254
22 (2005) 254±260
Analysis of the Initial Slope of the Small-Angle Scattering
Correlation Function of a Particle
Wilfried Gille*, Alain Mazzolo**, Benoit Roesslinger**
(Received: 12 August 2003; in revised form: 20 December 2004; accepted: 8 July 2005)
DOI: 10.1002/ppsc.200500883
Abstract
The small-angle scattering correlation function of a par-
ticle c(r) results from scattering experiments. This func-
tion possesses a well-defined slope c¢(0) at the origin.
This slope is defined by the particle volume V and the
whole surface area S of the particle via c¢(0) = ±S/(4V).
In this paper it is demonstrated that this slope defines the
mean chord length of the particle, l ˆ 1=c¢…0† ˆ 4V=S.
This theorem involves non-convex particles, especially
the case of particles with hollow parts. Consequently, for
Keywords: Cauchy theorem, IUR chords, linear erosion, SAS correlation function, set covariance
1 Introduction
The volume and the surface area of a particle are basic
parameters in the field of particle characterization and
materials research. Hereby, the two-phase approxima-
tion is applied. For any single particle, V0 , S0 , the acro-
nym SP will be used. From small-angle scattering (SAS)
experiments the correlation function (CF) c0 …r† can be
obtained. From the first derivative c0 ¢…r†, the reciprocal
length c0 ¢…0† results. As early as in 1955 Guinier & Four-
net [1] demonstrated for any SP:
S0
c0 …r† ˆ 1
r ‡ ::.
4V0
A detailed study of the first 15 pages of that textbook
(see pages 13±15 and figure 4 in [11]) makes clear that
Eq. (1) holds true for convex and non-convex SPs
* Dr. W. Gille, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg,
Department of Physics, SAS-Laboratory, Hoher Weg 8, 06120
Halle (Germany).
E-Mail: gille@physik.uni-halle.de
** Dr. A. Mazzolo, Dr. B. Roesslinger, CEA-Centre d'Etudes de
Saclay, DEN/DM2S/SERMA/LEPP, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette
(France).
http://www.ppsc.com
Part. Part. Syst. Charact.
a large class of particle shapes the mean chord length is
defined in terms of V and S.
This extension of the Cauchy theorem is developed by
closer analysis of the set covariance C(r), of the small-
angle scattering correlation function c(r), and of the so-
called linear erosion P(r) near the origin r®0. The cases
of a single hollow sphere, of two touching spheres, and
of the single hollow cylinder are discussed.
assuming a limited number of hollow parts and a suffi-
ciently smooth surface area of the particle. In this light,
Eq. (1) is a fundamental approximation, proved in a
sequence of theoretical papers [2,3] and applied for par-
ticle characterization in practice.
During the last 50 years, more coefficients of Eq. (1) have
been analyzed. The existence of a quadratic coefficient
reflects the existence of edges and tips. The third coeffi-
cient is fixed by the surface curvature of the SP. For a sin-
gle sphere of diameter d, c0 …r† ˆ 1 3r=…2d† ‡ r3 =…2d3 †;
(0 £ r £ d), is obtained. The spherical SP is described by
two coefficients. Many extensions of Eq. (1) have been
(1) performed. Coefficients have been fixed for special parti-
cle shapes and for general cases. There is a large list of
publications on this subject [4±9]. In 1995 Ciccariello [4]
published general formulas for all coefficients by use of
formulas of integral geometry.
This paper will deal exclusively with the reciprocal
length S0 =…4V0 †, see Eq. (1), a linear coefficient which is
absolute for any particle shape, for convex and non-con-
vex SPs. What is the geometric meaning of the ratio
4V0 =S0 , or more generally 4V/S, for non-convex parti-
cles? Obviously, there is a connection with the chord
length distribution of the particle.
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Part. Part. Syst. Charact. 22 (2005) 254±260 255

1.1 Convex and Non-Convex Single Particles and their
Chord Length Distributions
Chord length distributions are fingerprints of the parti-
cle shape. A convex SP possesses a specific chord length
distribution density (CLD) Al …l†. Let l0 be the first mo-
ment of the function Al …l†, belonging to a convex SP
with largest diameter L. Then, see [3, 9, 10]:
ZL
4V0 1
l
Al …l†dl ˆ l0 ˆ ˆ .
S0 c0 ¢…0†
0 SPs (Appendix B).
Based on first geometric principles, Al -functions have
been analytically determined for basic particle shapes.
For a single sphere Al …l† is a linear function for all chord
lengths l, Al …l† ˆ 2l=d2 ; (0 £ l < d). According to Eq. (2),
the first moment is l ˆ 2d=3.
Eq. (2) fully describes the case of a convex SP. Does it
hold true for non-convex particles too? To find the an-
swer, it is advantageous to consider two different struc-
ture elements (Figure 1), see part III of the textbook by
Serra (1982) [11]. A convex and a non-convex SP, pos-
sessing the same basic shape, are considered in Figure 1.
The structure element B1 of the linear erosion P(l) is a
line of length l, but the structure element B2 of the SAS
correlation function c(r) is given by two points P1, P2, se-
parated by a distance r. In order to emphasize the differ-
ence between a line of length l and two points separated
by a distance r, it is useful to write P(l) and c(r), respec-
tively. Furthermore, in stochastic geometry, usually the
symbol h instead of r is used. Here, the set covariance
(see next section) is denoted by C(h).
For non-convex SPs or for spatial arrangements of a cer-
tain number of SPs, analytic results for CLD functions
and their first moments are rare. Only a few elementary
limiting cases of non-convex SPs have been analyzed,
see for example Appendices A, D, E. Obviously, a non-
(2) convex SP can be constructed from two touching convex
1.2 Correlation Function and Set Covariance in the
Isotropic Case
As described in the introduction section above, an ar-
rangement of SPs is investigated. Instead of the notation
ªparticleº, the word compact set (which can be convex
or non-convex) is common in stochastic geometry. The
structure element of the set covariance (see page 271 in
Serra [11]) is a pair of two points {P1, P2} separated by a
fixed distance h. If one of these points is located in the
particle phase with the probability c and then sweeps
through the particle, then the other one can be outside
or inside the particle phase. The function C(h) is the
geometric probability for the latter particle
for the inside case. For a certain arrange-
ment of many SPs possessing a volume frac-
tion c, the function C(h) possesses the prop-
erty C(0) = c. It is connected with the SAS
correlation function c:

C…r† c2
c…r† ˆ , …0 £ r < Lr , 0 £ c < 1† : (3)
c
…1 c†

Both functions, c(r) and C(r), are analyzed

for typical distances of a fixed range order
Lc , r < Lc . The specialization of Eq. (3) to
one SP can be performed. Applying c®0,
Fig. 1: Four cases to explain the concept of the functions c and P, common pro- then c…r†®c0 …r† follows. The single particle
perties and differences. SAS correlation function c0 …r† agrees with
A relatively smooth particle possessing a limited perimeter (a well defined finite the isotropized set covariance C0 …r† for a
surface area S) is analyzed for a fixed direction angle a. The analysis of IUR SP, C0 …r† º c0 …r†. From Eq. (3):
chords requires averaging over all direction angles.
A: For a convex particle (compact convex set) c º P.
C…r† c2 c c2
B: What happens in the intermediate space between P1 and P2: If the structure c0 …0† ˆ lim ˆ lim ˆ 1: (4)
element (both the points P1 and P2) belongs to the particle, a contribution to c c®0 c
…1 c† c®0 c
…1 c†
results.
C: Two assumed positions of the structure element B1 for the non-convex parti- Holding true both for convex and non-con-
cle. The right-hand side B1 position is ªnot allowedº, because B1 is not inside the vex particles, Eqs. (3) and (4) demonstrate
particle. This position does not yield a contribution to the function P. The left- that C and c are equivalent functions. Oper-
hand side B1 position ªis allowedº and contributes to the function P.
D: The smoother the surface area of the particle and the smaller the distance
ating with Eq. (3), theorems proved for the
between P1 and P2, the smaller the probability of a ªnot allowed caseº of the B1 set covariance function C(r) can be trans-
position. If l®0, r®0, the different behavior of the functions c and P disappears. formed to c(r).

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256 Part. Part. Syst. Charact. 22 (2005) 254±260

2 Linear Erosion P(l) and Linear Size Distribution c0 ¢…0† is defined by Eq. (1). For any SP lim P¢…r†=P…0†
r®0
Density f(l) ˆ c0 ¢…0† and:
P¢…0† 1
The defining part of this article starts with the analysis of ˆ c0 ¢…0† ˆ l0 . (9)
P…0†
the so-called linear erosion P(l), which is another tool of
stochastic geometry. Here, the structure element is a line The final result for any SP is l ˆ l0 ˆ 4V0 =S0.
B1={P1P2} of length l, (see Figure 1 and Serra's textbook Furthermore, SPs which possess a CF c0 …r† and are ar-
[11] on pages 323±326). Let one end point, say point P1, ranged in space at fixed positions can be described by
be located in the particle phase with the probability c. If, Eq. (8) too, see the next section.
the point P1 sweeps through the particle, then B1 will be
partly outside the particle or completely inside the parti-
cle. The function P(l) is the geometric probability for the 3 From Fixed Particle Cases to Particle
latter. As a line of length l®0 does not differ from a sin- Arrangements
gle point, P(0) = c in the general case, and P(0) = 1 for a
SP. In the limiting case r®0 (Figure 1D): 3.1 Fixed Isotropic Arrangements of N SPs
c…r† C…r† C…r† P…r† P…r†
c…r† ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ; …r®0† (5) Eqs. (8) and (9) can be applied for tightly packed arrange-
c…0† C…0† c P…0† c
ments of hard, non-touching SPs. The so-called Dead
is obtained. In the isotropic case these procedures in- Leaves model (DLm) is a typical case [11]. For sufficiently
clude an IUR averaging process for all directions of B1 small r, for this type of model c…r† ˆ …c0 …r† c†=…1 c†, if
in space. 0 £ r < r min , see [12]. Consequently, c¢…0† ˆ c0 ¢…0†=…1 c†,
Operating with the structure element B1 the so-called which can be substituted into the Taylor series Eq. (8). For
linear size distribution f results: N = 1,2,3,... non-touching SPs, c¢(0) does not depend on the
spatial position of the SPs. The factor 1/(1±c) reflects the
P²…l† P²…l†=P…0†
f …l† ˆ ˆ ; …0 £ l £ Lc † . (6) particle number. For spherical primary grains of constant
jP¢…0†j jP¢…0†j=P…0†
size in the DLm c = 1/8 results. The limiting case c®1 is not
Just as Al …r†, the function f(l) does not depend on c. considered, as it contradicts the isotropy assumed for the
Furthermore, Eq. (6) and the functions P, P¢, P² and f arrangement of the SPs. Furthermore, c®1 requires a
can be applied to non-convex particles. Based on Eq. (6), touching of the SPs.
the mean chord length l, defined by the first moment of
the linear size distribution f(r), see Eq. (X-15) in [11], is
obtained: 3.2 Isolated SPs, Touching SPs and Non-convex SPs
ZL ZL
l ˆ P²…l† P…0† The situation for a fixed limited number N of SPs, for ex-
l
f …l†dl ˆ l
dl ˆ . (7)
jP¢…0†j jP¢…0†j ample N = 2, is described in Figure 2: Let SP1 and SP2 be
0 0
two SPs in a fixed arrangement with each other (volumes
According to Eq. (7), the behavior of P(l) at the origin V1 , V2 , surface areas S1, S2 , and mean chord lengths l1,
defines l. The length l is defined in terms of the para- l2 ). Then, the mean chord length is (Figure 2A):
meters P(0) and P¢(0), whereas for any single particle
4V1 4V2
P(0) = 1. Furthermore, taking into account Eq. (5), l1 ‡ S2
l2 S1
S ‡ S2
S
S
4
…V1 ‡ V2 † 4
V
Eq. (7) fixes l based on the common features of the l ˆ 1
ˆ 1 2
ˆ ˆ .
S1 ‡ S2 S1 ‡ S2 S1 ‡ S2 S
functions P, c, C at the origin. Finally, the Taylor series
of c(r) and P(r) at the origin will be considered, applying (10)
c(r) = P(r)/P(0) and l ˆ P…0†=jP¢…0†j, see Eqs. (5) and
(7). The derivatives P¢(0) or c¢(0) define the coefficients For hard touching SPs, for example two touching ellip-
of the linear terms: soids (Figure 2B):
P…r†
ˆ1‡
P¢…0†

r ‡ ::: l ˆ 4
…V1 ‡ V2 † . (11)
P…0† P…0† (8) S1 ‡ S2

c…r† ˆ 1 ‡ c¢…0†
r ‡ ::: .
If the considered r-region near the origin is sufficiently
small, the functions c(r) and P(r)/P(0) are identical.
From Eq. (8) P¢(0)/P(0) = c¢(0). The linear coefficient
Finally, Figure 2C relates to the limiting case of one parti-
cle. There is one length l, defined by l ˆ 4
V=S. Here,
the basic situation is very similar to that in Figure 2B. The
linear erosion P(l) exclusively ªfeelsº chords inside the
particle(s). Hereby, each chord length is taken for itself.

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Part. Part. Syst. Charact. 22 (2005) 254±260 257

IUR IUR IUR These results can be extrapolated to the two-

A B C dimensional case.

V2
S2 V2
S2 Appendix A: The Linear Erosion,
V S
A One-dimensional Example
V1 V1
S1 S1
The definition of a function T(x) inside and
outside an x-interval, a £ x £ b, is marked by
N=2 N=1 or N=2 N=1 the abbreviation:
b
Fig. 2: Three basic limiting cases for a non-convex particle in the subfigures
T…x† j ˆ T…x†; if a £ x £ b, else 0 . (13)
A, B, C: a
A: Two separated SPs can be considered as one non-convex particle.
B: Two touching SPs, limiting case for one non-convex particle. The linear erosion of a single line of length L,
C: A typical non-convex SP. P(l,L), agrees with the SAS correlation func-
tion c(r,L):
x L
P…x; L† º c…x; L† ˆ …1 †j : (14)
L 0

Chord lengths in the intermediate space between the Eq. (14) applies the interval symbol defined in Eq. (13).
SPs (intersect lengths or distances between the particles) Now, a non-convex object along one direction is consid-
are considered in Appendix C. The particle to particle ered: Two lines of lengths L1 and L2, respectively, sepa-
chord length m depends on the spatial arrangement of rated by a gap. The function P(x) is:
the SPs. Information about the pair correlation between  L  L
the SPs is required in order to analyze the distribution L1 x 1 L2 x 2
P…x; L1 ; L2 † ˆ
1 j‡
1 j :
law of m chords. L1 ‡ L2 L1 0 L1 ‡ L2 L2 0

(15)

4 Conclusion and Summary Eq. (15) yields P¢…0† ˆ 2=…L1 ‡ L2 †. The linear size
distribution F…x; L1 ; L2 †:
Summarizing the results of Serra [11] and Guinier [1], then
P¢…x†
F…x; L1 ; L2 † ˆ 1
l0 ˆ 4V0 ˆ 1 ˆ P…0† . (12) P¢…0†
S0 jc0 ¢…0†j jP¢…0†j
1
For a single particle P(0) = 1. Eq. (12), the result of this ˆ1  
2 (16)
paper, defines the mean chord length of a three-dimen- L1 ‡ L2
sional geometric figure without performing any analysis  
of the specific CLD of the particle. The mean chord L1 1 L1 L2 1 L2


… †j‡
… †j ;
length (for IUR chords) of a convex or non-convex par- L1 ‡ L2 L1 0 L1 ‡ L2 L2 0
ticle is defined in terms of the whole particle volume
results. The chord length distribution density f(x) of the
and the whole surface area.
non-convex object follows from f(x) = F¢(x):
For r = 0 there is no difference between inside chords and
outside chords of the non-convex SP. However, for larger P²…x†
f …x† ˆ
chords, e < r < L, the different structure elements of the P¢…0†
covariance (SAS correlation function) and of the linear  
1 1 1
erosion lead to different functions P, C, and c. Then, the ˆ  
d…x L1 † ‡ d…x L2 †
2 L1 ‡ L2 L1 ‡ L2
connection between c and P depends on the particle L1 ‡ L2
shape. For any non-convex SP the function 4V/S´c²(l) does
not represent a distribution density of a random chord 1
ˆ
…d…x L1 † ‡ d…x L 2 †† : (17)
length variable l. In the non-convex case the CLD is de- 2
fined by the second derivative of the linear erosion via
f(l) = 4V/S´P²(l). Then, the connection between the func-
tions P, c, and C has to include a transformation, which The first moment of f(x) is l ˆ …L1 ‡ L2 †=2. For an ex-
depends on the specific shape of the non-convex SP. ample of a special case, L1 ˆ 3, L2 ˆ 1, see Figure 3.

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258 Part. Part. Syst. Charact. 22 (2005) 254±260

1 Appendix C: Randomly Arranged and Arbitrarily

Shaped SPs
0.8

0.6 Porod [3] considered a special case: For so-called

P (x)

tightly packed, randomly arranged and arbitrarily

0.4
shaped SPs:
0.2
1 1 S
c¢…0† ˆ  ‡ ˆ : (19)
0 l m 4V
c
…1 c†
0 1 2 3 4
x Here, c is the volume fraction of the non-connected par-
ticle region and S is the whole surface area of all parti-
1 cles. In fact, l and m
 are the first moments of the CLDs
of the non-connected and the connected space region
0.8
[3]. Eq. (19) can be verified analytically for special spa-
0.6 tial arrangements of identical SPs, possessing a volume
F (x)

V0 and a surface area S0 . This has been studied in

0.4
greater detail for a DLm with spherical primary grains,
0.2 where c = 1/8, l ˆ 2d=3, m ˆ 14d=3, c¢…0† ˆ 12=…7d†.
In the limiting case c®0, m®¥,  Eq. (19) yields
0 c
V®V0 , S®S0 . Consequently, c¢…0†®c0 ¢…0†, and
0 1 2 3 4
x Eq. (19) simplifies to Eqs. (2) and (9). Here, the same
question as already raised in the introduction results:
Fig. 3: Linear erosion P(x) and linear size distribution F(x) for two Does the ªsimplificationº of Eq. (19) hold true for each
non-touching lines of lengths L1 ˆ 3 and L2 ˆ 1. The first moment
l equals 2, l ˆ …L ‡ L2 †=2. The intermediate distance between the hard particle shape including the non-convex case?
1
lines does not influence this result. However, for touching lines, Eq. (19) has been derived under the assumption of ran-
the result abruptly changes. domly shaped particles, see Guinier and Fournet [1].
Consequently, the step from Eq. (19) to Eqs. (2) and (1)
is a verification, but no mathematical proof.

Appendix B: One Non-convex SP as the Limiting

Case of Two Touching Convex SPs Appendix D: Hollow Spheres
The first step is the determination of c¢(0). For any ar- For a hollow sphere of diameter da with a central hole of
rangement of hard SPs, possessing a mean CF c0 …r†, the diameter di the CF near the origin is given by the ex-
function c(r) near the origin is c0 …r†. If two identical SPs pression:
touch each other, like two touching spheres or two
touching infinitely long cylinders, c¢…0† ˆ c0 ¢…0† holds 3…d2a ‡ d2i †
r r3
c…r; di ; da † ˆ 1 ‡ 3 ; …di < da † : (20)
true. In greater detail, for two spheres with diameters 2…da di †
3 3
da d3i
0 < d1 ; d2 < ¥: The term ±c¢(0), see Eq. (20), is in agreement R L with the
Cauchy theorem. The first moment, l ˆ 0 l
A…l†dl ˆ
3…d21 ‡ d22 † 2d1
d2 2…da 3 d3i †=…3…d2a ‡ d2i ††, agrees with l ˆ 4V=S. In the
c¢…0† ˆ , c²…0† ˆ 2
: (18)
2…d31 ‡ d32 † …d1 ‡ d2 † …d21 d1
d2 ‡ d22 † case considered in Figure 4, l ˆ 14=15, but l®0 is ob-
tained in the limiting case da ®di. Additionally, the pro-
Eq. (18) results from the analysis of the overlapping vo- file of the function c² of the hollow sphere (c² does not
lume of the spheres with the r-translated spheres. Conse- represent a chord length distribution density of one ran-
quently, for d1 ˆ d2 ˆ d, c¢…0† ˆ c0 ¢…0† ˆ 3=…2d† ˆ dom variable [14]) has been investigated in more detail,
1=l0 . On the other hand, for two touching infinitely long see the Mathematica program and Figure 2 in [15]. The
cylinders of equal diameter d, c¢…0† ˆ c0 ¢…0† ˆ 1=l ˆ 1 length l does not depend on the position of the hollow
=l0 ˆ 1=d. part inside the sphere.

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Part. Part. Syst. Charact. 22 (2005) 254±260 259

3.5
3.5
3
3

2.5 2.5

A (I)
2
A (I)

1.5 1.5

1 1

0.5
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
l
l

Fig. 4: Chord length distribution density of a hollow sphere of
diameter da ˆ 2 possessing a spherical central void of diameter
di ˆ 1.
For sufficiently small r, the function c(r) is exactly given by
Eq. (20). The initial slope can be detected by a plot of the CF.
Fig. 5: Chord length distribution density of an infinitely long circu-
lar hollow cylinder: outer diameter da ˆ 2, inner diameter di ˆ 1.
For sufficiently small r, the function c(r) can be approximated by
the first terms of the series Eq. (16). The initial slope 1=…da di †
can be detected by a plot of the CF.

Appendix E: Hollow Cylinders B2 structure element of the set covariance C(r)

and of the SAS correlation function c(r),
Another three-dimensional non-convex figure is the in- defined by two points, which are separated
finitely long circular hollow cylinder, Gille (1999) [13]. by a fixed distance r
Here, the Taylor series of the CF in the origin is: c volume fraction of particles, 0 £ c < 1
C(r) set covariance, averaged over all directions
r r3 in the isotropic case, C(0) = c
c…r; di ; da † ˆ 1
da di 8da …da di †di C0 …r† set covariance of a SP, C0 …0† ˆ 1
…d
2
di
da ‡ d †
r
2 5 d, di , da diameter of a sphere; inner and outer dia-
a i
‡ ::: ‡ :::; meter of a hollow sphere and hollow cylinder
64d3a …da di †d3i
di , da diameter of a sphere
…di < da † : (21) F(l) linear size distribution, F¢(l) = f(l)
f(l), l chord length distribution density (CLD) for
The mean chord length for IUR chords is l ˆ da di. isotropic uniform random (IUR) chords of
The distribution density Al …r; di ; da † is analyzed in a particle including the non-convex case; l is
Figure 5. The first moment is in agreement with the first moment of f(l)
l, m chord length inside and outside a particle
l ˆ 4V=S ˆ 4
…p
d2 =4 p
d2i =4†=…p
da ‡ p
di † ˆ da di .
a L largest diameter of a SP
Lc the selected range order, for example
This can also be obtained from the linear term of Lc ˆ 100 nm
Eq. (21). If da ˆ di, then l ˆ 0. m mean chord length outside a particle, inside
The spike, typical of these particle shapes with parallel the connected particle phase
interfaces, (Figures 4 and 5), can be traced back to the N particle number, N = 1,2,3 ...
height of the ªshellº,r ˆ …da di †=2. P(l,a), P(l) linear erosion in direction a and in the iso-
tropic case; the spatial averaging has to in-
volve two direction angles
5 Nomenclature r, l, x distance in real space
r min b minimum diameter of a single particle
Al …l†, l0 chord length distribution density (CLD) for T…x† j limitation of the term T(x) to a certain
a
isotropic uniform random (IUR) chords b
interval, T…x† j ˆ T…x†, if a £ x £ b, else 0
(l-chords) of a convex particle and the first a
moment V, S particle volume and surface area of particle
B1 structure element of the linear erosion P(l), V0 ,S0 single particle volume and surface area
defined by a straight line of fixed length l

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260 Part. Part. Syst. Charact. 22 (2005) 254±260

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