Chapter 2

Rotor in Vertical Flight: Momentum

Theory and Wake Analysis

2.1 Momentum theory for hover

The helicopter rotor produces an upward thrust by driving a column

of air downwards through the rotor plane. A relationship between
the thrust produced and the velocity communicated to the air can
be obtained by the application of Newtonian mechanics – the laws of
conservation of mass, momentum and energy – to the overall process.
This approach is commonly referred to as the momentum theory for
helicopters. It corresponds essentially to the theory set out by Glauert1
for aircraft propellers, based on earlier work by Rankine and Froude
for marine propellers.
The rotor is conceived as an ‘actuator disc’, across which there
is a sudden increase of pressure, uniformly spread. In hover the
column of air passing through the disc is a clearly defined stream-
tube above and below the disc: outside this streamtube the air is
undisturbed. No rotation is imparted to the flow. The situation is
illustrated in Figs 2.1a–2.1c. As air is sucked into the disc from
above, the pressure falls. An increase of pressure Dp occurs at the
disc, after which the pressure falls again in the outflow, eventually
arriving back at the initial or atmospheric level p•. Velocity in the
streamtube increases from zero at ‘upstream infinity’ to a value vi at
the disc and continues to increase as pressure falls in the outflow,
reaching a value v• at ‘downstream infinity’. Continuity of mass flow
in the streamtube requires that the velocity is continuous through the
disc.
Energy conservation, in the form of Bernoulli’s equation,
can be applied separately to the flows before and after the disc.
Using the assumption of incompressible flow, we have in the
inflow:

13
14 Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics

Figure 2.1 Actuator disc concept for a rotor in hover, a. streamtube geometry; b. velocity
profile; c. pressure profile.
 Momentum Theory and Wake Analysis 15

1
p• = pi + rvi2
2

r being the air density, and in the outflow:

1 2 1
pi + Dp + rvi = p• + rv•2
2 2

It follows from these that:

1
Dp = rv•2
2

Now by momentum conservation, the thrust T on the disc is equal to

the overall rate of increase of axial momentum of the air, that is to
say:

T = rAviv•

A being the disc area, hence rAvi is the mass flow through it. Since Dp
is the thrust per unit area of the disc we have:

T
Dp = = rviv•
A

From the two expressions for Dp it is seen that:

v• = 2vi 2.1

Thus half the velocity communicated to the air occurs above the disc
and half below it, and the relationship between thrust and the veloc-
ity vi is:

T = 2rAv i2 2.2

or if the thrust is known,

 2rA =  2r
T w
vi = 2.3

Where w = T/A is termed the ‘disc loading’. vi is the ‘induced veloc-

ity’ or alternatively the ‘downwash’, using an analogy with aircraft
16 Basic Helicopter Aerodynamics

wing flow which becomes more obvious when the helicopter is in

forward flight (Chapter 5).
In practice the level of disc loading for a piston-engined helicopter
will normally be around 10 kG/m2. Piston engines are heavy and a
large rotor diameter must be used to minimize the engine size needed
for vertical lift; hence the disc loading is relatively low. The gas turbine
engine, used much the more extensively in modern helicopters, has a
higher power-to-weight ratio, so smaller rotors can be used, which in
turn lead to shorter fuselages, all this giving savings on weight, drag
and cost (though the engine itself is a more costly item). With gas
turbine engines, helicopter disc loadings are generally in the region of
30–40 kG/m2.
The work done on the air, represented by its change in kinetic
energy per unit time, is 12 (rAvi )v•2, which by Equation (2.1) is 2rAvi3
or simply, by Equation (2.2), Tvi. This is known as the induced power
of the rotor written as

Pi = Tvi = T 3 2  (2rA) 2.4

To non-dimensionalize the above relationships, we use as represen-

tative velocity the rotor tip speed WR, where W is the angular veloc-
ity and R the rotor radius. Then the coefficients are:
2
thrust: C T = T rA (WR )
3
power: C P = P rA (WR )

induced velocity: l i = vi WR

and the relationships of simple momentum theory for a rotor in hover

become

l i =  (C T 2) 2.5
C pi = lC T = C T3 2  2 2.6

More rigorous forms of the momentum theory can be developed

– see standard full length texts – to take account of swirl energy
in the wake, non-uniformity of the induced velocity and so on.
Generally the corrections emerging amount to a few per cent only
and are not always of the same sign. So for much performance work,
the simple momentum theory, combined with blade element theory
(Chapter 3) gives adequate results.
 Momentum Theory and Wake Analysis 17

When more exact rotor analyses are required, calculation of the

induced velocity involves assembling a realistic picture of the complex
pattern of vortices which in actuality exists in the flow below the rotor.
A short description of this approach by ‘vortex theory’ is contained
later in the present chapter.

2.2 Figure of merit

The induced power Pi is the major part of the total power absorbed
by a rotor in hover. A further power component is needed, however,
to overcome the aerodynamic drag of the blades: this is the profile
power Po, say. Since it is the induced power which relates to the useful
function of the rotor – that of producing lift – the ratio of induced
power to total power is a measure of rotor efficiency in the hover. This
ratio is called the figure of merit, commonly denoted by M. Using the
results of simple momentum theory, M may be variously expressed
as:

-1 -1
Pi Po Ê CP  2 ˆ
M= = ÊË1 + ˆ¯ = Á1 + o 3 2 ˜ 2.7
(Pi + Po ) Pi Ë CT ¯

CPo being the profile power coefficient Po/rA(WR)3. Now for a given
rotor blade the drag, and hence the profile power, may be expected
not to vary greatly with the level of thrust, provided the blade does
not stall nor experience high compressibility drag rise. Equation (2.7)
shows therefore that the value of M for a given rotor will generally
increase as CT increases. This feature means that care is needed in
using the figure of merit for comparative purposes. A designer may
have scope for producing a high value of M by selecting a low blade
area such that the blades operate at high lift coefficient approaching
the stall but he needs to be sure that the blade area is sufficient for
conditions away from hover, such as in high speed manoeuvre. Again,
a comparison of different blade designs – section shape, planform,
twist, etc, – for a given application must be made at constant thrust
coefficient.
A good figure of merit is around 0.75, the profile drag accounting
for about one quarter of total rotor power. We may note that for the
helicopter as a whole, some power is also required to drive the tail
rotor, to overcome transmission losses and to drive auxiliary compo-
nents: as a result the induced power in hover amounts to only 60–65%
of the total power absorbed.