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Conduction Heat Transfer

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Chapter 8
Conduction Heat Transfer

Thermodynamics, along with thermal hydraulic analysis, deals with the transfer of
heat to and from a working fluid and the performance of work by that fluid. Since
the transfer of heat to a working fluid is central to thermodynamics, a short
excursion into the technology of heat transfer is useful to tie thermodynamics to
real world devices. Heat transfer processes are never ideal and a study of the
technology of heat transfer will develop an understanding of the trade-offs in the
design of the devices that actually accomplish the heat transfer. Heat transfer
technology provides the basis on which heat exchangers are designed to accomplish
the actual transfer of thermal energy.

8.1 Introduction

Conduction occurs in stationary materials as a result of the vibrations of atoms or

molecules in the materials. It is governed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction,
which in one dimension is written as

∂T
Qx ¼ kA Btu=h or W ð8:1aÞ
∂x

or

Qx ∂T
qx ¼ ¼ k Btu=h=ft2 or W=m2 ð8:1bÞ
A ∂x

Simply stated the heat flow per unit area is proportional to the negative of the
temperature gradient. The proportionality constant is called the thermal conductiv-
ity, and it has units of Watts/meter/K or Btus/ft/ R. The thermal conductivities of
typical materials vary widely by material, and it also depends on the temperature of

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 307

B. Zohuri, Thermal-Hydraulic Analysis of Nuclear Reactors,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-53829-7_8

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308 8 Conduction Heat Transfer

the materials. Some typical values are given in the Appendices A, B, and C for
solids, liquids, and gases. There are different techniques available to solve the
energy equation for conduction heat transfer: shell balance, conformal mapping,
numerical methods, and graphical methods.
The more complete version of version of heat conduction equation can be
written as Eq. 8.1c, where α is the thermal diffusivity, k is the thermal conductivity,
and q_ is the heat flux.

q_ 1 ∂T
∇2 T þ ¼ ð8:1cÞ
k α ∂x

The term ∇2T  ∇  ∇T is called the Laplacian. In Cartesian coordinate system,

this is given as
   
b ∂ b∂ b∂ b ∂ b∂ b∂
∇  ∇T ¼ i þj þk  i þj þk ð8:1dÞ
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

or
2 2 2
∂ T ∂ T ∂ T
∇2 T ¼ þ þ ð8:1eÞ
∂x2 ∂y2 ∂z2

The Laplacian can also be expressed in cylindrical or spherical coordinates, and

they are listed in Appendix F.

8.2 Basic Heat Conduction Equations

Summary of all three coordinates (i.e., Rectangular, Cylindrical, and Spherical)

systems heat conduction equations in case of one-dimensional heat transfer is
presented here, by expanding on Eqs. 8.1a or 8.1b. We assume all the used
parameters to be described as follows:
cp ¼ specific heat of materials, J/(kg C)
g ¼ energy generation rate per unit volume, W/m3
q ¼ conduction heat flux in the given coordinate direction, W/m2
t ¼ time, s
k ¼ thermal conductivity of materials, where heat transferring through,
W/(m C)
ρ ¼ density of materials, kg/m3
1. Rectangular Coordinates:
The heat transfer area A does not vary with variable x; hence, it is taken as
constant and cancels. Then, Eqs. 8.1a or 8.1b reduces to

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8.2 Basic Heat Conduction Equations 309

 
∂ ∂T ðx; tÞ ∂T ðx; tÞ
k þ g ¼ ρcp ð8:2aÞ
∂x ∂x ∂x

which is the one-dimensional, time-dependent heat conduction relation in the

rectangular coordinate system.
2. Cylindrical Coordinates:
In cylindrical coordinates, we represent the variable x with radial variable r thus
Eq. 8.2a converts to a new form as
 
1 ∂ ∂T ðr; tÞ ∂T ðr; tÞ
rk þ g ¼ ρcp ð8:2bÞ
r ∂r ∂r ∂t

which is the one-dimensional, time-dependent heat conduction relation in the

cylindrical coordinate system.
3. Spherical Coordinates:
In spherical coordinates, we also represent the variable x with radial variable
r thus Eq. 8.2b converts a new form as
 
1 ∂ 2 ∂T ðr; tÞ ∂T ðr; tÞ
r k þ g ¼ ρcp ð8:2cÞ
r 2 ∂r ∂r ∂t

which is the one-dimensional, time-dependent heat conduction relation in the

spherical coordinate system.

8.2.1 A Compact Form of Basic Heat Conduction Equations

The compact version of Eq. 8.2 can be established using Rectangular, Cylindrical,
and Spherical coordinates systems for one-dimensional, time-dependent heat con-
duction as
 
1 ∂ n ∂T ∂T
r k þ g ¼ ρcp ð8:3Þ
r ∂r
n ∂r ∂t

where
8
< 0 for rectangular coordinates
n ¼ 1 for cylindrical coordinates
:
2 for spherical coordinates

and again remember in case of rectangular coordinate system the variable r should
be replaced by variable x as a customary procedure.

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310 8 Conduction Heat Transfer

8.2.2 Special Cases of Heat Conduction Equations

Several special cases of Eq. 8.3 are of practical interest in usage of thermal
hydraulic subject. For constant thermal conductivity k, Eq. 8.3 reduces to a simpli-
fied form as
 
1 ∂ n ∂T 1 1 ∂T
r þ g ¼ ð8:4aÞ
r n ∂r ∂r k α ∂t

where

k
α ¼ thermal diffusivity of material, m2 =s ð8:4bÞ
ρcp

For steady-state heat conduction with energy sources within the medium, Eq. 8.3
becomes
 
1 ∂ n ∂T
r k þg¼0 ð8:5aÞ
r n ∂r ∂r

and for the case of constant thermal conductivity, this result reduces to
 
1 ∂ n ∂T 1
r þ g¼0 ð8:5bÞ
r n ∂r ∂r k

For steady-state heat conduction with no energy sources within the medium,
Eq. 8.3, forms a more simplified version as
 
d n ∂T
r k ¼0 ð8:6aÞ
dr ∂r

and for constant k, this result reduces to

 
d n ∂T
r ¼0 ð8:6bÞ
dr ∂r

In all the equations from Eqs. 8.4 to 8.6, the exponent variable is defined as
before
8
< 0 for rectangular coordinates
n ¼ 1 for cylindrical coordinates
:
2 for spherical coordinates

And for rectangular coordinate again, Radial variable r is replaced by Cartesian

variable x.

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8.3 Heat Conduction in a Cylinder with a Uniform Heat Flux 311

8.3 Heat Conduction in a Cylinder with a Uniform

Heat Flux

This problem corresponds loosely to the generation of heat in a fuel rod in a nuclear
reactor. From the second law of thermodynamics we know that the heat flows
whenever there is a temperature difference, i.e., temperature gradient. The knowl-
edge of the temperature distribution is essential to evaluate the heat flow. The
temperature distribution and the heat flow constitute two basic elements in the
design of thermal equipments such as boilers, heat exchangers, and nuclear reactor
coresc. Since in nuclear reactors, under normal operating conditions, radiation heat
transfer has limited application, the present discussion will be mainly focused on
conduction and convection heat transfers.
Consider a cylinder with length L and outside radius r0, as shown in Fig. 8.1.
Look at a shell of thickness Δr and length L in the cylinder, and consider the various
components, which contribute to the heat transport, in the r ‐ direction

Flux of heat in across surface r ð2πrLqr Þjr ð8:7Þ

Flux of heat out across surface r þ Δr ð2πrLqr ÞjrþΔr ð8:8Þ
Rate of heat production in shell volume ð2πrΔrLÞðq00 Þ ð8:9Þ

Sum these contributions and set equal to zero. Divide by 2πΔrL and take the
limit

Fig. 8.1 Shell energy

balance for steady-state heat
transfer in a rod with
uniform heat generation

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312 8 Conduction Heat Transfer

 
ðrqr ÞjrþΔr þ ðrqr Þjr
lim ¼ q000 r ð8:10Þ
Δr!0 Δr

The left side is the definition of the first derivative, d(rqr)/dr. It can be integrated
easily to give

q000 r C1
qr ¼ þ ð8:11Þ
2 r

Two boundary conditions exist to be satisfied, symmetry (limited heat flux) at

r ¼ 0, and T ¼ T0 at r ¼ r0 (one could also specify a boundary condition on heat flux,
or the heat transfer coefficient). The symmetry boundary condition at r ¼ 0 gives
C1 ¼ 0.
Note what this Eq. 8.5 implies. If q 000 is constant, the heat flux in the tube varies
linearly from a maximum value at the wall to zero at the centerline.
Now substituting Fourier’s law for the heat flux term we get

dT q000 r
qr ¼ k ¼ ð8:12Þ
dr 2

If k and q 000 are constant, integration again gives

q000 r 2
T¼ þ C2 ð8:13Þ
4k

If the temperature is T0 at the wall, then C2 is determined and

"  2 #
q000 r 20 r
T  T0 ¼ 1 ð8:14Þ
4k r0

This is a parabolic temperature profile and can be sketched as shown in Fig. 8.2.
The maximum temperature occurs at the centerline, T max ¼ T 0 þ q000 r 20 =4k.

Fig. 8.2 Heat flux and

temperature distribution in a
rod with uniform heat
generation

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8.3 Heat Conduction in a Cylinder with a Uniform Heat Flux 313

8.3.1 Heat Conduction in a Cylinder with a Uniform Heat

Flux (with Cladding)

For the case where a cylinder with heat generation is surrounded by a cladding
material, as shown in Fig. 8.3, two additional boundary conditions are added at the
interface between the two materials

Tc ¼ T1 at r ¼ rc ð8:15Þ
dT f dT c
qf ¼ qc or kf ¼ kc at r ¼ r f ð8:16Þ
dr dr

The solution for the inner cylinder is already known. Now, it is desired to derive
the solution for the cladding materials.
The solution for the jacket comes from the differential equation developed above

d
ðrq Þ ¼ 0 ð8:17Þ
dr r

Fig. 8.3 Temperature

distribution in a rod with
uniform heat generation
with an outer jacket

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314 8 Conduction Heat Transfer

This implies that the product of the heat flux with radius is constant, and equal to
the heat flux at r ¼ rf, which is known from the above problem to be

q000 r 2f
rqr ¼ ð8:18Þ
2

so

dT c q000 r 2f
qr ¼ kc ¼ ð8:19Þ
dr 2r

which can be integrated to give

q000 r 2f
Tc ¼  ðln r þ CÞ ð8:20Þ
2kc

The temperature at the cladding outer surface is known to be Tco, so

q000 r 2f r c 
T c  T co ¼ ln ð8:21Þ
2kc r

Then, the temperature at the fuel/cladding interface is

 
q000 r 2f rc
T fo ¼ T co þ ln ð8:22Þ
2kc rf

and the maximum temperature is then (using r ¼ 0 in Eq. 8.13)

q000 r 2f
T max  T fo ¼ ð8:23Þ
4kf

or
  
q000 r 2f 1 1 rc
T max ¼ T co þ þ ln ð8:24Þ
2 2kf kc rf

8.4 Composite Walls: Summed Resistance

For layers of materials (no internal heat generation), the total heat transport can be
calculated using an analogy to electrical resistances. Consider, for example, a
layered cylinder per demonstration in Fig. 8.4.

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8.4 Composite Walls: Summed Resistance 315

Fig. 8.4 Heated rod with

multiple jackets

From Eqs. 8.18 and 8.19, we know that the heat transfer and temperature drop
across any layer are related, r0q0 ¼ r1q1 ¼ r2q2 ¼   
   
r 0 q0 r1 q0 r1
T2  T1 ¼ ln ¼ ln ð8:25Þ
k12 r2 2πLk12 r2

where q0 is the total heat transferred per unit length of the cylinder. We can write
similar equations for the other layers
 
q0 r2
T3  T2 ¼ ln ð8:26Þ
2πLk23 r3

etc. In addition, the heat transfer resistance at the inner and outer fluid/solid
interfaces can be expressed in terms of a heat transfer coefficient.

q000 ¼ hAΔT ¼ hi ð2πr 1 LÞðT 1  T fi Þ

ð8:27Þ
¼ ho ð2πr 4 LÞðT fo  T 4 Þ

All these expressions can be summed to eliminate the intermediate temperatures,

giving

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316 8 Conduction Heat Transfer

2πLðT fo  T fi Þ
q0 ¼   ð8:28Þ
1 ln ðr 2 =r 1 Þ ln ðr 3 =r 2 Þ ln ðr 4 =r 3 Þ 1
þ þ þ
r 1 hi k12 k23 k34 r 4 ho

This can be written in a convenient form

ðT fo  T fi Þ ðT fo  T fi Þ
q0 ¼ ¼ ð8:29Þ
ð R1 þ R 2 þ R3 þ R 4 þ R5 Þ RTotal

where we define resistance R in the form of

1 ln ðr 2 =r 1 Þ
R1 ¼ R2 ¼  ð8:30Þ
2πr 1 Lhi 2πLk12

In general, such conduction resistances can be combined in series and parallel

with the following addition rules:

1
RTotal ¼ RTotal ¼ R1 þ R2 þ R3 þ    ð8:31Þ
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl}
R1 þ R2 þ R3 þ   
1 1 1
|fflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl
ffl{zfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflfflffl} ðserialÞ

ðparallelÞ

8.5 Conduction in Complex Systems: Fuel Elements

In general, conduction problems are complicated by temperature and composition-

dependent thermal conductivities, in homogeneity from cracks, gaps, voids, and
changing crystal structures, and nonuniform heat generation. The transport of heat
in fuel elements is complicated by these entire phenomena. This section discusses
these issues.

8.5.1 Thermal Properties of Fuels

A variety of materials have been proposed and used as reactor fuels. Breeder
reactors have used PuO2 and UO2, and interest is renewing in metal fuels for fast
reactors. For thermal reactors, UO2 has shown satisfactory chemical and irradiation
tolerance, which overshadows the disadvantages of low thermal conductivity and
uranium atom density. Table 8.1 compares the oxide form of uranium to the metal,
carbide, and nitride forms. Because current and near-term reactors both use UO2,
discussion in this section focuses on the properties of that material.

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8.5 Conduction in Complex Systems: Fuel Elements 317

Table 8.1 Thermal properties of fuel materials [2, p. 296]

Property U UO2 UC UN
Theoretical density at room 19.04103 10.97103 13.63103 14.32103
temperature (kg/m3)
Metal densitya (kg/m3) 19.04103 9.67103 12.97103 1360103
Melting point ( C) 1133 2800 2390 2800
Stability range Up to Up to m.p. Up to m.p. Up to m.p.
665  Cb
Thermal conductivity ave. 32 3.6 23(UC1.1) 21
200–1000 C(W/m C)
Linear coefficient of expansion 10.1106 11.1106 9.4106
Tensile strength (MPa) 344–1380c 110 62 Not well
defined
a
Uranium metal density in the compound at its theoretical density
b
Addition of a small amount of Mo, Nb, Ti, or Zr extends stability up to the melting point
c
The higher values apply to cold-worked metal

The thermal conductivity of UO2 at 95% of theoretical density, the thermal

conductivity varies with temperature as [2, p. 301]

3824
k¼ þ 6:1256  1011 ðT Þ3 ð8:32Þ
402:4 þ T

where T is Kelvin and k in watts per meter and Kelvin (W/m K). The thermal
conductivity of UO2 also changes with porosity, oxygen to metal atom ratio, PuO2
content, cracking, and burnup.
Oxide fuel is manufactured by sintering pressed powdered UO2 or mixed oxides
at high temperature to create ceramic pellets. The pellets are deliberately
manufactured with 5–10% porosity to prevent pellet swelling from gaseous fission
product species. With a void fraction ϕ defined as the void volume divided by the
total volume, Kampf and Karsten [1] derived for negligible pore conductance a
relationship between the thermal conductivity with zero voids, kTD and with finite
void fraction, k,
 
k ¼ 1  ϕ2=3 kTD ð8:33Þ

The variation of the oxygen to metal ratio from the stoichiometric value of two
decreases the thermal conductivity of UO2. Likewise, the addition of PuO2 results
in a decrease in thermal conductivity of UO2.
The cracking of fuel pellets introduces additional thermal resistance and thus
decreases the effective thermal conductivity. Empirical relationships are available
for predicting the change in effective thermal conductivity as a function of the fuel/
cladding gap dimensions under cold and hot conditions [2, p. 303].
Fission gas release from the fuel is important, in that it degrades the relatively
high thermal conductivity of the helium used to pressurize the fuel pin. The fraction

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318 8 Conduction Heat Transfer

of gas released from the pellets increases with increased operating temperature. The
thermal conductivity of the gas mixture should be calculated using the Lindsay-
Bromley approach because a simple mole balance will under-predict the degrading
effect of the higher molecular weight fission gases.
The gap between the fuel and cladding introduces a significant thermal resis-
tance. It is normally accounted for using an effective heat transfer coefficient, added
in series as discussed in the previous section. For an open, non-contacting gap, the
effective heat transfer coefficient is given by
  4
kg 1 1 T s  T 4sc
hc ¼ þ σ þ 1 ð8:34Þ
δ εs εsc T s  T sc

where kg is the conductivity of the gas mixture, δ he gap thickness, σ the Stefan–
Boltzmann constant, εs and εsc the emissivity of the fuel and cladding surfaces, and
Ts and Tsc the surface temperatures of the fuel and cladding. Contact between the
fuel and cladding increases the effective heat transfer coefficient, with the coeffi-
cient increasing with increasing contact pressure.
For a contacting gap, Majumdar and Tien [3] have shown that the contact
conductance due to contact is related to the load F as h / FηD/2, where D is the
fractal dimension for the surface and η is a variable ranging from 1 to 1.33 as a
function of D. For machined surfaces, at small scales the fractal dimension takes on
the Brownian value of 1.5, while at larger length scales the fractal dimension is
larger due to the machining, approaching a value of 2.0. Due to the surface
roughness, only a fraction of the total surface area comes in contact with flow.
The gaps can then be viewed as creating a large number of parallel heat flow paths.
From experimental data, heat transfer measurements for machined surfaces were
found to be correlated with fractal dimensions varying from 1.7 to 1.99.
Under sustained operation at high power, the large temperature gradients cause
migration of material from the pellet center, condensing in and filling voids at the
outer radius. This results in void formation at the center of the pellets, and crystal
structure changes in the fuel. For regions with temperatures above 1500  C, the
average grain size increases due to equiaxed grain growth. For temperatures above
1700  C, columnar grains are formed in radial orientation within the fuel.

8.6 Other Problem in Heat Conduction

Heat conduction in fins: must set up energy balance, determine that [4, 5]

d2 T hP
¼ ðT  T 1 Þ ð8:35Þ
dz2 kA

where h is the heat transfer coefficient, A the fin area, and P the fin perimeter

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8.7 Problems 319

Transient heat conduction to a semi-infinite slab has the same solution as that for flow
near a wall suddenly set in motion. This step change problem was discussed in Chap. 5.
Solutions to the heat conduction equation (Laplace’s equation) can also be
solved by conformal mapping, such as Laplace Transformation or Fourier Trans-
formation depends on boundary or initial conditions, as was done for the potential
flow problem.

8.7 Problems

Problem 8.1: A Carnot heat engine produces 1 MW of power by transferring

energy between two reservoirs at 100 and 5  C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer
from the high temperature reservoir and the rate of heat transfer to the low
temperature reservoir.
Problem 8.2: An industrial plant wants to use hot groundwater from a hot spring to
power a heat engine. The maximum temperature of the ground water is 200  F,
and the average atmospheric temperature is 60  F. Assume that a supply of water
at 1.0 lbm/s is available. What is the maximum power that can be generated?
Problem 8.3: An industrial prospect claims that he can extract 50 kw power by
drawing 3000 kJ of heat per minute from a high temperature reservoir at 950  C
and dumping heat to a reservoir at 25  C. Is this device feasible?
Problem 8.4: A large, thin concrete slab of thickness L is “setting.” Setting is an
exothermic q_ W=m3 process that releases. The outside surfaces are kept at the
ambient temperature, so Tw ¼ T1. What is the maximum internal temperature?
Assume that the edges are insulated and that L was much smaller than the width
or height.
Problem 8.5: Use the solution of Problem 8.4, by putting it in neat dimensionless
form, then plot the result without having to know specific values of its parameters.
Play with the solution of Problem 8.4 by looking over and see what it has to tell
you. Verify in any way you can think of to be sure the solution for it is correct.
Problem 8.6: Write the heat conduction equation for one-dimensional, steady-state
heat flow in a solid having a constant k and a constant rate of energy generation
g0 W/m3 within medium for
(a) A slab
(b) A cylinder
(c) A sphere
Problem 8.7: Figure P8.7 is showing a slab, which is in steady state with dissimilar
temperatures on either sides or no internal heat generation. We want the tem-
perature distribution and the heat flux through it. Show that the solution is
analogues to Ohm’s Law in electricity. Then, plot the solution as well.

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320 8 Conduction Heat Transfer

Fig. P8.7 Heat conduction

in a simple slab

T1

T2

x
O L

Problem 8.8: Consider one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction in a hollow

cylinder with constant thermal conductivity in the region a  r  b. Heat is
generated in the cylinder at a rate of g0 W/m3, while heat is dissipated by
convection into fluid flowing inside and outside the cylindrical tube. Heat
transfer coefficients for the inside and outside fluids are ha and hb, respectively,
and temperature of the inside and outside fluids are Ta and Tb, respectively, as
well. Write the mathematical formulation of this heat conduction problem.
Problem 8.9: Write the mathematical formulation of one-dimensional, steady-state
heat conduction for a hollow sphere with constant thermal conductivity in the
region a  r  b, when heat is supplied to the sphere at a rate of q0 W/m2 from
the boundary surface at r ¼ a and dissipated by convection from the boundary
surface at r ¼ b into a medium at zero temperature with a heat transfer
coefficient h.
Problem 8.10: Find the temperature distribution and the heat flux for the long
hollow cylinder shown in Fig. P8.10. Assume that the boundary conditions are
all the same and a temperature specified at an outer edge, and there is no heat
source involved. Plot the solution as well. Furthermore, analyze the problem
when ri/ro  1.

Fig. P8.10 Heat transfer

through a cylinder with a
fixed wall temperature
Ti
ri

r
ro

To

Configuration

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 References 321

Problem 8.11: Using the results obtained as solution for the lateral part of Problem
8.4, we see that the heat flux falls off inversely with radius. That is reasonable
since the same heat flow must pass through an increasingly large surface as the
radius increases. Show if this is the case for a cylinder of length ‘.
Problem 8.12: The temperature of a gas changes from 17 to 487  C while the
pressure remains constant at 0.2 MPa. Compute the heat transfer and entropy
change if the gas is (a) air, (b) helium, or (c) carbon dioxide.
Problem 8.13: The fuel element of a pool type reactor is composed of a plate of
metallic uranium of thickness 2L1, placed in sandwich between two aluminum
plates (cladding) of thickness (L2  L1), This fuel element is illustrated in
Fig. P8.13. Heat energy, due to the fission of U235, is generated in the fuel
plate at a uniform rate q 000 . The fission energy deposited in the cladding plates is
negligible. The convection heat transfer coefficient and the temperature of the
fluid washing the fuel element are h and tf, respectively. Determine the temper-
ature distribution in the fuel element.

Fig. P8.13 Fuel element of

poll type reactor t

2L2
h 2L1 h

CLADDING FUEL
tf q''' tf

C x

References

1. H. Kampf, G. Karsten, Effects of different types of void volumes on the radial temperature
distribution of fuel pins. Nucl. Appl. Technol 9, 288 (1970)
2. N.E. Todreas, M.S. Kazimi, Nuclear Systems, vol I (CRC, Boca Raton, 1990)
3. A. Majumdar, C.L. Tien, Fractal network model for contact conductance. J Heat Transfer 113,
517–525 (1991)
4. B. Zohuri, P. McDaniel, Thermodynamics in nuclear power plant systems, 1st edn. (CRC, Boca
Raton, 2013)
5. B. Zohuri, Heat pipe design and technology: a practical approach (CRC, Boca Raton, 2011)

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