Chapter One: Literature Review

Introduction
When dealing with the English language, English language learning in relation to
different contexts and a particular category of learner. One ought to tackle the status of
the language worldwide, mention what status the language sustains in the countries
he/she is interested in, how does the targeted category of learner acquire, learn and
perceive English in their country’s state education while stating the overall goals and
objectives behind the teaching and learning of the language in the first place.

The first section of chapter one answers all of the aforementioned points
thematically, critically thanks to background information gathered through a
documented literature review of various constructs related to each of the featured
themes.

The second section of chapter one exposes a contrastive point of view in regards to
the ideal starting age for foreign language learning as well as the challenges and causes
of failure in many countries that sought to implement foreign language learning in the
curriculum of primary school.

An extra part includes our own perspective concerning how we perceive early
foreign language learning while emphasizing on the English language in the Algerian
context.

1.1. Section 1
1.1.1. English as a Global Lingua Franca
We live in a world of interlocutor diversity, a world where the English language
has achieved prime status by becoming the most widely spoken language in the world.
That is, of course, if one disregards proficiency. Widening the gap and ahead of
Mandarin, Chinese and Spanish, the language is spoken in over 101 countries, while
Arabic is spoken in 60, French in 51, Chinese in 33, and Spanish in 31. From one
small island, and a simple dialect little used among in Southern England, English has
gone on to acquire the Lingua Franca status in international business, worldwide
diplomacy, and science; therefore, becoming the most commonly used medium of
communication in the world: “major world language.” (Broughton, G. 2013).
 A Lingua Franca is a vehicular language spoken by people who do not share a
native language (Mauranen, 2003); and English has undoubtedly become the lingua
franca of interaction and the language for international communication nowadays. It is
a language spoken worldwide by different native and non-native communities with
different varieties. The infatuation around the usage of this particular language is a
matter of modernity and necessity or need. In fact, the key tool that connects the globe
is none other than language, and language is processed through communication. And
as such, in order to promote mobility, trade, cooperation, and interaction between
nations/countries, this is where English as an international language comes to
concretize the aforementioned actions.

As of now and of the 4000 to 5000 living languages, English is by far the most
widely used as a mother tongue, it is the first language of several individuals estimated
at 300 million around the globe (Smith, 1981). A distinctive aspect about it is the very
large number of non-native speakers who learn it either as a first or second foreign
language. The difference between the two lies in how people make use of it. What
makes it special and apart from other languages is that barriers of race, color and creed
do not come as hindrance to the ongoing and continuing spread of the use of English
around the globe. Indeed, it has been extensively accepted that English has become the
language of international communication as it is used by billions of native and non-
native speakers to communicate with each other.

Besides, EFL learners find it a necessity to learn to communicate in this language

with people from different backgrounds and for different purposes. Speaking of which,
since English has proven its usefulness and importance in promoting tourism, studies
abroad, international business, entertainment, scientific and technical research as well
as politics, learners view this language as a crucial means to walk on the path of
employment and international job perspectives. If we also open up a parenthesis
regarding the literary status of the language then the least that could be said is that
most of the world literatures are first published in English and readily available nearly
in all of the world libraries. What that means is that it makes the literature accessible
both to readers and writers. Moreover, it is much more equipped than any other
language to handle the technical and specific concepts and terms of modern sciences
and technologies. The simplest example of its usage worldwide is represented through
international aviation.

1.1.2. Intelligibility
“The ultimate objective of language learning is communicative competence i.e.
appropriate, meaningful, spontaneous, grammatically acceptable and reasonably
fluent linguistic interchange, both orally and writing” (Inspectorate of English:
p3/1984)

The spreading of English worldwide and the teaching of the latter in numerous
nonnative communities resulted with the appearance of a phenomenon labeled as the
‘De Anglicizing’ or ‘Denationalized English’ (see Jenkins, 2000). Intelligibility is a
key concept within the ELT domain and one of the ultimate goals that English
language teachers strive to transmit and promote among learners of English, but one
should first provide a synthesized definition of the concept, so what is intelligibility in
relation to English?

A general definition of what an “intelligible” person represents is one who is clear,

comprehensible, accurate and capable of being understood when using English. Thus,
intelligibility is defined as the quality of English that is comprehensible. However, in
an ELF ‘English as a Lingua Franca’ communication context, intelligibility is a notion
that has been employed in judging the degree of understanding of speakers’ speech
(Munro & Derwing, 1999; Bent & Bradlow, 2003). It is defined as the extent to which
an utterance is understood and recognized by a listener, an act measured by how
accurately a listener transcribes speakers’ utterance according to Derwing & Munro
(1997, 2005). And the increases in the number of English users in the world and
growing acceptance of indigenized varieties of English have given rise to concerns that
speakers of different English dialects will cease being intelligible to each other
resulting with failures in communication, especially in cross encounters (see Matsuura,
2007).

1.1.2.1. Intelligibility and the Algerian Context

 As with any non-native English-speaking country, where English is taught as a
foreign language, the goal in these modern times behind the teaching of English in
Algeria is to ensure that Algerians manage to engage and sustain meaningful
conversations. In a nutshell, ‘Mutual Understanding’ (see Jenkins, 2000) as the
targeted aspect of intelligibility is also emphasized in Algeria’s ELT goals. Learners
involved with English language classes at different levels are expected to use the
language in different contextual situations while being confronted to speakers coming
from any part of the world.

In Algeria, foreign language learners are not required to develop native-like

proficiency in terms of pronunciation which encompasses replicating how natives
pronounce/utter letters or even gesticulate during their speech. The idea is rather to
teach an internationally recognized model/framework English and to put it in a simpler
way, an English that is unambiguous, clear, accessible and which meets international
standards in terms of requirements for degrees’ obtention, universities’ requirements
as well as employment perspectives.

1.1.3. Foreign Language Learning in Algeria

In the current state of Algeria, “It is hoped that the spread of English, a language
many Algerians seem to favor, could promote sociolinguistic peace and contribute to
socioeconomic development.” (Belmihoub,2015). Nevertheless, in a country where
revamped educational reforms that emphasizes on promoting language learning with a
standardization of English are much needed to this day in order to be able to keep up
with globalization and modernism.

The post-colonial and independent Algeria knew a governmental back-pedaling

that lasted for decades. It resulted with an observed recession that targeted many
societal domains like economy, politics, culture, and even education. Back then,
learners had paid and are still paying the price which led to the drastic increase of the
rate of immigration between the 90s and early 2000 towards better opportunities in
terms of quality of education and employment perspectives, and of course, life
conditions.
 Nowadays, foreign language learning is highlighted and implemented within the
educational curricula of many countries. Some consider this implementation as an
important footstep to bring socioeconomic and sociolinguistic prosperity along other
greater visionary goals. As an example, the European Union started to prioritize early
foreign language learning seeking to promote the initiative nationwide. “Such
commitment to language learning is driven by an educational policy that highlights
life-long learning” (see Nikole, 2013).

The current sociolinguistic state in Algeria’s civil society characterized by a spirit

of activism has observed a gradual change of negative attitudes toward foreign
language teaching. One of the factors behind this change is that some individuals and
influencers through the media (social platforms, radio, television and other medium of
communication) critically advocate for multilingual users to wield and adopt a mindset
of respect for different forms of linguistic expression. In other words, they promote
freedom of speech using any dialect, local or foreign language in society. The latter
has been a targeted ideology that highlights sociolinguistic diversity. Also, this same
power of activism led by the local civil society, supported by English teachers initiated
a positive change in attitudes towards foreign languages.

Foreign Language learning is not something new of freshly exposed to the

Algerian learner. In fact, official education systems in Algeria begun by the French
colonialists who forced school-going Algerian children to learn the foreign languages.
Afterwards, the schooling system underwent major reforms, with more schools being
built and education being accessible to the population.

1.1.4. Language Acquisition and Language Learning

Both of the terms ‘acquisition’ and ‘learning’ were in the past used
interchangeably and believed to hold the same meaning. It was as such until linguists
and pioneers in the field of cognition and language development namely Chomsky,
McNeil and Krashen came to enlighten the distinction between both terms.

According to Krashen (1988), there is an important distinction between language

acquisition and language learning. He states that “Language acquisition does not
require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious
drill. Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language – natural
communication – in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their
utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding.”

On the one hand, from a cognitive standpoint, language acquisition is based on the
neuro-psychological processes (see Maslo, 2007). ‘Acquisition’, which is a term
opposed to ‘learning’, is a subconscious process (see Kramina, 2000). It can mostly be
associated with enfants/children at the early stages of linguistic development, it
involves an involuntary processing of utterances that are at first noticed/heard and
retained from the surrounding environment and then uttered by the hearer himself.

Furthermore, Vygotsky (2002) points out that the development of the native
language begins with free, spontaneous use of speech. Indeed, while the process of
acquisition occurs naturally, scientific studies have proven that children tend to pick
up their native language just by being around other people, mainly their families at
first. Then, they start mastering it through the countless expressed and repeated
‘decontextualized and incorrect’ words that children make (see Vygotsky, 2002).

On the other hand, language learning, in relation to second or foreign language

learning, is an intentional, conscious and even purposeful process of grasping
linguistic patterns and utterances. It is also the product of either formal learning
situation or a self-study program (see Kramina, 2000). The extent of natural processing
of what is heard is drastically reduced when speaking of language learning, because
the exposure to the target language is no longer a matter of immersion which is one of
the main aspects distinguishing both acquisition and learning.

Furthermore, language learning is generally considered to be a slower process than

language acquisition due to the simple fact that language learning is a structured
learning of a language. This is the process that most people follow when trying to learn
another language. Contrastively, children acquire their mother tongue from non-
contextualized environment, where cognitive and mental capacities are not consciously
involved.

1.1.4.1. Language Acquisition/Learning and the Algerian Context

When it comes to the Algerian context, the mother tongue that young Algerian
children mostly acquire is unquestionably the Arabic language. Nonetheless, in
plurilingual Algeria, various dialects and varieties of Arabic have become regional
mother tongues, such as Berber, Darja, Chaouia and so on. Formal and academic
Arabic is less present in society. At school, children are mainly exposed to the official
and first language of their country. The least that can be said is that even though
Arabic is the first language, which should naturally be acquired, it actually sustains the
state of ‘learnable language’ just like French, which is the second official language in
Algeria. English learning takes the third place, in addition to other foreign languages.

1.1.5. Language Exposure and Practice

Numerous studies have shown that the quality of the language environment that
the student is surrounded by is crucial to succeed in learning a new language. Some
studies also point out that if students are only exposed to classroom drills, they might
acquire substantial mastery of classroom communication skills. However, they still
struggle to communicate in a natural language environment. Therefore, exposure to the
new language should not be the only focus when learning that language. Otherwise,
they risk failing to know the correct use of language.

Grammar and vocabulary are without a doubt an essential part of speaking

and writing in any language. It is also important to note that living in a country where
the spoken language is English increases the extent of exposure outside of the
classroom. Thus, it facilitates the informal and immersive learning process.

The authenticity of the tasks designed and used for teaching and learning is also a
major criterion because the goal of education is to form learners capable of handling
real life situations in order to become valuable assets and citizens that contribute to the
advancement of their society.
 In brief, the extent and amount of meaningful language input along the
opportunities for output to be performed in the surrounding environment are crucial for
progress in language learning.

1.1.5.1. Language Exposure and Practice and the Algerian context

Here in Algeria and more precisely within the Northern regions, such as the
Capital of Algiers, Oran, Annaba, formal and academic Arabic is taught as the first-tier
language. It is then followed by French as a second tier and English as a third tier. This
tier list concept represents the number of coefficients related to each language taught
as part of the program, in addition to the degree of importance. The value given to a
language is attributed according to the coefficient that the language sustains.
Furthermore, the higher the coefficient, the more weekly study hours are found within
the timetable.

If we take the example of the Arabic language, since it sustains the highest number
of coefficients, pupils find themselves studying the language two hours a day, four to
five times a week. Meanwhile, second tier and third tier languages, such as French and
English, have a limited study time schedule ranging from 2 to 4 hours a week, which is
not sufficient enough especially when dealing with English, for it is barely spoken or
used in society.

1.1.6. Language Learning among Children

On the one hand, research shows that young children are believed to learn foreign
languages faster than other age categories. On the other hand, research also shows that
children are slower at learning a foreign language than adolescents and young adults.
That is because young children do not yet have well-developed cognitive resources.
Therefore, they need abundant language input to compensate.

Young children have also shown enthusiasm towards learning foreign languages,
since they find it refreshing to learn new subjects, get exposed to other cultures and
societal backgrounds (see Myles, 2017, p.3).

Children tend to learn spontaneously, display an intuitive grasp of input, and

assimilate knowledge through meaningful output. Furthermore, the former find the
need to ‘do’ something unlike adults who can engage with abstract matters extensively
in their learning experience.

1.1.7. Incidental vs Intentional Learning

“Incidental learning is the process of learning something without the intention of

doing so.” (see Ahmad, 2012).

Incidental in language learning also stands for a process resulting from

“consequence”, a “byproduct” of chance which occurs accidently and even
unconsciously. Whereas, Intentional when it comes to language learning refers to a
planned and deliberate process of learning which is achieved mostly in a conscious
state of mind (see Ahmad, 2012). More in depth, incidental learning also involves
immersion within a context, grasping and retaining information unintentionally in a
non-specific context. In other words, it takes place anywhere in the environment. It is
closely related to informal learning which is a type of learning experience that occurs
outside educational settings where feedback as an element is not present.

Incidental learning contrasts intentional learning which is purposeful, wielding a

high degree of awareness and is supported by learning institutions that are curriculum-
driven. Moreover, intentional language learning is purposeful and conscious. It also
requires to engage in formal and non-formal educational, such as schools (state or
private) and language institutions/centers.

The least that can be said is that first language acquisition (L1) falls upon
incidental learning while second or additional language learning are placed within the
intentional learning category.

1.1.8. Language Status

The term ‘status’, when attached to language, refers to the place a particular
language sustains within a country. The web edition of The Ethnologue (2015)
provided a straight to the point definition of what the concept of Language Status
encompasses and stated:
“We summarize the status of each language in each country where it is used in the
STATUS element of a language entry by reporting two types of information. The first
is an estimate of the overall development versus endangerment of the language using
the EGIDS scale (Lewis and Simons, 2010). The second is a categorization of the
Official Recognition given to a language within the country.”

The EGIDS is a scale and a framework that consists of 11 levels. Each level
represents the uses of the target language within a specific country. It goes from the
lowest last two level ‘level 11 and 10’ under the label ‘Extinct’ and ‘Dormant’ up to
Level 0 known as ‘International’ which is the highest-ranking level. When linking this
scale to English, it is undeniably a language that can be put under ‘Level 0’ as it has
reached a widespread inter-continental status of usage. The scale also associates any
language state of evolution or regression within a country.

Evaluating the status of a language in relation to a particular country throughout

frameworks such as the EGIDS is a reliable approach that is widely used by linguists,
researchers and historians.

1.1.8.1. The Status of English according to the EGIDS Scale in Algiers

Within the EGIDS scale, a language can be fit in various levels at once. The
English language in Algiers positions itself according to the EGIDS Scale as an
international language (level 0), meaning that the language is widely used between
nations in trade, knowledge exchange, and international policy and that Algeria makes
use of it on to sustain its international affairs. The language also falls upon Level 3
labeled as ‘Wider’ Communication, for it is used in work and mass media without
official status to transcend language differences across a region. English is also present
in Level 4 labeled as ‘Educational’ since it is taught in middle school, secondary
school (state or private) and in vigorous use at the level of university (with
standardization and literature being sustained through a widespread system of
institutionally supported education).

English has also developed within the country over the past two decades and a
drastic observed spread since 2010 through the young generation of users highly
exposed to social platforms and internet which contributed to the growth of English-
speaking Algerian. Hence, the language can also be categorized among the level 5
labeled as ‘Developing’.

1.1.9. Language Learning Attitudes

Learning a language is a highly cognitive stimulation that is shaped by how the

learner perceives the target language he/she is exposed to in terms of culture, the
language users (mainly natives), the learning setting as well as the socioeconomic
status in relation to their homeland.

Attitude towards language learning can either be positive, which can be viewed
through a willingness and desire to learn resulting with better and fruitful proficiency.
It can also be negative; represented through uneasiness, anxiety, culture shock and
hostility towards the target language, which may hinder, obstruct the learning process,
and cause rejection.

The concept of Attitude can be defined as a mental state of readiness that is

organized through living experience which exert direct and dynamic influence upon an
individual’s response to a situation. Also, attitudes are not innate or predetermined,
they are nurtured.

Furthermore, Attitude as a variable is itself influenced by other affective variables,

such as motivation whether being ‘extrinsic or intrinsic’ as well as ‘beliefs and
perceptions’ (Baily, 1966).

Children have shown via numerous language acquisition/learning studies that they
hold a lower degree of dismissive attitude and do not generally show a higher state of
negativity when it comes to language learning compared to adolescents and adults.

1.1.10. Foreign Language Anxiety among Children

Anxiety stands for an unpleasant state of mental uneasiness, nervousness,

apprehension as well as concern about contextual uncertainties that can to some extent
hinder or even harm an individual physical state. “as a pathology it is a state of
restlessness and agitation, often accompanied by a distressing sense of oppression or
tightness in the stomach.” (see Wiktionary).

When linked to language learning, it becomes as “a distinct set of beliefs,

perceptions, and feelings in response to foreign language learning in the classroom”
(Horwitz, 1986, p. 130). As a matter of fact, foreign language anxiety is situational as
well as “pervasive” as mentioned by (Gardner and MacIntyre, 1994, p. 301). This
means that, on one side, it may affect negatively language performance in terms of
input, processing of information and output. On the other, side it is a debilitating factor
that may ruin the learner’s learning experience.

Gardner and MacIntyre (1991a) identified three types of anxiety: trait anxiety (a
personality trait), state anxiety (an emotional state), and situation specific anxiety
(anxiety in a well-defined situation). Foreign language anxiety falls upon the third
type.

Young (1991), classified various potential sources of language anxiety which

children often experience too. Some of these sources include personal and
interpersonal anxiety which is a result of low self-esteem, competitiveness,
communication apprehension, lack of group membership, and self-perceived low
ability level. Young (1991) also cites that the nature/type/way of interaction between
instructors and pupils could be viewed as cause of anxiety as well. For example, some
pupils, when being corrected after making mistakes by the instructor in front of the
whole class become anxious, lose composure and even lose willingness to further
participate due to a fear of being laughed at. Lastly, he mentions that classroom
procedures and methods of testing and the overall atmosphere established by the
teacher can all be result with language anxiety.

Children tend to show a higher degree of foreign language anxiety compared to

adolescents and adults. This anxiety is represented through a fear of negative
evaluation (being afraid to obtain low marks, afraid of being judged for making
mistakes while speaking in front of their peers, afraid of being called on to participate
in class, and not being prepared to be asked questions and respond). What goes on in a
child’s mind while being taught a language is still researched over and experimented.
But what various studies have demonstrated is that foreign language anxiety among
children comes from an overwhelming worry and preoccupation over language
performance along a low state of confidence in speaking ability.

1.1.11. Teaching a Foreign Language in Primary School

Because teachers are involved with pupils at primary school level, they are more
likely to introduce different teaching approaches, in addition to entertaining means of
instruction, such as the use of games, songs and stories, involving children and
assigning different roles and interaction opportunities.

The development of speaking, listening, reading and writing skills depends on the
quality of education these children are offered along the competency of qualified
teachers. The latter have to show devotion, passion wielding the core essence of what
teaching and learning among the youngest category of learners encompasses. In
addition, foreign language teaching/ learning helps young learners develop
intercultural understanding; thus, overcoming issues of culture shock and racism by
promoting tolerance and awareness about cultural diversity.

1.1.11.1. EFL Teaching Goals in Algeria’s Primary Schools

The core essence of the teaching of English helps to encourage children to accept
other cultures thus initiating a spirit of tolerance and broad-mindedness. Algeria’s
Ministry of Education could offer opportunities to teach this language at the level of
primary schools. Teachers of English would, through this initiative, find the possibility
to transmit and promote humanitarian, national and universal values which
characterize foreign language teaching, and more particularly English since the latter
supports and wields elements of modernization as well as globalization.

1.1.12. EFL Teaching methods in Primary Schools

A few decades ago, language learning used to be all about passively receiving
input and regurgitating the output in language tasks that lacked authenticity. This was
the case until modern teaching approaches namely the Communicative Language
Teaching approach shaped language teaching delivery and learning experience.
 The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach is famous for its success
in producing learners of all age categories involved with language learning. It is
learner- centered, and makes learners engage with meaningful language tasks that are
mostly authentic and contextualized. These activities derive from real life situations.

CLT is still highly applied due to how practical and fruitful it has proven to be
throughout the years unlike traditional methods, such as the Grammar Translation,
Direct and Indirect methods and the Audio-Lingual method. The latter were dropped
due to how time and energy consuming they could be for both teachers and learners.
These methods also equipped learners with vocabulary and academic writing skills,
but once put outside educational institutions, learners were performing poorly.

Besides, the Communicative Language Teaching approach permits teachers and

curriculum designers to design tasks that stimulate the creativity of learners as well as
to trigger their background knowledge. The method puts also much emphasis on
mutual exchanges/interactions between instructor-learner and learner-learner which
helps in building a collaborative atmosphere in class.

The Competency-Based Approach (CBA), introduced in Algeria since 2003, has

proven to be a fruitful approach within the teaching and learning community for years.
The approach is defined as “the sum of assumptions course designers make about
language and language learning…it is a combined theory involving both language
and the learning process” (see Miliani, 2003, p.20)

However, over the last few years, many teachers have criticized the defects and
drawbacks of the courses they have currently taught under this approach. According to
a number of teachers who were asked about learners’ motivation in class, learners have
become more dependent on the teacher with a non-dynamic role in the classroom.
Besides, teachers do most of the work for their learners and this hinders the promotion
of autonomous learning and creativity. In addition, language skills and linguistic
competence cannot be developed in a satisfactory way. Most of the learners become
bored; consequently, they lose interest in learning English.
 It is only recently that the Algerian textbook designers have found new exciting
and creative methods in adopting the competency-based approach. As a matter of fact,
teachers are nowadays able to establish a way between what is acquired at school and
its use in contextual and realistic situations outside the classroom.

To conclude, at primary school level, a mix of CLT, CBA and even traditional
methods are combined to make sure that the classes are not one sided, meaning that
teachers are do not just carry out the lesson, or expect the pupils to do the lesson.
Teachers instead provide pupils with the lesson, and pupils afterwards simply put what
they have learned into practice through various authentic activities. Typical tasks of
this approach are: games, problem-solving tasks, and role-play with the presence of
information gap, choice and feedback involved in the activities too so that learners
have constant interaction with and exposure to the target language.

1.1.13. Multilingualism

Multilingualism involves the act of using “polyglotism” (see Wiktionary) which

implies the use, notably in speech, of several languages. In simpler terms, it refers to
the ability to communicate in various languages. Thus, individuals capable of speaking
and making use of different languages are labeled as polyglots.

Multilingualism is not a recent phenomenon; it has always existed ever since the
Middle Ages and even further back. Nowadays, multilingual speakers outnumber
monolinguals in terms of world’s population. This phenomenon is becoming a social
one governed by the needs of globalization and cultural openness. Owing to the
facility of access to information eased by the internet, individuals' exposure to multiple
languages is becoming increasingly frequent; thereby, promoting a need to acquire
additional languages. One may question the reason behind the spreading of the
phenomenon and an answer is provided by Jason Cenoz (2013) in one of her articles
that tackled multilingualism. Indeed, she mentions that “Several factors have
contributed to the current visibility of multilingualism. Among them, globalization,
transnational mobility of the population, and the spread of new technologies are
highly influential in different political, social, and educational contexts”.

1.1.13.1. Multilingualism in Algeria

 As Algeria is a plurilingual country, Algerians, especially those living in the
North, speak up to three different languages, and that is without taking into account the
local language varieties present in society.

If we were to focus on English primarily, Borni (2017) investigated English-using

Algerian students’ use of the language outside of the classroom. He surveyed 30
English Master's students. The author reported in his study that 89% agree and
strongly agree that it is important for Algerians to learn English. The author also added
that over 70% of these Master students use English at home while the rest do not.
Instead, they use Derja (a local variety in Algiers, capital of Algeria) and do not know
anyone else with whom to use English. He also reported that 53% of respondents do
not use English with native speakers while 46% sometimes do, which is still a large
segment by Algeria's standards

1.1.14. State Primary Schools vs Private Primary Schools in Algeria

Education in Algeria is divided into two separate and distinct schooling

institutions. On the one hand, State or state primary education which is free for all and
mandatory for Algerian children. Attendance to the first level/grade in primary school
starts from age 5 and follows up to the fifth level with children ranging from ten to
twelve years before taking part on a final exam in the fifth year permitting to graduate
and move on to middle school.

In state school, the medium of education is Arabic, and French is the second
language taught at the third grade (year 3). An average school day is 6 up to 7 hours
and the whole curriculum lasts 5 years. On the other hand, Private primary schools are
institutions that require paid membership (quarterly or semi-annual or annual) in order
to be admitted. These private primary schools follow the national standards of primary
education and curricula just like the state schools.

However, private school differ from state school in terms of quality of education,
requirements, teaching and learning approaches. They make use of exclusive
textbooks, and some private schools do teach English in primary school as a foreign
language in the first grade (year 1).
 In Algiers, at the beginning of the second millennium, the country has witnessed
the emergence of several private schools, twenty –six are registered in the Algerian
territory and three in the wilaya of Oran (see ElWatan, 2005.no 25755). There are
constant debates among parents regarding the underwhelming quality of education of
state schools. Some of them believe that state schools need concrete reforms. Some
parents prefer schools which are designed to prepare their children for potential
jobs/careers, where sophisticated technology is applied and the mastery of foreign
languages is required. Luckily for them, most of private school offer these quality of
education standards. Thus, many parents tend to immediately put their children in
these private schools to ensure a successful educational life and a future for them even
if it is costly.

1.2. Section 2 Identifying the Gap in the Literature

1.2.1. Contrastive perspectives on early foreign language learning

There is still some controversy concerning early foreign language learning, the
slogan ‘The Younger the Better’ as a whole still to this day issues discussions and
debates surrounding the appropriate starting age and what differentiates foreign
language learning when dealing with children from adolescents or adults in terms of
outcomes.

One the one hand, Edelenbos et al. (2006), claim that “optimum starting age has
not yet been established”, they also view that “An early start to language learning can
offer the child an overall longer period of learning and a prospective of influencing
their personal development whilst in a formative stage. Nonetheless, an early start is
unlikely to make a spectacular difference. Children have more chances of becoming
successful and motivated language learners if their early start comes with quality
teaching.”

What Edelenbos et al. (2006), meant through their claim, is that age and age
category, whether being a child or adolescent do not determine the level of mastery
and proficiency one would acquire. Instead, the quality of education, the learning
environment, and the language learning experience are some of the main factors that
shape the developmental growth of learners. In addition, affective learner factors were
mostly considered as a cause of success in language learning. And authors (e.g.,
Edelenbos, Johnstone, & Kubanek, 2006), have demonstrated through a number of
case studies and with their findings that affective factors which encompasses language
home support, learning environment, out-of-school exposure to English and language
achievement, contribute to the dynamic complexity of early FLL.

On the other hand, from a neurolinguistic standpoint, a vast majority of

neurologists interested in this subject matter, agree on the fact that “ The study of a
foreign language in primary school, and perseverance in such a study for several
years, increases students’ chances of developing a high level of proficiency, meaning
that students reach an advanced level of communicative competence and cultural
understanding.” Christina Nicole Giannikas. (2014). The above statement clearly
implies that the earlier children are exposed and get to practice a foreign language
within educational institution, the better the outcomes of such an initiative would
result thanks to the accumulated years of classroom learning, that also in the long run,
the “younger the better” makes sense because these same children that are involved
with early FLL would demonstrate a higher state of readiness and experience with
language learning ,as well as , a higher rate of developing a good level of proficiency,
enabling them to reach an advanced level of communicative competence and cultural
understanding with ease.

Now, from a cognitive standpoint, Curtain (1990) argues that the challenge
children face when exposed to a foreign language at school enhances “cognitive
development”. The young learners experience a certain learning strategy that is foreign
to their area of understanding, in other words, they move from their comfort zone, they
are constantly adding knowledge and face mental conflicts, which become the
mechanism of new thinking.

As a matter of fact, young children during their learning experience are believed to
be cognitively open to learning a foreign language, as opposed to adults due to the
simple fact that their identity is not yet built along issues of culture shock being barely
existent. Whereas adolescents are mainly preoccupied with searching for their
individual identity and forging their personality. Lastly adults; although, displaying a
developed mental maturity and can engage with abstract thoughts and draw from a
large range of life experience, often struggle with attitudinal barriers such as
willingness to learn, interest, aims and goals as well as benefits from learning a
particular language.

Adults and adolescents also share the common aspect of being judgmental and this
is has shown to be a double-edged sword depending on the individual, some would for
instance learn a language autonomously with no feedback from peers and their own
instructors, while some are much more dependent from the qualification of their
teacher’s instruction.

Experts come to bridge the gap between the two distinct perspectives on early
FLL. We can mention Moon (2005) who suggests that the claim of ‘younger is better’
can be considered controversial, since there is evidence that adolescents and adults are
more efficient learners than children. However, she argues that children have the
advantage of having sensitivity to pronunciation. Pinter (2006:29) further consolidated
Moon (2005)’s argument by stating that young children hold an “intuitive grasp of
language and their ability to be more attuned to the phonological system of the new
languages and enjoy copying new sounds and patterns of intonation”. Driscoll and
Frost (1999) explain that young learners have an innate ability to imitate sounds more
accurately, compared to older language learners. In simpler terms, children have better
chances to become fluent speakers while at the same time wielding native-like
pronunciation which adults may face difficulties in reaching native like pronunciation.

Nevertheless, many studies have demonstrated older children’s superiority in

grasping L2 grammar, syntax and morphology where young learners are out
performed, they are much more competent at mastering the advanced and abstract
language complexities while children are more into the concrete and contextualized
learning dimensions.

As a conclusion, although, findings are yet to be conclusive concerning early FLL,

studies have proven that both of children and adolescents along adults are all capable
of getting involved with foreign language learning while demonstrating fruitful results
at the same time. Children thanks to their brain plasticity, intuitive and thoughtless
language acquisition and learning are showcased as being more at ease when it comes
to learning how to articulate and utter words, imitate native like pronunciation and
grasp from anything they hear in the environment, reproduction is much more present
with their learning experience and rejection is rare due to that juvenile curiosity and
internal motivation to learn new things. compared to adolescents or adults. The latter
are just as capable as children to learn at any given point a language with variable
pacing.

1.2.2. Early Foreign Language Implementation Issues in Primary Schools

There are two main reasons behind the introduction of foreign languages in
primary classrooms. Firstly, is the belief that ‘the younger the better’, the idea that
young children are intrinsically better and quicker language learners, and will therefore
become more proficient at a latter age. Secondly, is that in an increasingly globalized
world, intercultural competence is much needed and essential at some point, and that it
is important to awaken children’s interests in other people and cultures at a time when
they are open and receptive. The interest behind promoting foreign language learning
in primary schools is intimately linked to the first idea mentioned above. There is also
another common belief that can be found in the literature which states that since most
children pick up their mother tongue effortlessly and unintentionally, the same would
happen if they get exposed to other languages at such early stages. All of these ideas
are based upon the well-known ‘Critical Period Hypothesis’.

The Critical Period Hypothesis claims that children are born with an innate
language faculty and a higher state of brain plasticity which “atrophies” (see Myles,
2017) with age, and that it is therefore important to tap into these innate mechanisms
before the critical age when they begin to disappear by exposing children to languages
as early as possible and consistently.

The CPH pushed numerous countries across the globe to introduce new curricula
reforms that put much emphasis on foreign language learning ‘especially English due
to its highly perceived status of international medium of communication’. The
initiative itself was viewed as promising, but the way it was implemented flopped at
the level of primary schools in many countries. Myles (2017) mentions a number of
reasons behind the failure.

First of all, the lack of adequate and qualified teachers. Myles stats that a
“shortage” when it comes to primary class teachers with appropriate training in
primary English language teaching methods and foreign language teaching pedagogy,
is one of main causes at the level of teaching delivery. Followed by, a lack of funds
and resources in many countries. In fact, training teachers, hiring competent trainers,
designing new textbooks and teaching/learning materials, rearranging classrooms and
improving the acoustics within educational settings in order to suit the new reforms
and teaching/learning methodologies requirements are all costly and need huge sums
of money to supplement such reforms which not every country could afford.

To continue, restricted and limited input or exposure to the target language is another
factor mentioned in Myles’ article. Indeed, it is true that research over time has shown
how much children intuitively and effortlessly grasp any given language they get
exposed to. Nonetheless, research has also proven at the same time that language
proficiency is not determined by age, meaning that children do not tend to develop
their language competency faster than any other age category. Thus, the extent as well
the amount of contact with the language within the classroom and even outside are
some of the determinant conditions to ensure fruitful language learning progression
and that is where the issue lies.

As a follow up, in many countries where English has been introduced in primary
school as a second or foreign language “the expectations placed upon primary school
aged children and their teachers concerning the learning that is possible in one hour a
week are somewhat unrealistic.” (Myles, 2017). As a matter fact, it is well known that
language learning requires extensive and intensive input and output at the same time,
in other words, with the case of primary school children, it is a necessary for them to
practice the language consistently by being taught sufficient hours per day/week while
also having as many opportunities to make use of what they have learned during each
language session in order for teachers to evaluate their pupils advancement, correct
errors and avoiding fossilization. Young Pupils learn mostly by ‘doing’ and prefer to
engage with what they learn meaningfully with contextualized situations too;
therefore, as long as curricula do not incorporate several hours a week of foreign
language teaching, fruitful results should not be expected, as the limited amount of
input will not allow for the implicit learning mechanisms typical of early childhood to
process input. And this what many countries again did not take into account.

“Over ambitious goals” (Myles, 2017) is another major problem encountered with
early FL policy in the curriculum of several countries, namely Algiers, South Korea,
Spain and other European states. On one hand, the higher hierarchy of education
expected a bit too much from young learners, the goals that were set, were not
supplemented enough resource and provision wise. Also, some countries established
visions, purposes and objectives that did not match national standards in terms of:
quality of education (teaching and learning conditions), the acoustics (classroom
capacity and comfort), the social environment of learners (out-of- school exposure in
the local environment), the time table and hours that can be devoted to language
programs (how many hours per day and week FL can be introduced among other
subjects) are only a few to cite.

On the other hand, other reasons for failure in language education policies and
outcomes are believed to be caused by the practice of old/traditional language
teaching/learning approaches and methodologies, such as the famous Grammar
Translation, Direct and Indirect Methods, Audio Lingual, Humanistic approaches. The
latter were teacher-centered with the common philosophy “one size fits all”
(Benlkroun, 2019, p.1), which means that in non-homogenous classroom settings
where learners of different societal background, cognitive skills and learning style are
present with different needs. These methods were forced upon learners, with no
consideration of their needs and learner type; therefore, producing learners that were
not proficient nor capable of using the target language in authentic or real-life
situations.

1.2.3. Personal perspective on early FLL (a focus on English) in Algeria

Our point of view regarding the teaching of foreign languages and more
specifically the English language to young learners/children, is based on the small
amount of experience as novice and fresh teachers of English therefore our opinion is
built upon observation.

From our first-time experience of teaching pupils aged from five to fourteen in
private schools and language centers, we have noticed that implementing English in
primary school could not be that efficient, especially in the very first years when these
young individuals begin their encounter with school life. The reason that children face
difficulties in learning English is due to the insufficient and limited exposure to the
language in everyday life. Although, it is claimed that children’s brain plasticity allows
them to acquire languages in quickly and easily, children are more likely to forget a
huge amount of knowledge they have assimilated unless they get opportunities to
practice the language as much as possible with meaningful tasks, many times a week if
necessary. This takes us to tackle the dilemma around the number of hours which
pupils are exposed to the language. If we take into consideration the numerous
subjects’ children are required to deal with in their first years of school, one can notice
that the English language program’s schedule is only given two to four hours a week.
These hours are not enough for children to acquire the language efficiently and
consistently. To ensure the latter, it is highly recommended that parents help their
children participate in extra activities that involve the English language outside
classrooms.

Now, regarding our experience with teaching middle school pupils, we have
noticed that pupils, despite some language interference with the French language, are
likely to learn English in a better way than primary school pupils do. In addition,
because middle school pupils have already encountered and learned the French
language for three years in primary school (starting from grade 3 to 5), they found it
easier to learn English as it is similar to French in the writing system, syntactic
structures and few vocabulary items. Furthermore, these pupils have much more
background knowledge and experience than primary school pupils do, and this permits
the faster understanding and interpretation of the received knowledge.

All in all, it can be argued that primary school pupils are as capable of learning
English or any other foreign language as middle school, high school or even college
learners. Although the latter are much more experienced with language learning
through the accumulated years of learning the first and second official languages,
children from a cognitive standpoint have proven to possess mental faculties that make
them learn languages at a fast rate especially when it comes to reaching an ‘almost’
native like proficiency in oral skills and fluency. Research also shows that young
children are very enthusiastic towards the learning of foreign languages. And that is
why the main reason that could hinder the language learning progression of children is
the lack of amount of exposure to the target language and the unavailability of
contextualized situations to practice the language.

In simpler terms, if English were to be implemented as part of Algeria’s primary

school programs with sufficient hours dedicated to learn the language ranging at least
from 4 to 5 hours a week, while tasking qualified teachers that followed pedagogical
training and show motivation and devotion to the teaching of English to young pupils,
and last but no least designing appropriate and non-rigid textbooks that take into
account the needs and interests of modern days’ children/learners then, we think that
the initiative would view fruitful results in the future.

Conclusion

Chapter one provided a glimpse of information to various themes that make the
reader understand how much there is content to discuss and write about in regards to
language learning related to children, what teaching methods were employed in the
past and are currently being used, what definitions are found in the literature within the
scope of language status.

The literature shows that numerous studies contrast one another and that questions,
such as what is the appropriate age to expose learners to foreign languages, at what
educational level, what methods/approaches to employ, what pre-conditions ought to
be considered before implementing language education plans and policy in the
curriculum of primary school are yet to be conclusive.

Nonetheless, the chapter exposed some relevant ideas that answer all the
aforementioned questions which shall further be extended through a contextualized
representation with three countries, namely Tunisia, South Korea and Algeria which
sought to implement foreign language learning and more precisely the English
language as part of their primary school program.