EVOLUTION OF URBAN TRANSPORTATION

The first civilian conveyance started with the exchange of goods. This
happened either when a surplus in produce was generated which allowed
them to trade this for other commodities or when there was a deficiency of
any resource, but they were available at other places. As this exchange
intensified, trade routes and markets started to form. Along these routes,
other facilities and services for goods transportation started to develop.
The steam engine invented by James Watt in 1765 is marked as the start of the
industrial era. Earlier people mostly lived in rural areas and employment was
mostly in agriculture, but the industrial revolution came by a new labor
division was introduced in industries. As industrial production increased, a
larger surplus for trade was now available and wide distribution of these goods
started. By the conclusion of the eighteenth century, international trade
centers such as London, New York, Berlin, Paris, etc grew rapidly. New
employment opportunities offered by these cities attracted the rural
population. This caused the shifting of the focus of the economy from
agriculture to manufacturing industries and administrative sectors. Along with
this shift, a large part of the population moved from rural to urban areas, this is
known as urbanization.
The invention of the railway by George Stephenson in England in 1825 was a
major event. This increased the growth rate of cities and industrial processes.
Thus the limit on the size of the city due to the transport service capacity was
mostly waived off. As the cities grew, it became increasingly important to
invent new urban transport modes for internal travel.
Public Transportation before the Nineteenth Century
Ferries were used considerably in late medieval (1300 to 1500 AD) commercial
centers such as Venice and London. During the sixteenth century, many
organized forms of inter-urban public transportation were developed, such as
The Posting System. The posting system provided horse-drawn vehicles to
travel along highways between two posting points. Stage wagons were in use,
mainly for the movement of commodities on fixed routes in the sixteenth
century. Another such example is Stagecoach services which were relatively
faster but carried mail and passengers only.
During the seventeenth century, these organized forms were adopted for
intra-urban transportation. Three examples of the intra-urban transport modes
were Coaches, Sedan Chair, and public coach service.
1. Coaches are the ancestor of the modern taxicabs. They were first used in
London around the 1600s for movement within urban areas and were
introduced in Paris in 1612 as a Fiacre.
2. The sedan chair consisted of a windowed cabin. They were moved
through the streets by porters, known as chair-men in London. This was
a significant mode of intra-urban transport during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries in larger European cities. These could be seen in
Paris around 1617 and in London in 1634 and existed till 1821.
3. The public coach system was the ancestor of modern forms of urban
transit systems. These operated on fixed routes. These were first
introduced by Blaise Pascal in Paris in 1662 and they were operational
for almost 20 years.
Though these services were called common transport, but only the wealthy
could afford them. The public transport systems that would favor the larger
sections of the public developed during the nineteenth century.

Horse-Drawn Omnibuses
The horse-drawn omnibus was the immediate predecessor of the
stagecoaches, though omnibuses had higher passenger capacity. Though
stagecoaches used to operate in London around 1798, it was in France, where
these were first used for intracity transport became known as “omnibus”.
Stanislaus Baudry was the first to introduce these in Nantes in 1826, in
Bordeaux in 1827, and Paris in 1828 on 10 fixed routes. George shillibeer
introduced the omnibus service in London in 1829. Initially, He was not
allowed to stop and wait for passengers where most of the hackney coaches
operated, but after the London hackney-coach monopoly was lifted in 1832 the
omnibuses were allowed to operate as a mode of transit.
By the middle third of the nineteenth century, omnibus had a commanding
position in urban transit because of their operating flexibility.

Horse-drawn Tramways
Horse-tram or horsecar was an omnibus running on rails. As the horsecar ran
over smooth rail instead of irregular cobblestones, it had low rolling resistance,
and the size of the wheel didn’t affect the vehicular attributes. As the wheel
size was small, the car could be built of lower height and wider body. Hence,
horsecar made more effective use of horsepower, had a high capacity, and was
more comfortable.
The first horse-drawn tramway started in New York in 1832, but they started to
be seen in the 1850s in other cities of America. The horse tramway
development was severely restricted in European cities. Britain had tramway
legislation that prohibited the private construction of the tramways.
In any case, the horse tramway development was more profound in the united
states instead of Europe. The street characteristics of cities in America put
tramway in advantage, but the European medieval streets which were narrow
and winding put omnibus at an advantage.

Mechanized street transit services

Omnibus and street railway services depended on the horses for the traction
hence they were severely restricted in their reach. The costs of purchase, the
supplement, and accommodation of horses were more and they took up a
significant portion of the total operational cost. Horses would tire out quickly
by the work and were very vulnerable to diseases which became even more
evident when the Great Epizootic, an equine influenza epidemic killed a large
number of horses in the United States in 1872.
The exploration of a mechanical replacement for horses started with the then-
proven power supply, the steam engine. From 1821 and 1840 many steam
engine coaches were developed, but these vehicles were hefty, generated a lot
of noise, and slow hence they attracted very few passengers and were deemed
a failure commercially hence they didn’t attract any investment. Later in the
century, several developments in steam technology led to a newfound interest
in steam as a power source for street trams. In the 1870s different models of
steam trams were produced commercially, but they were rarely used for
transit services by public and municipal authorities, as they remained noisy and
dirty. The additional devices added to reduce the noise and smoke emissions
made them too heavy for the tracks which were laid for horsecars initially.
For the solution of these problems, a fireless steam engine system and
Merasaki’s compressed air system, etc were developed, but these had one
major problem. Their operating range would significantly reduce by street
congestion or track blockage, leaving them stranded on the lines.
The cable car was the first mechanized mixed-traffic transit mode that attained
success commercially and approved by people. The cable car system had
cables driven by a central steam engine, a cable car running on the rails with
gripping devices, and a driver. The cable cars were clean, had low running
costs, attained high running speeds even with full passenger capacity, and
negotiated steep hills efficiently, however by 1890, the electric tramways were
becoming a cheap and safer substitute to the cable car system as the dangers
of cable haulage could be avoided. Nevertheless, on very steep gradients the
cable car system is still the most efficient transit system.

Electric streetcars/ Tramways

Due to the improvements in the dynamo and electric motors around the
1970s, a new electricity generation and distribution industry was formed. This
industry provided the means for the use of continuous conductors to convey
centrally produced electricity to rail-guided vehicles. The problem with this
was that these conductors were exposed on a public street which was unsafe
and the fencing off for safety would severely restrict the places it can be put to
work. For the Paris exposition of 1880, a line with an overhead wire conductor
was provided. These were set inside a slotted pipe. The current was collected
by lugs running inside the pipe, taken down to the motor through cable, and
returned to the generator along the running rails.
The Beginnings of Electric Streetcars in the United States
The first regular electric streetcar service started in Cleveland in 1884. These
drew current form underground conduits in-between the rails. This was very
untrustworthy hence systems with overhead wires and overrunning trollers
started to appear. These electric lines encountered several technical
difficulties. It was Frank Sprague who demonstrated a reliable technical basis
for the streetcar services in the united states.
The electric streetcar attracted attention from investors, as the operational
cost by the electric current was very much less compared to the horse traction.
Because of less cost, They were able to decrease the fare and attract more
people and the industry expanded. This development was parallel to the rapid
growth of the urban population. Because of their reach and speed, electric
streetcars enlarged the capacity of urban cities for the growing population.
This appearance of electric streetcars made significant changes in transit
organizing bodies also. The horsecar services were provided by many operators
and coordination between them was poor, which caused many inconveniences
to the public. Since electric traction required substantial investment, operators
merged into larger corporations. This led to greater operational efficiency and
improved transit services for the public as they had better time plans,
integrated fares, and easier transfer. Consequently, in Boston in 1882, the
American street railway association was founded which is the predecessor of
the current American Public Transportation Association(APTA). Also, the
international development of the transit system led to the formation of Union
Internationale des Transports publics (UITP) in Brussels in 1885.
Introduction of Electric Tramways in Europe
The European governments attached great importance to the aesthetic aspects
of urban development. They had very restrictive regulations for horse
tramways also, which made the process of tramway electrification slower in
Europe. The manufacturers of electric streetcars were forced to find reliable
systems of power distribution that would not need overhead wires. Substitutes
to this were;
Battery traction involved the use of charged batteries that were carried
onboard the tramways. While this was safe and had low infrastructural costs,
the batteries increased the weight of each car and they were expensive and
lacked reserves. Conduit and surface contact systems had underground
conductors that were activated only when the tramways would pass over them
but their installation was very expensive and was unreliable as they would
become clogged with mud, etc.
After 1895, Tramway electrification quickened in Europe, as the municipalities
were willing to accept that electric tramways offered positive social benefits as
they increased the travel speed and reduced the fares. From 1890 to 1910, a
tramway revolution happened in Europe as the tramway track length increased
threefold.

Street Transit Development since 1990

As the mechanized operational technology was invented, streetcar vehicles
and infrastructural improvements were done and different modes of transit
such as the motor bus and trolley bus were invented. The motor bus became
the most dominant street transit mode.
Streetcars/ Tramways
An electric streetcar was a short, two-axle, wooden vehicle and it was very
similar to a horse tram and cable car. Though these had a vital role in the city,
transit companies in US cities didn’t achieve continuous financial success. The
competition against different Streetcars on parallel lanes, jitneys, and later
with buses was fierce. The cost of operation and labor was increasing but
regulatory bodies didn’t allow the corresponding increase in fares. This
resulted in a financial crisis in the transit industry at the time of world war 1.
During the 1920s and early 1930s, the private automobile also started diverting
passengers from Streetcars, moreover, they created the problem of
congestion, as the old cars were a hindrance to the mixed traffic.
In 1930, AERA founded a special committee, a joint venture of transit
companies and vehicle manufacturers. This was designated the President's
Conference Committee (PCC). This committee, led by Clarence F. Hirschfield,
performed research and development tasks most efficiently in the history of
transit technology. Its product was an extremely quiet car with soft suspension
and had sophisticated indirect motor control, named PCC car.
The commercial application of the PCC car started in Brooklyn in 1936. Though
the PCC car did help in improving the competitive position of Transit systems
against private automobiles without other improvements such as provision for
a separate right of the way, they didn’t have long term stability. In the 1930s,
large scale conversion of streetcars in buses started, and by the 1960 Streetcar
system remained in a few cities only. This change was mainly because of the
absence of significant financial support for the transit system.
European Transit operators also faced similar problems as in the US, because
of the government policies that didn’t provide adequate support to public
transit. Initially, European tramway services were not as advanced as in the
united states. The progress in tramway technology came during the 1950s
when German manufacturer DUWAG produced a new model of articulated
cars, that were far superior to their predecessor. The subsequent changes in
tramway networks such as a separate right of way and priority treatment
resulted in the creation of a Light Rail Transit system (LRT) which in
performance was more similar to rapid transit.
Following this, two to four-car trains on lines were introduced, low floor
vehicles for pedestrian zones were constructed, etc made LRT a high-quality
transit mode in cities all over the world.
Motorbuses
As the first successful internal combustion engine(ICE) for highway vehicle was
created, a new transit mode “Motorbus” was invented. German engineer
Nicholaus Otto built the first operational four-stroke ICE running on gas-air or
oil-air mixtures in 1876.
In Britain, in 1910 under the pressure of restrictive regulations, British
manufacturers produced new model buses which were lightweight, reliable,
and low cost. These had a low gravity center and suspensions for better rider
comfort.
In the united states, New York was the first place where the motorbus
operation started. As jitneys started to appear in many cities around 1914, the
Motorbus development could be seen in America. Jitneys were the private
automobile that ran on the main traffic routes for hire.
After the innovation of diesel motor, which used lower-cost fuel and had high
operating efficiency, it was used for bus propulsion. With this, the Streetcars
were rapidly converted to Trolleybuses and buses and buses become the most
dominant street transit mode.
Presently, Buses are being used in almost all the cities around the world, alone
or accompanied by rail and paratransit services. A significant organized effort
was done to achieve a higher quality bus service, known as bus rapid transit
(BRT). These had fixed-lines, separate busways, and higher frequency. Though
BRT generally requires lower investment, they also offer a lower quality of
service, capacity than LRT mode.
Trolleybuses
Lombard Gerin built the world’s first working trolleybus line for the Paris
Exhibition of 1900, but it was Max Schiemann who installed the first successful
trolley bus line at Bielatal in 1902.
Trolleybuses were not used as large transit network until 1926. This year new
models of Trolleybuses were developed which made them faster, quieter and
comfortable running and low operating costs compared to other modes.
Hence, the use of Trolleybuses increased rapidly in many countries, but during
the 1950s it stopped again and they were replaced with buses. The reason for
this was that while Trolleybuses were superior in environmental characteristics
from buses, but they did not bring any direct revenue from this.
In the late 1960s, as the attitude toward urban transportation changed,
increased attention to environmental characteristics and passenger comfort
was given and this gave positive influence to Trolleybuses. This change resulted
in retaining lines and in some cases, they were extended. An example of it is
Swiss networks and the USSR which became the largest user of this mode.

High-speed Rail Transit Modes

Along with local transit modes, large cities used railway for higher speed
services on the line having a partial or exclusive right of way. Three modes
providing this were;
1. Suburban railways, originally they were local services on the main
intercity rail lines.
2. Interurbans, these included large vehicles similar to streetcars operating
on the exclusive right of the way, between nearby cities and towns.
These were developed after the electric traction was invented.
3. Rapid transit is an intra-urban transit on a fully separate right of the way.
This eventually becomes the high-speed urban transit mode.
Suburban Railway/ Regional Rail
The intercity steam railway lines were designed to transport services of longer
distances, but they also connected the city centers, nearby suburbs, and towns
with reduced travel time. As the cities expanded and the population grew, local
services of more frequency were provided.
The first large scale development of a suburban railway line was in London in
1838. As London had a large population and living conditions in the inner city
were poor, the government wanted to relocate people having a lesser income
to less congested living areas. Hence in 1883, the parliament passed the
“cheap trains act”. This provided support of 2 million dollars per year to
suburban rails, so they can maintain low fares.
The previous lay of the railway networks influenced the role of regional
railways in many areas. There were two types of networks;
1. The radial network consists of rail lines running from city centers to
outward suburban areas. Its main passengers are commuters in and
out of the city center. Examples of this type of network are the Grand
Central Terminal in New York, London, etc.
 2. The second type was developed in cities that have lines passing
through central areas. These connected nearby suburb areas on the
different sides of the city. As this type of network has many stations
in the central area, it offers much more area coverage than a radial
network having stub-end type terminals.
Electric Interurban Railway
This model includes single cars or short trains that operate on electric lines
having an exclusive right of way and high speed. Usually, interurban railway
lines were developed in a radial pattern connecting cities with nearby towns.
Though they had rapid initial development, with an increase in auto ownership
and highway construction, the inter-urbans started to decline and by the 1950s
they practically disappeared from the united states. The existing interurban
lines are upgraded and serve into an LRT system in major cities having a dense
population. Japan’s railway system is the vastest system that provides inter-
urban services now. These have fully separated right of the way, high-level
platform, and controlled crossings.
Rapid transit/ Metro
London was the first to build a fully separated rail transit line for high-speed
services known as the Metropolitan Line in 1863 as the city suffered from
street congestion. The steam rails added several devices for minimum smoke
emissions, but these were not very successful but the faster service attracted
many people.
The first rapid transit line in Europe was built in Budapest in 1896. Glasgow
Line started in 1897. Berlin’s S-Bahn line started in 1882 which Incorporated
elevated sections. The vast New York subway network started in 1904.
Though World war 1 and 2 caused a decrease in the construction of rapid lines.
Eventually, it was accepted by organizations that the separate right of the way
was an important feature of the transit system and financial support was
provided for their rapid construction.
This review of transit development shows us the massive progress the urban
transportation has gone through since the 1800s. Subsequently, now we have
several different transit modes to satisfy the requirements of any urban area
be it a small town or large metropolis.