagramfor
Example12.4

Lll t

icaf
rim.
r Psf
B
V
l-4-l

Lll t ,^:*(?),,.
:o.osn(ft)""
i.e. Va:0.221V,
Lll I
therefore
lio€ (Y,- Y) = 1.05r,- 0.221V':0.0233
m3/cycle
Doc therefore
Ll'
oio=2=3=3
= 0.0281
I'.:
' m3/cycle
0.829

i.e. Sweptvolumeof compressor = 0.0281m3

tr of t)h
lc rt - /P'\{r-
DeliverYteml)''T2: tlffi/ (3'29)
fromequation
t thc
:!-i
ihc
and T r : 1 5* 2 7 3 : 2 8 8 K

/ t \(1'3-lYl.3
i.e. ' :2881r.013
T" I
\ /
-450K

therefore
Deliverytemp.= 177'C

Usingequation(12.7)
Indicatedpower

:ft',r{(f,)"","_,}
II Pcritir Cieisnqn mactrinoc

l.e.
1 . 3 1 . 0 1 3x 1 0 5x l 4 ( / 7 \ ( r . 3 -r l ir . 3 )
=_x
0.3 rot*o it,*"/
Indicatedpower: 57.6kW
- rlkw

The approachusedfor a particular problemdependson how the data

are
statedand the quantitiesevaluatedduring the soluiion.In someproblems
it is
betterto evaluatern and r, and then useequation(l2.ll) forihe indicated
Power;e.g.in Example12.4above,I hasbeencalculated, and the massinduced
is given by
l.0l3x14xl05
m= = 17.16
kglmin
0.287x288x103
Then,usingequation(12.11)

Indicatedpower: - TJ
fr*^,Tz
1 . 3x 1 7 . 1 x6 0 . 2 8 7 ( 4 5 0 - 2 8 8 )
0.3 x 60
: 57.6kW (as before)
The diagramspreviouslyshown (e.g.Fig. 12.8)are ideal diagrams.An actual
indicator diagram is similar to the ideal exceptfor the induction and delivery
processeswhich are modified by a valve action. This is shown in Fig. 12.9.Thc
wavinessof the lines d-a and b-c is due to valve bounce.Automatic valvcs
are in general use (see Fig. l2.l), and theseare less definite in ssflsn rhen
cam-operatedvalves; they also give more throttling of the gas.The inductioo
stroke d-a is a mixing process,the inducedair mixing with that in the cyliodcr_

Ftg; 12.9 Actual

indicator diagram for a
reciprocating
qomprssor

Fig. l2-t
diagram
reciproc
compres

Vofumetric efficien cy, Iv

It has beenshown that one of the efects of clearanccis to rrb t *d

volume to a value lessthan that of the swept volumc, Tli n th h r

412
 12.2 Rociprocating comprolsorr Includlng clcarlncc

requiredinductionthecylindersizemustbe increasedoverthat calculatedon

theassumption Thevolumetricefficiency
of zeroclearance. isdefinedasfollows:
4, : themassof gasdelivered,dividedby themassof gaswhichwould
fill the sweptvolumeat the freeair conditionsof pressureand
tempcrature (t2.14')
t
lb or
E
E 4" : the volume of gasdeliveredmeasuredat the freeair pressureand
temperature,divided by the sweptvolume of the cylinder( 12.15)

The volume of air dealt with per unit time by an air compressoris quoted as
the free air delivery (FAD), and is the rate of volume ffow delivered,measured
at the pressureand temperatureof the atmospherein which the machineis
situated.
Equations(12.14)and (12.15)can be shownto be identical,i.e.if the FAD
per cycle is 14at p and T then the massdeliveredper cycle is
pV
m:-
RT

The massrequired to fill the swept volume, V, al p and T is given by

pU,
t'= rr
Thereforeby equation (12.14),
mpVRTV
n" . : - = : - X - : - ,
ms RT pV" U,

The volumetric efficiency can be obtained from the indicator diagram.

Referringto Fig. 12.10
Volume induced: U, - Va: V"+ V" - Va

Fig. 12.10 Indicator p

diagram for a Pt
reciprocating
comPressor

fl3
 Pctthr dlrplaccmcnt mechlnc

and usingequation(3.25) Ftl

volu

2:(?)'''ievo=r(r)"
Exan

therefore

Volumeinduced
= I/,+r V.-
r./ ,, ( Pr\t'n
r"\;)

:v3-""{(fi)''-'}
Henceusingequation(12.15),

4r:
V , - V o_ V , - V " { ( p r l p ) t t -, r)
v, v"

ie 4.:!_fr{&),,._,} (r2t6)
It is important to note that this definition of volumetric efficiencyii only
consistentwith that of equations(lz.l4) and ( t 2.15 if the condition. of press.rr"
)
and temperaturein the cylinder during the induction stroke are identical
vith
those of the free air. In fact the gas wil be heated by the cylinder wal|\
aod
thgrewill be a reductionin pressuredue to the pressuredrop iequired to ind,.oe
the gas into the cylinder againstthe resistanceto flow. Thise modifications
to
the.ideal case require a more careful application of the formulae prcno'oy
derived.
For example,when the FAD per cycle is denoted by v atp and thca
T
vi
^ = P v= P t ( v : - :
. RT R?i
i.e. FAD/cycle,
V= (V,- Vn++ (rzr7l
Ir P
where p, and I are the suction conditions.

Example12.5 A single-stagc,double-actingair compressorhas a FAD of t4 rr,,r

measuredat l.0l 3 bar and I 5 "c. The pressureand temperaturein rhcqr-
during induction are 0.95bar and li'c. the delivery prcssurch 7 b
d
the.index of compressionand expansion,n, is equai io 1.3.Crb
t
power requiredand the volumetribefficiency.Thcdt nc*
i"lr:or{
is SVoof the swept volume.
Solution The p V dragramis shown in Fig. 12.11

Mass deliveredper unit ti^", ,h : Pt

Rr
414
 122 Brlprocdng coff,Frrr hffil -ns

fit, f2.f f Pncssure- Trb \

volumcdiagramfor 1
I
Erample12.5

\,..l
.o
o l/1 3 - const

0.95
305K

v.-ll u ,l| v
:0.05y, ' |

where the FAD is V at p and T

x 14x l0s
1.013
l,e. m: : 17'16kglmin
0.287x 288x l0I
whereT=15*273=288K.

Tr:
- Tr(!2\"-t''"
'\prl fromequation(3.2g)

/ ? \(1'3-rYr'3
i.e. Iz:305"1+l =483.6K
\0.95l
whered :32 * 273: 305K.
Fromequation(12.11)

Indicatedpor".r= fiR(72- T)
;l
- 305)
1.3x 17.16x 0.287(483.6
0.3 x 60
:63.5 kW
As before
/r^\l/'
vd= v"lv- 2l|
\pr /

i.e. y a : 0 . 0 5 4 (/ 7 \ |1 / 1 ' 3 : 0 . 0 5 4 x 7 . 3 6 8 0 ' 7 6 e

_
1u'95/
:0,232V"
therefore
V. - Yo: Yt - A.232y..: LASY.- O.232V,:0.818y.

.n5
Po.ld[ dfrpbcrncm nec|rlnc

Usingequation(l2.l7) F[. tl.l

the volu
F A D /cycl=(V,-
e "r ;? of incrtr
delivery

i.e. = 0.8182
FAD/cycle - ,. 39 " -995 0'724V,
305 1.01t:
Thenfromequation
(l2.l5)

'":f":ry: o'724
ot72'4Yo
Note that if the volumetricefficiencyin the aboveexampleis evaluatedusing
equation12.16then

4"=| -3{P\"'
v"L\n/
-,} :, - o'l:n,{(a)""-,}
'
) v" [\0.95l J
:0.818 or 81.8%
There is a considerabledifferencebetweenthe two values,since the lattcr
answerignores the differencein temperatureand pressurebetweenthe frcc eir
conditions and the suction conditions.

Fig.l11
volume
two-sta
| 2.3 Multistago compression
It is shownin section12.1that the conditionfor minimumwork is that tb
compression processshouldbe isothermal.In generalthe temperature rfu
compression is givenby equation(3.29),Tz= Tr(pzlh f'-ry'. The ddir:ry
temperature increaseswith the pressure
ratio.Further,from equation(lzl6i

?":l -ft{&)"'-'}
it can be seen that as the pressureratio increasesthe volumetric
decreases. This is illustrated in Fig. 12.12. "tir:it
For compressionfrom pr to pz the cycle is abcd and the FAD pcr ct*.
V" - Vaifor compressionfrom pt to pt the cycle is ab,c,d, and tb FAI) a,
cycle is v.* va'i for compressionfrom pt to p+ the cycle is ab'c.f dL
FAD per cycleis Y. - Vr'. Thereforefor a requiredFAD the cy{i&-d
have to increaseas the pressureratio increases.
The volumetric efficiencycan be improved by carryirg oot rbq-r
in two stages.After the first stage of compressionthe n"a i ar e
Fa
smaller cylinder in which the gas is compressedto thc reqid H
;1j113"
If the machinehas two stages,the gas will be deliveredlt t a drii -.1,"
but it could be delivered to a third cylinder for highcr din Tb
FrrG
cylinders of the successivestagesare proportioned to La t|c rot' hc of grc
deliveredfrom the previous stage.

416
 |2f ffirrt

Fig12.12 Effecton
the volumetric efficiency
of increasingthe
dclivery pressure

J uernt

!'*l | ', .l

The indicator diagram for a two-stagemachine is shown in Fig. 12.13.In

I hncr this diagram it is assumedthat the delivery processfrom the first or LP stage
lec r.n and the induction processof the secondor HP stageare at the samapressure.

Fig. 12.13 Pressure-

l volumediagramfor
I two-stagecompression
I
I

I
b tbc
I dtcr
blirwf
la16

!
fdc s
)D r*'
F thc
The ideal isothermal compressioncan only be obtained if ideal cooling is
continuous. This is difficult to obtain during normal compression.With
multistagecompressionthe opportunity presentsitself for the gas to be-eoolod
||rould as it is being transferredfrom one cylinder to the next, by passingit through
lcssr;n an intercooler.If intercooling is complete,the gas will enter the secondstrgp
into a at the sametemperatureat which it enteredthe first stage.The savingin wort
Essure- obtainedby intercoolingis shown by the shadedarea in Fig. 12.14and thc
r stagc, diagram of the plant is shown in Fig. 12,15.The two indicator diagramsabod
n Thc and a'b'c'd' are shown with a common pressure,p1.This does not oacur in I
rdgas real machine as there is a small pressuredrop between the cylindcrs. An
after-coolercan be fitted after the delivery processto cool the gas.

{17
 btiw dbplrecaut mrchincs

I FL. l2.l{ Efrectof

intcrooolingon the
comprcssion work
p

Pz

I
d' a'b

Fis.
volu
shor
Exa
Fig. 12.15 Plan
showingintercooling
betweencompressor
stages

First or
LP stage
cycle abc

from the two stagesare givenby

The deliverytemperatures

t,
I
o=.(fr)'"-"' r(fr)"-"'"
and Tz:

This assumesthat the gasis cooledin the intercoolerback to the

respectively.
inlet temperature,
and is calledcompleteintercooling.To calculatetheindicatcd
powerthe equations(12.1l)or (12.13)can be appliedto eachstagescpantcly
and the results added together. Two-stage compressionwith omplac
intercooling and after-cooling,and equal pressureratios in each stagF,b
representedon a T-s diagramin Fig. 12.16.

Fig. 12.16 T*s

diagramshowing
intercoolingand
aftercooling

418
 12t Ht3rf-on

pcr
Example12.6 In a single-acting,two-stagereciprocatingair comprc$Ed'+5 rs d ri
minute are compressedfrom 1.013bar and 15'C througb r prcrrc ntb
of 9 to I . Both have
stages the same ratio,
pressure and thc lar of crycdo
t'3
and expansionin both stagesis pV : constant.If intercoolingis oqLrc'
calculate the indicated power and the cylinder swept volumcs 13quilGd'
Assumethat the clearancevolumesof both stagesare 5o/oof thcir rcspAiw
swept volumesand that the compressorruns at 300rev/min'
LP
Solution The two indicator diagramsare shown superimposedin Fig. 12.17.Thc
stagecycleis abcd and the HP cycleis a'b'c'd''

Fig.12.17 Pressure- p
volumediagram Pt
for
showingbothstages
Example 12.7

Now p, :9Pr, alsop1/p1= PzlPotherefore

P?: P,,Pr :9P?
therefore
pilpr: J9 : 3
back to thc
bc indicatcd Using equation(3.29)
p separately
h complete :: ( +) t"- "' " ther eforT'e :3tr ' r - r vr ' r
ch stage.is ?i \P' /
whereTl:15*273:2SsK,andfisthetemperatureoftheairenteringthc
intercooler,
i.e. 4: 288 x 1.289: 371K
stageg
Now as n, th, and the temperaturedifrerenceare the samefor both
( I 2' I )
l
then the work donein eachstageis the same. Thereforeusingequation

:2
Totalindicatedpower T)
" *ftR$t-
- 288)
2 x 1.3x 4.5x 0.287(37t
0.3 x 60
: 15.5kW
419
Poritivo dirplaccorent machinea

The massinducedper cycleis

4.5
: 0.OtSkg/cycle
IOO
This massis passedthrougheachstagein turn.
For the LP cylinder,referringto Fig. l2.lg,
'.-l l- ,' | , ,v,^ - ,vrd : -m R T , 0 . 0 1 5x 2 8 7x 2 8 8: 0 . 0 1 2 2 m t l c y c l e
Fig. l2.IE Pressure- pt 1 . 0 1 x3 1 0 5
volumediagramfor LP Usingequation( 12.t 6)
stagefor Example12.6
V"-V^ V(/n,\t'^ )
4,:#: l _ii{ a I * l
l: I _ 0 . 0 5 ( 3 r i r r _l )
v, l,.(\p,) )
therefore

4,:1-0'066:0.934
Then
v'- va. 0'0122
' :
v^ = : o'0131m'/cYcle
0'934 0934
i.e. Sweptvolumeof LP cylinder:0.0131 m3
For theHP stage,a massof 0.015kg/cycleis drawnin at l5 'c anda pressure
of p, : 3 x 1.013: 3.039bar, therefore
o'015x 287 x 288
vorumedrawn,n-
3.039x 105
: 0.00406m3/cycle
Usingequation(12.16)forthe Hp stage
,, , rrr\t,n
n.:t-!:l(-l _ l >I
4(\p'/ )
and sinceY"lY"isthe sameas fiorthe Lp stageand alsopzlI,i= p,lprthen4"
is 0.934as above.Therefore

0'00406
Sweptvolumeof Hp Stage
- : : 0.00436 m3
0.934
Note that the clearanceratio is the samein each cylinder,and the suction
temperaturesare the samesinceintercoolingis complete,thereforethe swept
volumesare in the ratio of the suctionpressures,
0'0131
i.e. Ur H" :3\s- : 0 . 0 0 4 3 6m 3 ( a sa b o v e )
 t2.3 Hdthryrory-on

The ideal intermediate pressure

The value chosenfor the intermediatepressurep, influenccsthc rort to bc

done on the gas and its distribution betweenthe stages.The onditirm for thc
work done to be a minimum will be proved for two-stagecompressionbut catt
be extendedto any numberof stages.
Total work : LP stagework + HP stagework.
Thereforeusingequation(12.6)

Totalpower- J*,i,p7r{(q)'"-
't\p,/ "" - t
}
n-t )
"'"- ,}
*;\,nnr,{(fi)'" ( r 2.18)

It is assumedthat intercooling is completeand thereforethe temperatureat

the start of eachstageis [.

i.e. :-!=,i,p7,{(q)"-"'n-,
Totarpower '[\p,/ *(&)'"-"'" - r} trr.rnl
n-t \p,/ J
lf pr, Tr, and p, are fixed, then the optimum value of p, which makesthe
power a minimum can be obtainedby equatingd (power)/(dp,)to zero,i.e.
optimum valueof p, when
d l( p,\(r-r)/'
dp'i\t/
- rl: o
- (fi)'"-"'"
i.e.when

"'' ol,-rt,
+ t
pE,r"( - -r} : o
+{(1)"-
d p ,( \ p t l \p,/
1'"-"'" )
therefore
- l)01,,-ry,)-r - n)ol,r-"u"1-r
,-r-rr,,(, + or-r,,,(l :0
\ n /' \ n J"
lhen n, therefore

o-,"-,,,(' - 2')/'
= py-',,"(T)ou
;t)or',
therefore
Frctron -
plztn- ltl tn - (p rp r\tn ttta
I s\r'ept
therefore
p?= pflz {t120)

or P i- P z (lz2r)
Pt Pt
i.e. the pressure ratio is the same for each stage.
Pooitive dispt.camslt rnachincc

Totalminimumpower:2 x (power requiredfor one stage)

:2 rrfrRr,i(A)'"-"'" - ,]
n-l t\p'l )
ratio p, I p , ,wehave,usingequation( 12.20|
or in termsof theoverall pressure
p,_J;; _ la
Pr VPt
Pt
therefore

:,,i*{(f)'"-"""
power
rotalminimum - 'l
This can be shown to extend to z stagesgiving in general, F?
thrt
= r-!-,antte)"
power
rotalminimum "'""-'] tr2'22) rcdt
ooE
intc

ratiofor eachstage:(fi)"'
Pressure (12.23)

Hencethe condition for minimum work is that the pressureratio in eachstage

the
is the sameand that intercooling is complete.(Note that in Example 12.6
information given implies minimum work')

Example 12.7 A three-stage,single-actingair compressorrunning in an atmosphereat

t.0t3bar uiO tst tur a free air deliveryof 2.83m3/min.The suction
pressureand temperatureare 0.98bar and 32'C respectively.Calculatethe
indicatedpower iequired, assumingcompleteintercooling n: 1.3,and that
the machine is designedfor minimum work. The delivery pressureis to be
70 bar.
x tos-I?'gt :
1.013
Solution rcd - 1Y=:
Massof air delive i.47kg/min
RT 287x288
whereT=15*273:288K.
Thcn usingequation(12.221
Total indicatedPower
"'"-,}
=,{an"te)"
3}
rY(3x1
=, * ry.9;ig{(#)" - r}
H"
=24.2kW
are
Besidesthe benefitsof multistagecompressionalready dealt with there
also mechanicaladvantages.The higher pressuresare confined to the smaller

422
 rz.t l{bt

cylinders and a multicylinder machine has lcss variation in mteritnl.rccd

and requiresa smallerflywheel.

Energy balance tor a two-stage machine with intercoolcr

J0r
Referringto Fig. l2.l9,the steady-flowenergyequation (1.10) can be applicd
to the LP stage,the intercooler,and the HP stage,in turn. Changesin kiGic
energyand heightcan be neglected, i.e.from equation(1.10)

or*1-+e+w:hz++

Fig. 12.19 Steadyflow

through a two-stage
L22l reciprocating
compressorwith
intercooler

tzil
for the LP stage,for unit massflow rate,
FIB
ht * Qt* W1,: ft,
lo
or for massflow rate, nc

let rhcrTr+Qt*Wu-rhcrTi
:iln therefore
Irhc
tfrt e t : _ { f r r _ * c o ( T t _? i ) }
!bc i.e. Heat rejectedin LP stage: W, - rhco(T,- T) (r2.24)
for the intercooler,for unit massflow rate
h ,+ Q r : h t
or for massflow rate. rlr
rhcoTr
* Qr: rhcrTl
therefore
2r: -rhco(Tt- Tr)
i.e. Heat rejectedin intercooler= rhcp(T- Tr) {t2.zsl
for the HP stage,for unit massflow rate,
h t * Q n * W 1 1 :h 2
or for massffow rate,m
t are
rhcrT,+ Q, t frr: rhcrT2
rllcr
tl'4,
 Poaitivc d irplacomcnt mcchino

therefore

Aa: - {fr^ * rhcr(Tz

_ ?i)}
i.e. Heatrejectedin Hp stage- W"_ nco(Tz_ Tt) (l? 16)
With completeintercoolingas assumedin Fig. 12.19,and thc comprct3r
designed
for minimumwork,then,fromequation(iZ.ti),

tU.= Wr:;\**1Tz * T,)

Example12.8 Using the data of Example 12.6determinethe rate of heatlossto the

cylindct
jacket cooling water and the rate of heat loss to
the intercoolcr circttating
water.
Solution From Example 12.6we have

frr.: Wn: l5^'5

rw
2 Fg.l?.
6rougl
and Tz: Tr:371 K @prc
Then, from squation (12.24|
-Ot: ry- r hco( Ti-
\)
therefore

-o, : t5'5- --
4'5 x l'005,
-(371
71r- 288)
)
2 60
i.e. -8,. = 7.7s- 6.26:1.49 kw '. F3la
Cmprr
From equation(12.26) ep-rd
-Au= W*- nco(Tz- T)
and lYu= Wr" and Tz: T
therefore
Q n : Q t ' : - l ' 4 9k W
i.e. Heatlossfrom the cylinderin eachstage= 1.49kW
Fromequation(12.25)

-Qr = rhcr(T- ti) : 4'5 x -l'005x (371* 2gg)

60
i.e. Heatto intercoolercirculatingwater- 6.26kW

quantitiesWy and tr",.t definedby Fig. 12.19,arethe ratesof wort

. The
doneon theair. Theactualpowerinputsexceedthis by theamountsnccaser,
to overcomefrictionalresistance
to themovingpartsof thc machinc.It canbc
424
 -
t2-a Hr-h#

assumedthat about 50% of the friction power gocs to incaasiry th u6r

transferredto the cooling water,in addition to thc heattransferrcdto th cotth3
water from the air in the cylinder.
tL26l.
r€ssor 72.4 Steady-flow analysis
In section12.2an expressionwas obtained(equation( 12.1I )) for the indicatcd
power required to take a massflow rate of gas,m, in state I and deliver it at
a higher pressurein state 2. This was done by analysingthe internal pr(rc€ss;
of the machine.Another approach is to considerthe compressionprocessas
linder
one of steadyflow, as shown in Fig. 12.20,with the changeof statefrom I
lating
to 2 beingachievedby a non-flowprocessof polytropiccompression, asindicated
in the property diagramof Fig. 12.21.

Fig. 12.20 Steadyffow

through a reciprocating
compressor
+ pr,v2,Tz

Fig. 12.21
Compressionproccsson
a p-u diagram

Thesteady-flowenergyequationfor thesystemshownin Fig. 12.20, neglecting

changesin potentialand kinetic energyand for unit massflow rate,is

ht+Q+W:hz
therefore
Q+W:hz-hr
f work
or for an elementalprocess
o6sary
can bc dQ+dW=dh (al

tlits
Poritivc dirplaccment machinec

Assumingthat no heatis transferredon induction ordelivery the heattransferrcd,

to or from the system,takesplaceduring the polytropic nbn-flow compression
process.The non-ffow equation for a reversibleproess states
dQ*du* pdo (b)
Combining(a) and (b) gives
dh*du*pdu+dW
and, by definition, h: u * pu, hence di:dl* pdu* udp, therefore
substituting
du+pdu*udp:du*pdu+dW
therefore
d,W: u dp Fig. 12
blower
Then
rotor

* : f' u dp : arca ltbat inFig. 12.21,

Jr

i.e. w-cr,fg ( r i n . "' ,: o *'i'f' o \

ou':C)
Jtprt, \
( ' \"t"-,,,"1'
crbf '"'
" L\, - t )0" ),
: [(-+) p"-tv,ptt^t)12
L\n- 1/' J,
t-n 12
L,J e'J,
=;\to"z - Pflr)
rf
Pr-

I
i.e. Work input,W ::t(pzuz _ prar)
,tf
I
and as ptur: R[ and pzDz: R[ then

__$ta_r,l l-
Fig r
volun
Roots
12.5 Rotary machines
Becauseof the
-continuous rotary action, the rotary positive displacement
machine is smaller for a given flow than its reciprocating counterpart.
The
machinesin this category are generally uncooled and as ihe compiession
is
carried out at a high rate the conditions-areapproximatelyadiabatic.Examplis
of this type are: (i) the Roots blower; 1ii; vane type.

426
 -----l
125 ncrffi

r*rrE4 Roots blower

Fcs*E
The two-lobe type is shown in Fig. 12.22,bvtthree-and four-lobc wfsioc rlc
in use for highei pressureratios. One of the rotors is connectedto tbc &irc
and the ..cond rotor is gear driven from the first. In this way the rotors robtc
giviDS
in phaseand the profile of the lobes is of cycloidal or in volute forn
.oir..t mating of the lobes to seal the delivery side from the inlct sidc' Thb
sealing continluesuntil delivery commences.There must be some cl€aramc
betwein the lobes and betweenthe casingand the lobes to reducewear; thb

F: Fig.12.22 Roots
blower with a two-lobe
rotor
clearanceforms a leakage path which has an increasinglyadverseeffect on
efficiencyas the pressureratio increases.

gas % at
As each side of each lobe facesits side of the casinga volume of
pressurepr, is displacedtowardsthe deliverysideat constant pressure. A further
the gas flows back
rotation of the rotor opensthis volume to the receiver,and
pressure. The gas induced is
from the receiver,since this gas is at a higher
pressure p2, and th€n
.orpr.$.a irreversibly by that from thereceiver to the
thedriving
deliverybegins.This processis carriedout four timesper revolutionof
shaft.
the
The p-v diagram for this machine is shown in Fig. 12.23,in which
pressurerisefrom p, to p2is shownasan irreversibleprocessat constant volume'

Work done Per cYcle- (P2- P)Y

'therefore

Work done Per revolution : 4(Pz * P)V (tL27l

Fig. 12.23 Pressure-

volumediagramfor a If I/, is the volume dealt with per unit time at p1 and Tr, then
Rootsblower
Power inPut = (P, - Pr\V"
(lz2t)

The ideal compressionproc€ssfrom p, to Pz is a reversibleadiabetic

lacement (i.e. isentropic)lrocess.The work doneper minuteidcally is thus gwo bl
parr-Th€ (12.7)with n:7'
equation
rssion is
Frernpl6
i.e. input: J -,r,O{(fi)" "" - ,}
Power
tw
 Pcitiyl di+|rrufi m.c.hino.

Then a comparisonmay be made on the basis

of a Rooe efficiency,
Fig. ll
work doneisentropicauy positir
i.e. Roots efficien", -
actualwork done comp

- l)}pti"{(p.lprl'-"' - ll
t.e, R o o t s e f f inc"i,e= { v l 0
v"(pz- pr)
_ ? , { r ( r - r r -y l }
(y-l)(r-l)
where r = pr€ssur€ratio, prf pr.
From equation (2.22),we can write

T Co
: i

v-l R
therefore

Rootsefficien.n r l,
- = 1l{i'': (r2.2e)
R[ (r-l) J
For a Roots air blower values of pressureratio,
r, of 1.2, 1.6,and 2 g.ve
valuesfor the Rootsefficiencyof 0.945,b.g4,and
0.76i respectinety. rrr"s" varues
show that the efficiencydecreasesas the piessure
ratio increases.
actual compressionprocessis not quite as simple
u, inu, described.
when the displacementvolume z is openedto the
aefivery spacea pressure
wave enters which increaseswith the opening
and moves'u,'tr,. vetocity of
sound.This wave is reflectedfrom the upprou"tting
lobe to the Jelvery space.
The pressureoscillationsset up unsteadyconditioni F[.12
in trreaeiiueiy spacewhich
vary considerablyfrom one designto another.The volum
actual torqu. and roading
onthe.rotors are higher.thanisiuggestedby the p-v vane-t
diagrai,and fluctuate
y.r:h ligh frequency.This fluctuation ir transmitted to the drive
and crearer
difficultiesdue to vibrations. This machinehas a
number oi i.p"rr*,iong but
is well suited to such tasksas the scavengingand
superchargingofIC engincr
Roots blowers are built for_capacitie-s "-6lrTrniq
Jf fro* d.t+ to ,nd
pressureratios of the order of 2 to l for
a single-stage,".rrin"-*o 3 to l for
a two-stagemachine._otherdesignshave been produced
to improve on thc
Roots blower' one of thesebeingthe Biceracompressor,
designedby the British
Internal combustion EngineeringResearchAssociation
t nr"cBne l

vane type
The simple vane type is shown in Fig. 12.24and
consistsof a rotor mountcd
eccentricallyin the body, and supporrcdby ba[-
and rolrer-beaii* t thc cod
covers of the body. The rotor is srotted to take
the bradeswhich are of a
non'metallic material, usually fibre or carbon. As
each bladc moveepo$ thc
inlet passage,compressionbeginsdue to decreasing
volune betruro thc rotor
and casing.Delivery beginswith the arrivar of each
bradcat tnc oairrry poscagc.
428
 12.6 nArr rn*r
lEi Fig 12.24 Vane-type
positivedisplacement
compressor

This type of compressiondiffersfrom that of the Roots blower in that someor

all of the compressionis obtained before the trapped volume is opened to
delivery.Further compressioncan be obtaineduy ttri back-flowof air from the
receiverwhich occurs in an irreversiblemanner.
' r t2lf The p-v diagramis shownin Fig. rz.2s. v"is the inducedvolumear pressure
pr and temperature[. compression occursto the pressurep,, thc ideal
form
for an uncooledmachinebeing isentropic.At this prissure thl'displaced gasis
Irod]ai openedto the receiverand gasflowing back from the receiverraisejthe prJrrur"
Thtrr- irr-eversiblyto pr. The work input is given by the sum of the areasA and B,
referring to Fig. 12.25.comparing the areasof Figs 12.23and 12.2sit can
iroiH be
seenthat for a given airflow and given pressureratio the vane typ€ requires
lil
lesswork input than the Roots blower.
dq
F.ry.12,25 Pressure-
volumediagramfor a
YAne-typecompressor

Krq
tn,
3pth
C
tur-l

A rotary sliding vane two-stagemachineis shown in Fig. 12.26;inthis typc

the vanesare in contact with the cylinder walls.
rcT
pt ir &t Example 12.9 compare the work inputs required for a Roots blower and a yane-typc
lir.*d compressorhavingthe sameinducedvolumeof 0.03m3/rev, the inlct prc rc
FE$r being 1.013bar and the pressureratio 1.5 to l. For the vaoe typc ernc
i:r*r that internal compressiontakes place through half the pressurerrqla
hrl r Solution Pr : 1.013bar

IEl,
Hth,! dbplsmrnt machlncl

F1E",l?lS Rotary
sliding vane two-stage
positivc displacement
compr€ssor

therefore
Pz : 1.013x 1.5: l'520bar
For the Roots blower,referringto Fig. 12.23
Work doneperrevolution: (pz - pt)V"

l%P
:(l.s2o-1.013)
"
: 1 . 5 2k J / r e v
For the vanetype
( 1 . 5x 1 . 0 1 3 ) 1+ . 0 1 3
h= *--**-T-- = 1.266bar

Referringto Fig. 12.25 Fi3I

podti
Work required: (areaA + areaB) vrcuu
(12.7)with n: Y
Now usingequation

:fir,*{(fi)" ""-,}
areaA
x lOsx 0.03
1.013 -'''n
: r.4, ___ f f!g)" _ ,l
, nr/r."
^"
dJ lo3 l!ot3/ J
: 0.?0kJlrev
areaB:(pr- p)Yv
whereZ, is givenby equation{3.19),
-
i.e. r(?)"': o.o,
. (i#)"'
":: m3
0.0256
i.e. areaB= (1.520- t.266')x 102x 0.0256kJ/rev
: 0.65kJ/rev

430
 l2.l YUF

therefore
Work required:0.70 + 0.65: 1.35kJ/rev
(compared'withthe work requiredfor the Rootsmachineof 1.52kJ/rw}

Rotary sliding vane compressorsare used with free air deliveriesof up to

150m3/min and pressureratios up to 8.5 to 1. For specialapplicationsard
boosting,pressureratios of the order of 20 to I have been obtainedfrom thiq
type. The larger machinesare usually water-cooled.
Lubrication is important with vane'type machinesand is accomplishedby
injecting oil to the vane tips in contact with the casing.Somemachines,having
carbon vanes,require no lubrication. Another versionis designedto reducethe
friction betweenvane and casing.This employsa ffoating drum which rotates
betweenthe rotor and casing,and does not allow the vanesto make contact
with the casing.The only movementof the bladesrelativeto the floating drum
is along the slots.SeeFig. 12.26.

12.6 Vaeuum pumps

Rotary positive displacementpumps are used to produce a vacuum or to
scavengea vessel.An exampleof this type of pump is shown in Fig. 12.27.The
rotor is eccentricallymounted in the stator and carriestwo bladeswhich sweep
the spacebetweenthe rotor and stator. The gasbeingexhaustedentersthrough

W,12.27 Rotary
positivedisplacement
Yacuum "pump

I
-- tl
lrat
--l l/--l*l l.-
-t
// // \\ l---
_:l /l // \\\ l;
--l /t\ ;$*o,o.il\ l:
__l \ /A -/t/l---
__l v :1
-\--'
,/ l_-

{31
Pocitive dirplacement machines

Fig. 12.28
the vacuumconnectionand is compressed beforedelirer.r-
throughthedischarge volumedie
valve.The efficiencyof suchpumpsis impairedby the presence of condensable air motor
vapours,and meansmust be provided to deal with rheserf necessary. The
vapourstendto condense beforedeliverythroughthe discharge ralveand mix
with the sealingoil. The liquid eventuallyevaporatesinto rhe .,a;uum s-y-stem
and lowers the vacuum obtainable,as well as impainng liie .eailng and
lubricatingpropertiesof the oil.

12.7 Air motors

Compressed air is usedin a wide varietyof applicationsin industry.For some
purposesair-operatedmotors are the most suitableforms of power,especially-
wherethereare safetyrequirementsto be met as in mining applications.
Pneumaticbreakers,picks,spades,rammers,vibrators,riveters,etc.form a
rangeof hand tools which havewide applicationsin constructionalwork. The1.
are light in constructionand suitablefor operation in remote situationsfor
which other forms of power tools may not be suitable.The action requiredof
such tools, with the associatedsimplicity and robustnessof construction,is
obtainedwith air-operateddesign.
Basicallythe cyclein the reciprocatingexpanderis the reverseof that in the
reciprocatingcompressor. Air is suppliedto the air motor from an air receiver
in which the air is at approximatelyambienttemperature.Thereis a pressure
drop in the air line betweenthe receiverand the motor. The air expandsin the Ex
motor cylinder to atmosphericpressurein a mannerwhich is polytropic(i.e
theexpansionis internallyreversibleand the law ofexpansionis pun- eonstanl
where n < y, and is usually about 1.3).If the air is initiaiiy at ambienr
temperature,then this form of expansion will bring alnut a reduction
in the air temperatureaslower pressures arereached.The temperatures reached
may be sufficientlylow to be below the dew-pointof the moisturein the air
(seesection15.2);thismoisturemay be condensed, and the waterformedma1-
evenbe cooledto its freezing-point. This may leadto theformationof icein the
cylinderwith the consequence of blockedvalves.To preventthis conditionir
may be necessa.ry to preheatthe air to an initial temperature which is h;5r,
enoughto preventtheformationof ice.This heatingof theair causes an increase
in volumeat the supplypressureand reducesthe demandfrom the compressor.
Further, the temperatureat which the heat transferis requiredis low, and a
low-gradesupplyof heator 'wasteheat'may be utilizedlor the purpose.
A hypotheticalindicatordiagramfor an air motor is shownin Fig. l2i:
In this casethe air expandsfrom I to the pressure p, at the end of the stroke
Thereis thena blow-down of air from 2 to 3. Air is exhausted from 3 to 4. and
at 4 compression of thetrappedor cushion cir begins. Air at thesupplypressure.
pu, is admittedto the cylinderat the point 5 whereit mixesirreversiblr*rrl
the cushionair. The pressure in the cylinderis rapidlybroughtup ro the rni.:
value,pu. The furthersupplyof air is madeat constantpressurebehindrhe

432
 I
12.7 Airlnoton

Fig. 12.28 Pressure-

volumediagramfor an
atr motor
rb
-
!-

moving piston to the point of cut-offat l. The cut-offratio is givenby

vt - va
cut-off ratio :
Vt-Vu
lr etc hc
ll rort- The effectof the cushionair is to givea smoother-runningmotor. The position
situanc 4, and on the law of
of the point 5 dependson the point of initial compression
m requird compressionpYn = constant.The conditionsmay be such that the points 5
Dnstructili, and 6 coincide,
The analysisof sucha diagramis bestcarriedout from basicprinciples,as
!of that is tE illustratedin the followingexample.
F eu rE(drlt
I * a pressrr
Example12,10 The cylinderof an air motor hasa boreof 63,5mm and a strokeof 114mm.
Feands in ft The supplypressureis 6.3bar, the supplytemperature24'C,and the exhaust
follrropic (ia.
l'= constelt, pressureis 1.013bar. The clearancevolumeis 5% of the sweptvolumeand
y at ambicc the cut-off ratio is 0.5.The air is compressedby the returningpiston after
I a ieduai<rr it has travelled through 0.95 of its stroke. The law of compressionand
rtures reachod expansionis pVr'3 : constant.Calculate:
[rre in the air (i) the temperatureat the end of expansion;
r formed may (ii) the indicatedpower of the motor which runs at 300rev/min;
n of ice in thc (iii) the air suppliedper minute.
b conditionir
rhich is h;sir Solution (i) Referringto the cycleof Fig. 12.28
Es an increasc
Clearance volume- Vo: Vs:0.054
I Compressor.
b low. and a Sincethe cut-off ratio, (\ - y)l(V! - Izu),is 0.5,therefore
Purpose.
in Fig. 12.28- \ : 054 + 0.05t/": 0.55Y"
of the stroke. Vz: 4't Vu: 1.954
m3to4.and
Now
pply'pressurq'
crersiblywith V, - Vu: 0.95(Vt - Vt) (given)
tp ro the inlet
or Vn- Vt: 0.054
re behind the
{s
 Porhivs dirplaccment machinee

therefore
Ve,= 0.054+ 0.05Y.: 0.1I/,
PtV\: p2Vn

therefore
I
o,: r,(2): u,(m)": 2ltlbar
'
also rz:r,(2)' :2e?(ffi)": 244.6K
i.e. Temperatureafter expansion:244.6 - 273= -28.4"C
(ii) Now

(vo\' /n | \r'3
,,:r,\i) = r o r 3 ( o o s a: 2 . 4 e 4 b a r
)
Work outputpercycle: area1234561
-
work output: Pr(v, - vu)
- + (p'vt !.l,vt\
\ n-l /

-P,(v,-v)-(ry#!)
nx63.52xll4
and Sweptvolume: :0.361 x l0-3 m3
4xlOe
therefore rb nD
t' Cherrtcr
Work output per cycle mll yag
ntor: (e
: ( 6 . 3x l O s x 0 . 3 6 1x l 0 - 3 x 0 . 5 ) F€!4 (b)
(c) eir cq
l O s x 0 . 3 6 1x l 0 - 3 TGcd
* { ( 6 . 3x 0 . 5 5 ) - ( 2 . 7 1 8x 1 . 0 5 ) }
O:
- ( 1 . 0 1 3x 1 0 5x 0 . 3 6 1x l 0 - 3 x 0 . 9 5 )

105x0.361
x10*3
U 2 . 4 e 4x 0 . 0 5 -) ( 1 . 0 1 3x 0 . 1 ) ) 03
0.3
t
t
i.e. Work outputpercycle: I 13.7+ 73.5* 34.7- 2.8
302
:149.7 Jlcycle I
.

=
Powerdeveloped
-I1*#
: 0.749kw

(iii) The mass induced per cycle is given by (n'r,- m+). It is necessaryto
determinethe temperatureof the air at 4, which can be taken as equalto that
ol

I
494
 llt Abffirr

at 3.It isassumed
thattheair in thecylindcrat thepoint2 cxpands
ircotropi(dt
to the exhaustpressur€.Therefore

= - 144r(#)0'4lr'4 : 184.5
K
" "(?)1'-"t'
t.e. ^n=W,:
1.013x 105x 0.0361x l0-3
287x 184.5
: 0 . 0 6 9 1x 1 0 - 3 k g

6 . 3 x 1 0 5 x 0 . 5 5 x 0 . 3 x6 1l 0 - 3
^ ,- _ P r V r _ = 1.4675
x l0-3 kg
R?i 287 x 297
therefore
Inducedmasspercycle: (1.467S x l0 - 3) _ (0.0691x l0 - 3)
: 1.398x 10-3kg
i.e. Massflow rate of air supplied: 1.39gx l0-3 x 300: 0.42kg/min

Air motorscan be rotary in action and are then similarin form to their
com_pressor counterparts, seesection12.5.Figure 12.29(al,(b), and (c) show
the formsof the performance characteristics ola small,0.tkw; vanetypeair
motor in termsof power/speed, torque/speed, andair consumpiion/speei. nn
air motor whichreceives air from a constintpressure supplycanbecontrolled
to meetthe load requirements by fitting a restrictoreitlir beforeor afterthe
motor. It can be shown by a considerationof a simplifid p-v diagram,
neglecting clearance, that fitting therestrictorbeforethemotorrequiresa lower
ju. r\T, airffowthanfitting it after.Thereadershouldestablishthisfor himselfandalso
Cheracteristics of a
rrnrll ya6-1yp" 6t showthat theairflowraterequiredis approximately proportionalto thesupply
Eotor: (a) power- pressure to themotor for a givenduty.Figure12.30showstheresultsof atCt
tpocd, (b) torque-spoed, on a smallair motor which givesa Zsvoreductionin air requirement if the
(c) air consumption- restrictoris on the inlet sideto the motor.
Toed

P:7 bar
3r
0.3
t .E6
J A<
t
b 0.2 e 1
' o
o
A
.!3

b 2468 2468 2468

It Sp€ed/103(revlmin) Speed/
103(revlmin) Speed/
103(
revlmin)
{a) (b) (c)

435
Pcative displacement machines

Fig. 12$ Test results

for a vane-type air
motor with restrictor
control (no load)

R e s t r i c t o ro n , i n l e t s l d e

ot

100 r50 200

Speed/( rev /min )

Problems
12.1 Air is to be compressed in a single-stage reciprocating compressor from 1.013bar and
3
I 5 "C to 7 bar.Calculatetheindicatedpowerrequiredfor a freeair delivery of 0.3m /min,
when the compressionprocessis as follows:
(i) isentropic;
(ii) reversibleisothermal;
(iii) polytropic,with n = 1,25.
What will be the deliverytgmpelalyr.e-in eachcase?
( 1 . 3 1k W ; 0 . 9 8k W ; 1 . 2 0k W ; 2 2 1 . 3 " Cl :5 " C ; 1 5 0 ."9C )
12.2 The compressorof Problem l2.l is to run at l0O0rev/min. If the compressoris
and has a stroke/boreratio of 1.2/1,calculatethe bore sizerequired.
single-acting
( 6 8 . 3m m )

12.3 A single-stage, single-actingair compressorrunning at 1000rev/min deliversair at

25bar. For this purposethe inductionand freeair conditionscan be takenas 1.013bar
and 15'C, and the FAD as 0.25mr/min.The clearance volumeis 3% of the swept
volumeand the stroke/boreratio is 1.2/1.Calculate:
(i) the boreand stroke;
(ii) the volumetricefficiency;
(iii) the indicatedpower;
(iv) the isothermalefficiency.
Take the index of compressionand re-expansion as 1.3.
( 7 3 . 2m m ; 8 7 . 8m m ; 6 7 , 1 V o i 2 k W : 6 7 . 7 Y o I

12.1 The compressorof Problem 12.3has actual inductionconditionsof I bar and 40"C,
and the delivery pressureis 25 bar. Taking the bore and stroke as calculatedin
'C
Problem12.3.calculatethe FAD referredto 1.013bar and I 5 and the indicatedpower
required.Calculatealso the volumetricefficiencyand compareit with that of Problem
l2'3'
{0.226mr lmiH;1.98kW;6t.Zoh;67.i%l

43q
 Frotbr

12.5 A single-actingcompressoris requiredto deliverair at 70 bar from an indlrctim prtsnrrc

o f I b a r , a t t h e r a t e o2f . 4 m r / m i n m e a s u r e d a t f r e e a i r c o n d i t i oln. 0s lo3f b e r r D d t 5 ' C -
The compressionis carried out in two stageswith an ideal intermcdiarcprcsure eld
completeintercooling.The clearance volumeis 3% of the sweptvolumein cact c1tlitrdct
and the compressorspeedis 750rev/min. The index of compression and re+rplrirn
is I .25for both cylindersand the temperatureat the end of the inductionslrolc itr act
cylinderis 32'C. The mechanicalefficiencyof the compressor is 857o.Cdcularc:
(i) the indicatedpowerrequired;
(ii) the savingin powerovei single-stage compressionbetweenthe samepressurcs;
( i i i ) t h e s w e p tv o l u m eo f e a c hc y l i n d e r ;
tiv) the requiredpoweroutput of the drivemotor.
(22.7 4 kW;5.98kW; 0.00396 m3,0.000474 m3; 26.75kW)
12.6 For the compressorof Problem12.5calculatethe heatrejectedper minuteto thejacket
coolingwaterof eachstage,and the heatrejectedper minuteto the intercooler.Assume
that 50% of the friction power in eachstageis transferredto thejacket coolingwater.
{264kJ/min; 478kUmin)
.2.7 A single-cylinder, single-actingair compressorof 200mm bore by 250mm stroke is
constructedso that its clearancecan be alteredby movingthe cylindcrhead,the stroke
beingunaffected.
(a) Usingthe data belowcalculate:
(i) the freeair delivery;
(ii) the power requiredfrom the drive motor.

Data Clearance volumesetat 700cm3lrotationalspeed, 300rev/min;deliverypressure. 5 bar;

)t3 x: atd
suctionpressur€and temperature,I bar and 32"C; free air conditions,1.013bar and
l-1 nl mn 1.25;mechanical efficiency, 8070.
l5'C; indexof compression and re-expansion,
(b) To what minimum valuecan the clearancevolume be reducedwhen the delivery
pressureis 4.2bar,assumingthat the samedrivingpoweris availableandthat thesuction
conditions,speed,valueof index,and mechanicalefficiency,remainunaltered?
( 1 . 6 8m 3 / m i n ;7 . 1k W ; 4 5 8c m 3 )
I
l: 15o.9'Cl 12.8 A single-acting, single-cylinder
air compressor
runningat 300rev/minis drivenby an
electricmotor.Usingthe data givenbelow,and assuming that the boreis equalto the
Dpressor b
stroke.calculate:
quired.
(i) the freeair delivery;
r683mmf
(ii) the volumetricefficiency;
hers air at (iii) the boreand stroke.
x I 0ll bar
Data Air inletconditions, 1.013bar and 15'C; deliverypressure, 8 bar;clearance volume,TTo
f rhc swepr
of sweptvolume; index of compressionand re-expansion, 1.3;mechanicaleffciencyof
n o t o ra n d c o m p r e s s o r , 8 7 7 0 ; m opt o rw e ro u t P u t , 2 3 k W .
t h ed r i v eb e t w e e m
(4.47m3/min; 72.7% ; 297mm)
12.9 A two-stageair compressor consistsof threecylindershavingthe sameboreand stroke.
The deliverypressureis 7 bar and the FAD is 4.2m3/min. Air is drawn in at 1.013bar,
15"C and an intercooler coolsthe air to 38"C.The indexof compression is 1.3for all
t$i:.67-7%l threecylinders.Neglectingclearance' calculate:
(i) the intermediatepressure
;
end tlo'C,
(ii) the powerrequiredto drivethe compressor;
*:ulated in
(iii) the isothermalefficiencv.
leted power
(2.19bar; 16.2kIY: tL5%)
of Problern
12.f0 A four-stagecompressorworks betweenlimits of I bar and ll2bar. Thc indgr of
ttt.: 67.7oh\ compressionin eachstageis 1.28,the temperatureat the start of comprereionin crh

4{r
Positive displacement machines

stageis 32'C, and the intermediatepressuresare so chosenthat the work is dividdl

equally among the stages,Neglectingclearance,calculate:
(i) the temperatureat delivery from eachstage;
(ii) the volumeof freeair deliveredper kilowatt-hourat 1.013bar and 15'c;
(iii) the isothermalefficiency.
(122'C;6.23m3/kW h; 87.6%)
'12.11 A single-cylinder,single-actingreciprocating air compressorsupplies a water-cooted
receiverfrom which the air is drawn off for processwork. Taking the polytropic indcr
of compressionand re-expaqsionas 1.3,and using the data below,calculate:
(i) the pressurein the receiver;
(ii) the rate ofheat rejectionfrom the receiver;
(iii) the volumetricefficiencyof the compressor;
(iv) the required power input to thc compressor.
Data Cylinderbore,200 mm; stroke,250 mm; rotational speed,440rev/min; clearanccvolumc,
57o of swept volume; ambient pressureand temperaturein compressorhouse,l.0l bar
and l0"C; averagepr€ssureand temperatureduring the induction stroke, lbar and
20'C; volumeflow rate of air drawn off for processwork, 0'6 m3/min at 17"C.
Note : Use a trial-and-error method for part (i).
(5 bar; 8.14kW; 83.9%;9.85kW)

12.12 Air at l.0l3bar and 15'c is to be compressed at the rate of 5.6m3/min to l.75bar.
Two machinesare considered: (a) the Roots blower; and (b) a sliding vane rotary
compressor.Compare the powers required, assuming for thc vane typ€ that internal
compressiontakes place through 75% ol the pressurerise beforedelivery takes placg
and that the compressoris an ideal uncooledmachine.
(6.ggkw; 5.71kw)

12.13 Air is compressedin a two-stag€vane-typecompressorfrom 1.013bar to 8.75bar' Using

the data below, and assumingequal pressureratios in each stage,that compressionis
completein eachstage,that the rnachineoperatesin an ideal manner,and is uncoolcd
apart from the intercooler,calculate:
(i) the power requirod;
(ii) the volume ffow rate measuredat the delivcry pr€ssure.
Data Freeair delivery,42m3/min at 1.013bar and l5'C; intercoolingbetweenstagesis 757.
comPlete. (lE? kw; z.2l m3/miD)

12.14 The following particulars refer to a single-actingair motor: cylinder diameter380mm;

stroke 610 mm;speed200 rev/min; supply pressureand tcmperatwe6.2bar and 150"C;
back pressure1.03bar; index of expansionand compression1'35; cut-off ratio 0.46;
clearancevolume 2Ao/oof swept volume; mechanicalefficiency95%'
Assumingthat the temperatureand pressureof thc air in the clcarancespaceat thc
beginningof admission are 6.2bar and 150"C, calculate:
(i) the air consumPtion;
(ii) the air tcmperatureaftcr blow-down;
(iii) the fraction of stroke travclled by the piston bcforerecomprcssionbegins;
(iv) the shaftpower developcd.
(0.54kg/s; _ 14.3"c; 0.463;72.9kw)

Reference
l2.l Compressors
BS 1571Testingol PositiveDisplacement Part I ( 1987|
and Exhausters
Part II (1984).

tt38