TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND ACCIDENT

INVESTIGATION WITH DRIVING

History of Transportation

Introduction

Transportation- A transportation is a moving people or things from one place to

another and the various means by which such movement is accomplished.
Transportation is central to economic activity and to people’s lives, it enables them to
engage in work, attend school, shop for food and other goods, and participate in all of
the activities that comprise human existence.

Historical Development

            As world population have grown over thousands of years, so has the need for
improved systems of Transportation. As a result, people have modified their
environment by building transportation infrastructure to make movement faster and
easier.

Evolution of Transportation

            The evolution of transportation, just like the evolution of humankind, it has gone
through trials and tribulations as it has evolved through time.

            History of transportation begins from human era and continued to change over a
period of time. The first means of transportation was the HUMAN FOOT.

 3500 BC – Fixed wheels on cart were invented which is the first wheeled vehicle
in the history. The first wheels were simply a solid disc, carved from one lump of
wood. The oldest wheels that Archaeologist have found and it came from
Mesopotamia.
 Along with the wheel carts, the river boat is also invented.
 3100 BC – They started to tame animals like horses to help us commute from
one place to another.
 2000 BC – We had built chariots.
 600 BC – We built a wagon.
 332 BC – emerged with submersible.
 312 BC – had paved our way to building of roads.
  236 BC – constructed the 1 elevator.
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 214 BC – built of canals. 

 200 BC – We constructed manned kites to fly.

Ancient Transportation

          In ancient times, people crafted simple boats out of logs, walked, rode animals
and, later, devised wheeled vehicles to move from place to place. They used existing
waterways or simple roads for transportation.

Roman Transportation

          The Romans are famous for the network of roads they built across the Empire.
Roman legionaries built them so the Roman army could march from one part of the
empire to another.

Middle Age Transportation

          In the Middle Ages, rich people sometimes traveled in covered wagons. They
must have been very uncomfortable as they did not have suspension and the roads
were   rutted. Others traveled on a box between two poles. Two horses, one in front and
one behind carried it. They were trained to walk at the same pace.

          The rise in transportation in the Middle Ages allowed for an increase in trade and
travel throughout Europe. Merchants of all types of goods were able to gain access to
foreign markets and take more products with them, which highly benefited the economy.

16 Century Transportation
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          During 16 century, In Tudor times (England and Wales) transportation is still

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slow and uncomfortable because the roads where still just dirt tracks. People mainly
used horses as form of transportation. Goods were transport by packhorse while
carriers with covered wagons are used to transport goods and sometimes passengers.
Carriages is used by upper classes to travel it’s much smaller than a wagon because it
was designed to carry people.  It’s also possible for some people to transport goods by
water. 
17 Century Transportation
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          In 17 century, horses are still main method when it comes to transportation
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however Stagecoaches became a regular thing in major town in Britain but it’s too
expensive. The first vehicle for mass transportation was the public bus, which was also
introduced in the seventeenth century. It was a horse-drawn vehicle with an enclosed
compartment, roof, and rear-hooded seats. These buses were not a successful medium
for transportation. They were slow in speed, always crowded, and if you desired to sit in
the enclosed compartment, they were extremely expensive. 

18 Century Transportation
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          In 18 century in England, the turnpike roads became more common. A group of
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rich men formed a turnpike trust (private organization that financed road improvements)
with this travelling in land must have become much more expensive. However, the duke
of Bridgewater decided to build a canal to bring coal from his estate at Worsley to
Manchester. When the bridgewater canal was complete many more canal was dug in
late 18 and early 19 century.  In 18 century is also when the “kalesa” was first
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introduced in the Philippines by the Spanish. It became the upper classes mode of
transport, only the nobles and high ranking official can afford the luxury of kalesa. 

19 Century Transportation
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          In the beginning of the 19th century, the main mode of transportation was still
horses and carriage.  It wasn't until the latter part of the century that railways changed
people's lives. The Stockton and Darlington railway opened in 1825 but the first major
railway was opened on 1830. Then on 1840s new railways were built to connect many
towns of Britain. 

         In 1863 the first underground railway was built in London and in 1890, first electric
underground trains began running also in London.  The first ‘bicycle’ was invented in
Germany by Baron Karl von Drais in 1817. It was called Swiftwalkers. It still mostly
looks what we see now in modern bikes except it doesn’t have pedals. The person
ridding it has to walk a little to push the bike forward in order for it to run. This design
remained the same until the 1860s, when pedals were added to the front wheel. It was
officially named velocipedes, but it was nicknamed as the ‘boneshakers’ as it shook’s
the rider around because of its solid wheels that’s often on rough cobbled roads.
          In late 19 century (1885 to 1886) the first automobiles were invented. Karl Benz a
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German mechanical engineer who designed and  built his Benz-Patent Motorwagen (A
three wheel auto mobile) and Gottlieb Daimler also German mechanical engineer who
presented his motor carriage considering it as the world’s first four wheel automobile.
Gottlieb Daimler with Wilhelm Maybach also knows for inventing the first motorcycle
the “Daimler Reitwagen”. Combustion engine buses were also used in late 19 th

century.  

20 Century Transportation
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          In 20 century transportation greatly improved. The cars became cheaper and
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more common. Air transportation also takes off with Wright Brothers taking their first
flight with their wright flyer on 1903 and 1914 the world’s first scheduled flight with a
paying passenger hopped across the bay separating Tampa and St. Petersburg,
Florida. This was also the time when jeepney became a common transport method in
the Philippines.  

Transportation in the Local Setting

          The colorful, iconic jeepney is the hallmark of Philippine transportation. Jeepneys

in Manila and major cities in particular form the backbone of public transportation and is
very popular because of their convenience and relatively low cost and fare. Jeepney
start as Willys Jeeps left behind when American GIs departed the Philippines at the end
of World War II. Filipinos recycled the vehicles and make it more spacious so it has
more room for passengers. 

          Tricycles are modes of transport that come in a variety of designs. It has a

sidecar with three wheels (standard tricycle). Tricycle routes are usually limited to not
that busy area. No one seems to be sure when the Tricycle first appeared in the
Philippines, but many claim it was first seen during World War II when the Japanese
invaded the Philippines. It is possible that it was inspired from the vehicles that
Japanese forces used on World War 2. Rikuo also known as the Type 97 motorcycle

           Buses are a popular mode of long-distance land transportation in the country.

It’s the main mode of transport for land trips that last an hour to several hours, or
overnight. There are specific terminals and unloading/loading spots for buses. Bus
fleets are relatively more comfortable than jeepneys, although some don’t have air
conditioning and can be quite crowded on peak season.

          Taxis in the Philippines are much common on large cities like manila. It normally
roams around the city streets, picking up or unloading passengers within the city limits.
It’s possible to hire a taxi beyond its route but drivers usually charge extra for the longer
trip. 

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

What is Traffic Management?

          Is an exclusive function such as planning, organizing, directing, supervising,

coordinating, operating, recording, and budgeting traffic affairs.

 Traffic on Road- refers to the movement of persons for the purpose of safe travel.

Legal Basis in the Traffic Management

 R.A 4136 or The Land Transportation and Traffic Code

 R.A 10913 or The Anti-distracted Driving Act of 2006
 R.A 10586 or The Anti-drunk and Drugged Driving Act of 2013
 R.A 8750 or The Seat Belts Use Act of 1999
 R.A 10666 or The Children’s Safety on Motorcycle Act of 2015
 R.A 10054 or The Motorcycle Helmet Act of 2009

Historical Background of Traffic Management 

          For the past two decades, various traffic management measures were planned
and implemented in Metro Manila. Chronologically show traffic management measures
that were undertaken and the consequent results or events that arose from the
implementation of these measures. The major protects that were undertaken before are
briefly described below. The Metro Manila Traffic engineering and management team
project is presented in a separate section.

 One-way System
 Bus waiting shed
 Pedestrian barriers
 Yellow box

Emergence of Problems in Traffic Management

          High number of vehicles which was caused by the population and the
development of economy. Formation of crooked urbanization, the roads are not wide
enough and not linear enough to provide traffic flow quickly.

Innovation to Address Traffic Management

 Traffic Light Optimization

 Parking Zone Extension
 Pedestrian Traffic Monitoring

Formula for Successful Traffic Management     

          Attaining maximum efficiency from the existing road network while minimising
adverse impacts of traffic. It is assuming increased importance in the light of financial
restrictions on road construction and greater community awareness of environment
problems related to road traffic.

Modern Concept of Traffic Management

          Is the organization arrangement, guidance and control of both stationary and
moving traffic, including pedestrians, bicycles, and all types of vehicles.

Intelligent Transport System (ITS)

          Intelligent Transport System (ITS) encompasses the application of technology
such as communication systems, computers, electronics, and information technology to
improve the efficiency and safety of the transportation network.

The Main Tasks Required to Improve Traffic Management

 Consolidate the single road use handbook, all the traffic laws, rules and
regulations , guidelines, must be revised and issued yearly.
 Ensure that each traffic user trained and disciplined.
 Revalidate all drivers’ licenses and certificates of vehicle registration.
 Clear the road network of obstructions.
 Streamlining the traffic adjudication process.
 Fast-track the shift to a mass transit system.
 Complete the basic framework of the road network. 
What is Traffic Congestion?
Traffic Congestion

          A condition on road networks that occurs as use increases and is characterized
by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queuing.

Classification of Traffic Congestion

         The economist William Vickrey identified six causes of congestion, which is

considered the starting point for the modern study of congestion:

Simple interaction on homogeneous roads: where two vehicles travelling close

together delay one another (effectively where one slower vehicle causes vehicles
following it to be delayed).

Multiple interaction on homogeneous roads: where the effect of different speeds of

vehicles causes delay (often seen on motorways when traffic volumes get heavy and
vehicles speed up or slow down to change lanes).

Bottlenecks: where more vehicles are trying to pass through a point where capacity
reduces than it can accommodate.

‘Trigger neck’ congestion: where a source of congestion generates a queue of

vehicles, which in turn delays a vehicle trying to pass through part of the queue on a
journey in a different ultimate direction (e.g. to enter a turning bay).

Network control congestion: where traffic signals, roundabouts or give way/stop signs
used for safety and traffic management start to generate queues in other directions of
flow, or indeed the main flow.

Congestion due to network changes: where attempts to manage congestion (e.g. by

increasing capacity) in one location may cause an increase in downstream congestion,
because the upstream capacity has been increased.

Common Theories of Traffic Congestion

 Three Phase Traffic Theory (Boris Kerner)

          The three phases in traffic are consist of free flow and two congestion phases:
synchronized flow and wide moving jam.

 Theory of Congestion Pricing (William Vickrey)

- Charging fee to drivers from using certain lanes of roadways that
experience congestion.
- Imposed higher cost during the peak times and lower cost during off-peak
hours.

 Traffic Flow Theory

          Seeks to describe the interactions between vehicles, operators (drivers) and

infrastructure (including control devices, signage, markings etc.)

What are the major causes of traffic congestion?/ Specific causes of traffic
congestion

Physical inadequacy. This is characterized by lack of roads, narrow bridges, railroad

crossing, and lack of traffic facilities.

Poor Control Measures. This is characterized by ineffective mechanical control

devices, inefficient traffic officers, and poor implementation of traffic laws, rules and
regulations.

Human Errors. Many traffic congestions are caused by slow drivers or poor driving
habits, pedestrian mistakes, officer’s errors, and poor planning. These are mostly
attributed to traffic accidents.

Poor maintenance. Most of the time, motor vehicles are stalled in traffic ways because
of unrepaired diggings, cracks on road pavement or unfinished road pavement
concreting.

Strategies in Resolving Traffic Congestion

Supply—Side Strategy
          Expansion of the peak-hour carrying capacity of an area s transportation system
seems to be the most intuitively obvious response to greater congestion can be
implemented through diverse means: 

1. Building more roads or widening existing ones in areas that have experienced
rapid growth; and;
2. Making systems more efficient.
3. Demand Side
         One of the demand—side tactics transportation economist advocate is peak—
hour pricing. This is achieved by charging all drivers who use crowded highways during
peak—hours a toll large enough to discourage many others from doing so.

          Another demand—side strategy is shifting peak—hour trips to other times of the

day. This may be achieved by staggering  work hours among different organizations
adopting flextime policies or even four—day weeks. Changing week hours would slightly
more effective at reducing congestion in the morning.

Measures in Traffic Congestion

Mobility Measures

 Volume-to-Capacity Ratio (V/C Ratio): the volume divided by capacity.

 The Level of Service (LOS): a grade from A to F – with A being free flow and F being
very congested.
 Travel Time Index: ratio of average peak travel time to an off-peak (free-flow) standard.
 Travel Delay: the amount of extra time spent traveling due to congestion.
 Percent of Congested Travel

Realibility Measures

 Buffer Index: the extra time (buffer) needed to ensure on-time arrival for most trips.
 Planning Time Index: this measure the extra time most travelers include when planning
peak period trips.

Mitigation of Traffic Congestion

Supply Initiatives

 The Urban Road Network

 Intersections
 Initiative to give priority to public transport
Demand Initiatives

 Road Safety Education

 Staggering of trips
 Parking restrictions
 Road pricing
 Restriction on vehicle use (carless days)

Historical Tales of 3 E’s

          The concepts of traffic although originated in Egypt are being claimed by other countries.
While its sophistication and the principle of the 3E’ s—Enforcement, Engineering, and Education
was developed in Rome, there is however, no historical impediment that the original traffic
philosophy began in Egypt. By historical perspective, 3E’s was dovetailed in Egypt, chiseled in
Rome and upstaged in the U.S. by time and event. It was an indispensable ingredient in the
traffic gems, mined from years after years of event. 

          According to the study of Jacobson, H. (1940), The oldest paved road in history of which
we have an authentic record was built by Khufu about 3000 B.C. (Petrie sets the date about
4000 B.C.), during the 4 Dynasty. In order to transport stones from the quarries on the east side
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of the Nile to the plateau on the opposite side upon which the pyramid was constructed. In
describing the pyramid of Khufu and Its construction, Herodotus places particular emphasis on
the paved road, stating that:

          (Shorten) According to the study of Jacobson, H. (1940), The first known paved road was
built by Khufu around 3000 B.C. (Petrie sets date around 4000 B.C.) during the 4 Dynasty to
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move stones from the east bank quarries to the opposite bank plateau where the pyramid was
built.

          The Nile River has from the beginning required that its flow be controlled otherwise when
it overflowed It submerged the valley destroying everything In its path, and when it was low the
whole country was plunged in great distress. To protect the country from either a shortage or
excess of water, mighty dykes were constructed parallel to the bank while others ran
perpendicular from the river to the Libyan and Arabian hills The dykes not only served to confine
the water, but also served as highways during the inundation so that travel by land was
uninterrupted.

          (Shorten) The Nile River has from the beginning required that its flow be controlled, to
safeguard the country from water shortages or excess of water, massive dykes were built along
to the river and perpendicular to the Libyan and Arabian hills. During the flood, the dykes served
as highways, allowing for uninterrupted land mobility. 

          A system of traffic and control and management was in existing in Babylon in the year
200 B.C. to prevent congestion. 

          In the 1 century BC Julius Caesar banned wheeled traffic from Rome during the daytime,
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a measure gradually extended to cities in the provinces. 

          Late in the 1 century AD the emperor Hadrian was forced to limit the total number of
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carts entering Rome. 

          Congestion was severe enough in European cities of the 17 century to require

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ordinances prohibiting parking on certain streets and establishing one-way traffic. The advent of
the railroad brought temporary relief to the growing problem of road traffic control, though it
created congestion at terminals inside cities. 

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

What is Trafficking Engineering?

 The science of measuring traffic and travel. 

 It is the part of transportation which its functions are planning, geometric design
and traffic operations of roads, streets and highways their networks terminals
abutting lands and correlation with other modes of transportation

Agencies concerns of Traffic Engineering

I. DPWH– responsible for determining traffic law, pattern, their origin, and
destinations, studies of persons and things, planning, approving, funding and
construction of.

II. Provincial Government– municipalities within the province.

III. Municipal Government– network of streets and roads within the barangays.

IV. Chartered Cities– barangays within the cities

Functions of Traffic Engineering

 Fact-finding, surveys and recommendations of traffic rules and regulations.

 Supervision and maintenance to the application of traffic control devices
 Planning of traffic regulations

Objectives of Traffic Engineering

1. To achieve traffic efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic. 

2. To prevent traffic accident.
 3. To simplify police of enforcement actions and performance.
4. For show that good police actions and performance make engineering
plans effective.
5. To present the close relationship of the pillars of traffic in the improvement
of traffic problems.

Application to the Objectives of Traffic Engineering

 Habitually congested areas

 Heavily travelled thoroughfare
 Congested local areas and intersection
 Special occasion events
 Disaster or emergencies
 School crossing

Traffic Control – It is the practice of traffic engineering, wherein It employs the

prescribed traffic rules and regulations and different devices to ensure and encourage
safety and mobility

Measures employed to control traffic

-Prescribing traffic regulation law and rules 

-Use of traffic control device

Traffic Control Devices – These are structures and devices installed in order to ensure
the mobility, efficiency and safety of traffic.

Types of Traffic Control Devices

 Traffic signs or road signs– devices made up of metal plates designed to

provide information to road users.
 Pavement or road markings– device is marked on the surface of the road used
to guide road users.
 Traffic lights/ signals– electrical device designed to control traffic at intersection
or crossings.
 Traffic island– raised concrete portions of roadways that guide traffic
Classification of Traffic Control Devices 
 Regulatory Device- device designed to inform the road users on traffic laws and
rules on traffic control.
 Warning Device- device designed to inform the road users of risk and threats
that may be encountered.
 Guiding Device- device used to inform road users about routes and distance of
any locations.

What is Traffic Signal?

Traffic Signal – are lights that tell drivers when or where they should stop and go and
who should be given the right-of-way.  

 Red – Stop prior to the pedestrian crosswalk, stop bar or roadway-edge

line. Do not enter the intersection 

 Yellow – Right of way is expiring. Clear the intersection. Red light will
follow immediately. 

 Green – When traffic has cleared and it is safe to do so, you may enter
the intersection.

Classification of Traffic Signals

 Traffic Control Signals

A. Fixed time signals – are set to repeat regularly a cycle of red, amber and green
lights. The timing demand to clear off the intersection with the help of detectors
which are installed at the approaches. These are very costly.  
 B. Manually operated signals – In these types of traffic signals, the traffic police
control the traffic demand from a suitable point during the high peak hours at the
intersection and vary the timings of these phases and cycle accordingly. This
method used when there is vary low traffic which is handle by traffic police
officers.

C. Traffic actuated (automatic) signals – These types of traffic signals are those
in which the timings of the phase and cycle time are changed according to the
traffic demand. The vehicles on any intersection approach are sensed by a
detecting device (e.g., magnetic tape, loops, or pneumatic pads) placed in the
road. By recording the vehicles as they cross the detector and by timing the
interval between vehicles, the signals are automatically adjusted to give
preference to the approach with the heaviest flow.  

 Pedestrian signals

          These types of traffic signals are basically used for the pedestrian. These types of
signals are provided on various locations like schools, colleges, offices, and many
more.  

 Special traffic signals

          These types of traffic signals are used to warn the traffic flow. When there is a red
flashing signal, the drivers of vehicles must stop before entering the nearest cross walk
at the intersection or at a stop line where marked. Flashing of yellow signals are
used to direct the drivers of the vehicular traffic to proceed with caution.

Evolution of Traffic Lights

 The First Gas-Lit Traffic Lights 

          On December 10, 1868, the first gas-lit traffic lights were installed outside the
Houses of Parliament in London. This model was proposed by a British railway
engineer, J.P Knight. It was implemented to control the traffic of horse carriages in the
area, and to allow pedestrians to safely cross the roads.
          The gas-fueled lights needed to be manually controlled by a police officer using
semaphore arms. 

 The First Electric Traffic Lights

          In 1912, an American policeman, Lester Wire, who was concerned with the
increasing traffic, came up with the idea of the first electric traffic light. Based on Wire’s
design, the lights were first installed in Cleveland, Ohio, on August 5, 1914, at the
corner of 105 and Euclid Avenue.
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          At that time, it was said that this invention would revolutionize the handling of
traffic in congested cities. As it turned out, the modern traffic system still works on the
same principle as Wire’s original system. 

 The First Four-way and Three-color Traffic Lights

          In the year 1920, a policeman named William Potts in Detroit, Michigan invented
the first four-way and three-colored traffic lights. Detroit became the first city to
implement the four-way and three-colored traffic lights. The idea of having a third
“warning” light was also patented by African-American inventor, businessman Garrett
Augustus Morgan, Sr. in the year 1923. 

 Traffic Lights That Detect Vehicle Honks

          An inventor named Charles Adler Jr. had the idea of inventing a signal that could
detect vehicles’ honking and change signals accordingly. A microphone was mounted
on the pole of the signal, and once the vehicle reached the signal, all it needed to do
was honk and the light would change.  Adler also invented a pedestrian push button,
which was installed in Baltimore—the first pedestrian-actuated signal.

 The Computerization of Traffic Lights

          In the 1960’s, with the invention of computers, traffic lights started to become
computerized. Over time, computers improved, and the traffic lights subsequently
improved, and they could now monitor traffic and change lights accordingly. Based on
the software, the traffic of a city could now be predicted and accordingly controlled.
          The computer also monitors the weather and their operation can be changed
depending on the weather. The lights can also be adjusted in the case of emergencies,
so computers have vastly improved the handling of traffic and increased total road
safety.

 Countdown Timer

          The countdown timer helps pedestrians know whether they have enough time to
cross the road before the signal changes color.

 Rain Sensing Lights

          City of Rotterdam in the Netherlands has introduced bicycle traffic lights fitted with
a rain sensor. When it is raining, these lights give higher priority to bicycle lanes at an
intersection.

 The Future of Traffic Lights

          The number of vehicles on the road has been drastically increasing every year
and will continue to increase, so traffic signals must continue to improve to
accommodate these higher amounts of traffic.

Primary Purposes of Signal control

          The primary purpose of a traffic signal is to assign the right-of-way to vehicles at

intersecting streets or highways. Without this control, a continuous flow of traffic on one
roadway would cause excessive delay to vehicles and pedestrians waiting on the other.

 Maintain a safe flow of traffic.

 From managing travel times to preserving safe roadways, the majority of traffic
signals are designed to keep cars, pedestrians, cyclists, and anyone else using
the road safe.
 Keep pedestrians and vehicles safe.
 When it comes to intersections, crosswalks, school zones, and other places
where there’s a good deal of both vehicular and foot traffic, traffic signals help
communicate potential risk areas for both drivers and pedestrians. The signs that
let you know a stoplight is around a curve, for example, prevent crashes or
 vehicle-pedestrian collisions by alerting drivers of a sudden or unexpected stop
or slow down on the road.
 Minimize accident frequency and severity.
 Traffic signals also play a role in limiting the amount and intensity of accidents
that do happen. People aren’t infallible, so accidents happen even in some of the
safest environments. In situations like this, limiting speeds or designing a series
of signals to slow or stop traffic can at the very least reduce the impact of
accidents that do happen.

Classification of Traffic Signs

A. Regulatory Sign – Signs that inform road users of traffic laws and regulations which,
if disregarded, will constitute an offense.

 1. Priority Sign –  Stop Sign, driver must stop at designated STOP LINE.

 2. Direction Signs –These signs indicate the only direction(s) in which the motorist is
obliged to follow. Example is one way.

 3. Prohibitive / Restriction Signs – These signs indicate the only direction(s) in which
the motorist is obliged to follow. Example is no entry.

  4. Speed Signs (ex: Maximum speed restriction, End of speed restriction, Minimum
speed restriction)

  5. Parking Signs (ex: No loading and unloading zone. No waiting, no parking)

  6. Miscellaneous

B. Warning Signs – Signs used to warn motorists of potentially hazardous conditions

on or adjacent to the road. It advise motorists of road conditions that require caution and
may call for a reduction in speed, in the interest of safety and that of other road users.

 1. Horizontal Signs – used to indicate the type of road curve ahead of the motorist.

2. Intersection Signs – when one approaches an intersection or junction.

3. Advance Warning/Traffic Control Device Signs – when one approaches an
intersection or junction. Example po ditto ay traffic light ahead . 
4. Road Width Signs – (ex: 2 way road ahead end of 2 way road ahead)
5. Road obstacle – (ex: flood prone area, landslide prone area)
 6. Pedestrian School Signs ito po yung mga pedestrian crossing ahead, be aware
and stop for persons with disabilities.
7. Railway Crossing Signs – (ex: Railroad crossing vehicles must stop or give the
right way.)
8. Supplementary Signs – (ex: Distance to next hazard area)
9. Other Warning signs – (ex: low clearance 4.80m clearance 5.20 m)

C. Guide / Informative Signs

1. Advance Direction Signs – These signs indicate the only direction(s) in which the
motorist is obliged to follow.

2. Intersection Direction Signs – Visible in less than 1 kilometer before an intersection

3. Reassurance Direction Signs – Approximate distance of a particular exit

4. Finger Board Direction Signs – Provides direction to towns, tourist spots,

geographic interests at less important intersections.

5. Street Name Signs – Informs the road users the names of roads and streets they
are passing orienteering.

6. Town Names & Geographical Feature Signs – Signs that conveys the general
information of interest, such as geographical locations.

7. Service Signs

8. Tourist Information & Tourist Destination Signs 

9. Route Markers – The identification and general direction of arterial roads and
national highways that have significance by showing the number and direction of the
route. 

10. Asian Highway Route Markers – These are the Advance directional signs with
route marker shield.

 D. Signs on Expressway – These signs is essential for the driver to have advance
information to ensure that they can position their vehicles in the correct lanes.

1. Expressway Approach Signs – Installed in advance or at the nearest intersection or

interchange leading to the expressway.

2.Expressway Information Signs – PROHIBITED ON EXPRESSWAY Advance

information that prohibits traveling on an expressway.
3. Advance Exit Signs – Erected in advance of an exit toll.

4. Expressway Exit Direction Signs – Exit signs posted overhead before the exit ramp
of the interchange.

5.Expressway Service Signs –  example po ay Distance and direction to various

expressway services.

6. Start And End Of Expressway Signs

7. Drivers must prepare to stop and pay the tollfees

8. Expressway Traffic Instruction and Regulatory Signs – These special signs are
normally exclusively for expressways.

E. Traffic Instruction Signs

          These signs instruct the motorists to follow a direction or to obey a course of

action. It is in conjunction with regulatory or warning signs to form a standard treatment,
and to support the operation of traffic rules.

F. Hazard Markers

          These are used to emphasize to the approaching driver a marked change in the
direction of travel and the presence of an obstruction.

G. Road Work Sign

Meaning of colors:

 Blue – Mandatory action and service areas

 Brown – Tourist-oriented signs
 Fluorescent yellow-green – Pedestrians
 Green – Direction guidance
 Red – regulation, prohibition, and warning

Sign shapes:

 Octagon – Stop sign

 Equilateral triangle (with one vertical point downward) – Give way
  Circle – Regulatory signs (Circular signs may be placed on rectangular plates
with text for additional information)
 Equilateral triangle (with one vertical point upward) – Warning signs (Older
pedestrian related warning signs used the equilateral triangle.)
 Rectangle (with long axis horizontal) – Directional signs, service signs,
roadwork signs, special use signs, and supplementary plates for warning signs.
 Rectangle (with long axis vertical) – Facility information signs, traffic
instruction signs, guide signs, and destinations of point of interest.
 Pentagon – pedestrian-related warning signs

Design of a highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the
highway such as horizontal and vertical alignments, sight distances and intersections. 

The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide efficiency in traffic operations

with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

1. National Primary

a. Directly connects Major Cities (at least around 100,000 people) cities within
Metropolitan Areas are not covered by the criteria

2. National Secondary

a. Directly connects Cities to National Primary Roads, except in Metropolitan

Area.
b. Directly connects Major Ports and Ferry Terminals to National Primary
Road.
c. Directly connects Major Airports to National Primary Road
d. Directly connects Tourist Service Centers to National Primary Roads or
other-
e. Directly connects Cities (not included in the category of Major Cities)
f. Directly connects Provincial Capitals within the same Region
g. Directly connects to Major National Government Infrastructure to National
Primary
h. Roads or Other National Secondary Roads
3. National Tertiary

a. Other existing roads under DPWH which perform a local function

4. Provincial Roads (Local Roads)

a. Connect Cities and Municipalities without traversing National Roads

b. Connect National Roads to Barangays through rural areas
c. Connect to Major Provincial Government Infrastructure

5. Municipal and City Roads (Local Roads)

a. Roads within the Poblacion

b. Roads that connect to Provincial and National Roads
c. Roads that provide Inter-Barangay connections to Major Municipal and
d. City Infrastructure without traversing Provincial Roads

6. Barangay Roads (Local Roads) – Other Public Roads (officially turned over)
within the Barangay and not covered in the above definitions.

7. Expressways – Highways with limited access, normally with interchanges; may

include facilities for levying tolls for passage in an open or closed system.

8. Bypasses – Are roads or highways that avoid a built-up area, town or city proper
to let through traffic flow without interference from local traffic reduce congestion
and improve road safety where a toll for passage is levied in an open or closed
system.
Avenue – A straight road lined with trees. It can be used by the public as well as by any
vehicles. Traffic is not common in an avenue as vehicles can move fast as there are no
roadways on either side. It is most common in urban areas.

Boulevard – Common in urban areas, this is a wide road that has vegetation and trees
on both sides and has a median in the middle. The median serves the purpose of
separating the directions of the lanes. It has parking areas on both sides, hence should
be traversed slowly. It is also common for a boulevard to have stores and shops on
either side. An avenue is a straight road lined with trees. A boulevard, on the contrary, is
a wide road that has vegetation and trees on both sides and has a median in the
middle.

What is Intersection?

 It is an at-grade junction where two or more roads converge, diverge, meet or cross. 
 At all intersections without “stop” or “yield” signs, slow down and prepare to stop.
Yield to vehicles already in the intersection or about to enter it.
 Yield to the vehicle on your right if it has reached the intersection of the same time
as your vehicle. 

Types of Intersection

COMMON TYPE

I. A four-way intersection. A four-way intersection is the most common type and

involves crossing of two roadways. 

II. T-Junction Intersection. It is an intersection at which a minor roadway meets a

major roadway.  

III. Y-Intersection. It has  3 sections, like T-junction, but one (1) roadway meets
another roadway of equal size, sometimes appearing as if the two road ways join
to form one road.
 IV.  A Traffic Circle (Rotonda). It is often used to control an intersection of four or
more roadways.

V. A “Fork”. It is an actual type of intersection when two roadways meet. One lane
of the main road divides into two with one mini-lane connecting with a joining
road and the other mini-lane continuing along the road's original path. 

VI. Turning Lanes. It appears at intersections that have a heavy amount of traffic.
These lanes are designated for drivers who desire to turn left at an intersection
and are usually controlled by a traffic light. Turning lanes are label with a painted
arrow on the pavement. An arrow will also appear on the traffic light controlling
the turning lane. If you position your vehicle within a turning lane at an
intersection, you must follow through with the turn.

VII. Controlled or Uncontrolled Intersection

Controlled Intersection. 
Are most common and refer to those that employ stop signs or traffic
signals.  
Uncontrolled Intersection. Are found primarily in rural areas with little traffic.

VIII. Pedestrian Crosswalk. Intersections are common areas for pedestrian

crosswalks., particularly in urban areas. 

BASIC TYPE

I. Three-leg Intersection
II. Four-leg Intersection
III. Multi-leg Intersection
IV. Roundabouts Intersection

Classification of Intersection
Intersections are classified in two broad groups: 

 At-Grade Intersection. All roads meet at the same level, almost all types of traffic
maneuvers are involved in this type of intersection.

 Grade Separated Intersection. The intersecting roads are separated by different in

level, thus eliminating the crossing maneuver. The turning movements between the
grade separated crossroads are enabled by suitable interchange facilities.

Fundamental Principle of Intersection

1. Uniformity and Simplicity. Intersections must be designed and operated for

simplicity and uniformity. The design must keep the capabilities and limitation of
drivers, pedestrians and vehicles using intersection. It should be based on a
knowledge of what a driver will do rather than what he should do. All the
intersection movements should be obvious to the drivers, even if he is a stranger
to the area thus maintaining uniformity.

2. Minimize Conflict Points. any location having merging, diverging or crossing

maneuvers of two vehicles is a potential conflict point. The main objective of the
intersection design is to minimize the number and severity of potential conflicts
between cars, buses, trucks, bicycles and pedestrians and whenever possible,
these should be separated. 
 Space separation- by access control islands through channelizing
 Time separation- by traffic signals on waiting lanes.

3. Safety. The safety of a particular design can best be assessed by studying the
frequency with which types of accidents occur at a particular type of intersection
and its correlation with volume and type of traffic.

4. Alignment and profile. The intersecting roads shall meet at or nearly at right
angle. Intersection on sharp curves should be avoided because the super
elevation and widening of pavement complicates the design.
 5. Encourage low vehicle speeds on the approached to right-angle
intersection. Minor road vehicles intending to cut across major road traffic
should approach the intersection slowly so that they can easily stop and give way
to through traffic. This can be achieved by funneling by traffic islands, chicanes
etc.

6. Favor high priority traffic movements. The operating characteristics and

layout of an intersection should deliberately favor the intended high-priority
movements. This principle, principle generally improves intersection capacity as
well as safety.

7. Discourage undesirable traffic movements. Traffic islands and corner radii

can be used to discourage motorists from taking undesirable travel paths, and
encourage them to take defined ones. 

8. Provide reference markers for road users. Drivers should be provided with
appropriate references at intersections. (ex: Stop/Give Way lines which indicate
where, say, the lead vehicle in a minor road traffic stream should stop until a
suitable entry gap appears in the main road stream.) 

9. Provide advance warning for change.  Drivers should never be suddenly faced
with unexpected. Advance signing that warns of intersection ahead should be
provided on minor roads leading to controlled intersections, on all roads where
visibility is restricted prior to an intersection, and on high-speed roads where it is
desirable to cause vehicles to slow.

10. Illuminate intersections wherever possible. Priority for lighting a night should
be given to intersections with heavy pedestrian flows and/or with heavy vehicular
flows, at roundabouts and where raised channelization islands intrude on what
might be considered the ‘natural’ vehicle pathways, and where an interesting
road already has lighting.

What is Channelization?

          It is the separation of divergent traffic flows within a roadway. 

Principles of Channelization

a. Reduction of the area of conflict. The impact area is decreased when

channelization is provided, and hence the probability of conflicts is also reduced.
b. Merging traffic streams at small angles. Merging at small angles permits the
flow of traffic streams with minimum speed differentials. Hence, the gap
acceptance time is also small in such cases.
c. Reduction of the speed of incoming traffic by bending its path. The speed of
vehicles entering into the intersection can be reduced by bending the path to the
intersection approach. However, as far as possible the path of the major traffic
stream should not be bent.
d. Reduction of speed of traffic by funneling. The funneling technique can also
be used for reducing the speeds of the incoming vehicles, Due to the decrease in
the width of the lane at the approach, the drivers tend to reduce the speed of
their vehicles near the intersection.
e. Protection for turning vehicles/crossing conflicting traffic streams.
Provision of a refuge area between the two opposing streams allows the driver of
a crossing vehicle to select a safe gap in one stream at a time and also provides
a safer crossing maneuver.
f. Discourage prohibited turns by island placement and shape. Undesirable
and prohibited turns can be discouraged by the proper selection of shape and
location of the islands.
g. Providing locations of traffic control devices. Channelization may provide
locations for the installation of essential traffic control devices, such as stop and
directional signs, signals.

Lane Filter- Lane Filtering is when a motorcycle rider moves alongside vehicles that have
either stopped or are moving slowly. (Less than 30kph)  

Lane Splitting- is when the traffic is moving moderately (more than 30kph) and when a
motorcycle rider moves alongside vehicles. 
 TRAFFIC EDUCATION

What is Traffic Education?

 It is the process of giving training and practice in the actual application of traffic
safety knowledge.
 Is the education which describes the traffic rules and regulations in a clear and
simple way.
  Is the making of a whole person, of human and human being, of civilized or
cultured individual inculcation in the youth of norms, moral and ethical behavior,
good manner and right conduct.
 
 
Agencies and Offices responsible for Traffic Education
 Schools (public and private)
 Public information programs
 Citizen support group
 
 
4 Phases of Traffic Education
 Phase 1: Seminars for Government-employed drivers and public entity drivers
 
A. Overview of the transportation and traffic state of the country.
 B. Ethics, value formation and road courtesy.
C. Responsibility of drivers.
D. Driving manners
E. Traffic safety (defensive driving and basic troubleshooting); and
F. Traffic rules and regulations.
 
Phase 2: Training and their Accreditation
 
A. An organizing traffic safety education and promotion;
B. Guidelines for traffic safety education efficiency;
C. Role of Traffic Police and Traffic Enforcement;
D. Driver license system and driver school system; and
E.  Reeducation system for traffic offenders.
 
Phase 3: Seminars for Private Drivers
A. Overview of the transportation and traffic state of the country.
B. Ethics, value formation and road courtesy.
C. Responsibility of drivers.
D. Driving manners
E. Traffic safety (defensive driving and basic troubleshooting); and
F. Traffic rules and regulations
 
Phase 4: Development of Training Aids and Materials
 
A. Various textbooks for seminars.
B. A series of video programs for training on driving manner;
C. A weekly published in a major newspaper reporting the traffic situation; and
D. Propaganda by TV Sports and radio broadcasts.
 
Significance of Traffic Education
          As people become more independent, they are exposed to increase risks,
especially teenagers are an important group of road users. Many are unaware that
road incidents are the biggest cause for serious accidents and deaths. It is necessary
to teach all the road safety measures clearly to avoid accidents.
 
Necessity of Traffic education
          Traffic Education plays an important role in shaping the attitudes and behaviors
of children and young people ensuring they become responsibke drivers, passengers,
pedestrians and cyclists.
 
Relevance of Traffic Education
 
“A child who learns about Traffic Rules and Road Discipline will grow up to be a law-
abiding citizen. The habit of obeying Traffic Rules teaches a person a sense of
responsibility, empathy for others and respecting the other person’s rights.” 
– The Hindu
 

 
Basic Points to consider in Traffic Education
 
1. Awareness of Traffic Signs
  Hand Signals- help you to avoid so many confusions as well as
accidents.
 Direction indications- are very much useful especially during the time
travelling.
 Traffic Signs and Symbols- every important junction has traffic lights
and indicating different meaning that allow safe walking and travelling.

 
 
2. Speeding Limit
 
 By setting permissible speed limit, you will be able to control traffic and
thus ensure student road safety.
 
3. Always wear shields
 
 Seat belts should be made compulsory for ensuring student road safety.
You can persuade student using two wheelers too use helmets to avoid
unwanted head injury.
 
 4. Maintenance of Vehicle 
 
 Before taking vehicle to road, it is necessary for you to check the
condition of vehicles. You should check out the petrol/diesel limit, bald
tires, glass wipers etc. carefully.
 
5. Implement the driver violation point system
 
  This system is designed to identify and take action against high risk
drivers. Certain points are given for various traffic violation such as
reckless driving, speeding, use of cellphones while driving, inadequate
brakes, not using of seatbelts and also it is recorded in the driving record.
 
6. Benefit of Drivers
 
  Vehicle insurance is having more importance and should be mandatory
for driving on the road.
 
7. Proper road maintenance and warning
 
 Warnings signs in vehicles should be shown in big letters so that others
can see it properly and move accordingly.
 
 
Implementing effective Traffic education
 
          MMDA (Metro Manila Development Authority) has been endorsing the move
to make traffic education a part of the school curriculum.
          The approach as to help guide teachers on how to teach their student about the
responsible use of roads as a commuter. A driver or a pedestrian through a formal
teaching module prepared by a government agency especially tasked to deal with
Traffic Management and education. – The UP NCTS (National Center for
Transporation studies.)
 

Possible Causes of Road Accidents We Encounter 

1. Distracted Driving
          Without a doubt, distracted driving is the number one cause of car accidents
across the country. A distracted driver is one that doesn’t have their complete attention
on the road. They may be paying closer attention to a mobile device, passengers, or
even a cheeseburger. Remember that your only job when you are behind the wheel is
to get where you are going safely.

2. Speeding

          We have all had drivers blast past us on the highway, even when we were going
over the speed limit ourselves. It is not unusual for people to drive 10, 15, or even 20
miles over the posted speed limit. Keep in mind that the faster you drive, the slower
your reaction time. If you need to prevent an accident while you are driving at 20 miles
over the limit, chances are very high that the accident won’t be prevented at all.

3. Drunk Driving

          Any person who drinks and gets behind the wheel is a danger to themselves and
others. When you drink, your senses and cognitive functions are dulled. Get behind the
wheel and your reaction times are slowed and your decision-making capabilities are
compromised. If you decide to drink, find a sober part to take you home.

4. Reckless Driving

          Weaving in and out of traffic. Tailgating. Cutting other drivers off. These are all
examples of reckless driving and each can cause a very serious accident. If you see
anyone driving like this around you, back off and give them space. There is nothing you
are going to do that is going to make the driver more safely. Protect yourself and call
911.

5. Inclement Weather

          More specifically, rain. Water creates slick roadways and can cause cars to slip
and slide without warning. If you are stuck in a rainstorm, drive extra carefully. Even if
you think your tires are sticking to the road as they should, chances are that they aren’t.
Don’t risk it.
          Many accidents can be avoided if people only paid more attention or made better
decisions. There are dozens of reasons that accidents occur and, in truth, some simply
can’t be predicted. Things like drunk driving, reckless driving, and speeding, for
example, are solely at the discretion of the driver.
 
Implementing Effective Traffic Education
  Know your Safety Signals
 Be Careful While Crossing Road 
 Always Pay Attention and Listen to Warnings
 Never run on Busy Road 
 Never Multitask While Walking on Roads

Measuring Effectiveness Traffic Education

          Traffic education can encourage you to take necessary action that will make
your children safe, secure and thereby help them to have awareness about road safety.
In Traffic Safety Education, you have a vital role to play in forming and developing
various skills related to road safety.

Characteristics of a Good Traffic Education

1. Students will have the skills and knowledge to cross the road safely.
2. Students will identify hazards on or near the road and be careful near these. 
3. Students will demonstrate appropriate behaviours in and around a vehicle. 
4. Students will be able to ask for help with a road safety problem.
5. Students demonstrate knowledge of traffic law relevant to them, and to other
road users they may encounter. 
6. Students develop skills to identify and respond to traffic hazards. 
7. Students understand the importance of being a good role model to others when
using the road.
8. Students demonstrate knowledge of traffic law relevant to them, and to other
road users they may encounter. Students develop skills to identify and respond
to traffic hazards. Students understand the importance of being a good role
model to others when using the road.

DOES TRAFFIC EDUCATION ANSWERS EVERYTHING?

 Just like every road safety measure, traffic education also has its limitations.
Although human errors are 'responsible for the vast majority of road crashes,
traffic education is only an effective measure if humans make these errors
because of the lack of knowledge, insight, or skills that could be acquired by
education. In other cases, like when errors are made because of the high
complexity of the task, education cannot offer the solution.
  Traffic education can't answer everything but it can help anyone to understand
the importance of safety on the road when walking as a pedestrian or as one
driving a vehicles.
 Traffic education which describes the traffic rules and regulations in a clear and
simple ways.
 Lastly traffic education encourages everyone to learn about road safety. It seeks
to develop the behaviours and attitudes for safe road use relevant to the
development of children and young people as passenger
Traffic Education that Works for Safety:
Road safety education is very much essential in today’s world as road traffic is
becoming increasingly busy.
Most of the educational institutions now organize road safety education for
improving student road safety. This will contain educational activities that help you to
gain more knowledge about road safety
Considerations in Traffic Education:
You should give appropriate education regarding student road safety to
children as well as young ones to let them be aware about road safety and the
importance of learning it. Just like other social things, road safety education is
necessary and it should be started right from your kid’s childhood.

Principle of Selective Education:

 Overarching Principle - Implement evidence-based road safety education

programs and initiatives in schools and include local research and current
legislation where available.
 Curriculum - School management supports staff to effectively implement road
safety education by ensuring access to available resources and professional
learning opportunities.
 Ethos and Environment - Consult the wider school community when developing
road safety guidelines and then disseminate this information to families and
monitor implementation.
 Parents and Community - Provide parents with information that will assist them
to reinforce appropriate road safety messages and skills (including school
guidelines) at home.

End-Products of Traffic Education:

 Not much is known about the effects of traffic education. An effect on the crash rate
has not yet been demonstrated. Some evaluations indicate that traffic education can
have an effect on (self-reported) attitude or behaviour, provided the program is properly
set up.

10 Commandments of Traffic
Keep Right - The driver of a motor vehicle shall always drive his motor vehicle to the
right except when overtaking another vehicle proceeding in the same direction and shall
pass at a safe distance to the left thereof. Except that on a highway within a business or
residential district, having 2 or more lanes for the movement of traffic in one direction
the driver of a vehicle may overtake and pass another vehicle on the right.
Under Sec. 39, RA 4136 – An act to compile the laws relative to land transportation and
traffic rules to create a land transportation commission and for other purpose.
Observe Road Courtesy - One must yield to emergency vehicles, pedestrians, trains,
vehicles with the right of way, vehicles ahead, large vehicles, uphill traffic, traffic within
momentum, straight traffic and traffic signs.
Prohibited Parking - Vehicles should not be parked near or within intersection. On
crosswalk or pedestrian lane. Double parking and at the foot of the bridge.
If In Doubt, Do Not Overtake - In general, the overtaking lane is the lane to the left of
the overtaken vehicle going in the same direction. General rule, first is signal the
intention, second, see if the overtaking lane is clearly visible and free. Lastly, maneuver
at own risk to overtake and pass the other vehicle safely at a distance to the side of the
overtaken vehicle when a lane is clear.
The Bus Stop Rule - The bus queue up in a single file in their order of arrival.
Any bus has the option to move out of the area anytime or bypasses a bus stop.
There shall be no doubling up bat any point in the bus stop zone.
Rules to Prevent or Untangle Traffic Jams - Keep opposing lanes and intersection
open. In heavy, slow or stopped traffic, there shall be no overtaking. In construction, the
vehicle should merge alternately.
Observe the Traffic Management Measures - Like the bus yellow lane, bus stop
segregation scheme, truck ban, counter flow-reversible lane, one way, carpool (atleast
three passenger in EDSA) odd-even scheme and restraints in turning.
The Philosophy of A Pinoy Driver - The motorists should observe equity of the lead
vehicle, doctrine of the last clear chance and the first-come-first-served or Rotonda
Rule.
On Pedestrian - Keep off road way except to cross on crosswalk. Wait, embark and
alight, at bus or jeep stop.
Remember the International Driving Safety Reminder - Safety First.

TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT
Traffic enforcement is normally referred to, as the supervision of road users'
compliance, with the traffic legislation, and punishment for non-compliance. The aim of
enforcement is to prevent the occurrence of road traffic violations by means of control
and punitive sanctions.

Regulatory agencies and its history.

• The invention of the means of locomotion started the concept of land
transportation in the Philippines
• During the early times the means of transportation used was animals to
transport goods and people place to place.
• They also observed rules to govern to transportation one of which is the
specification of animals to be used for certain purposes.
Legislative Act No. 2159 amended by 2256, 2309, 2587, 2639 and 2925
• Enacted on February 6, 1912 to regulate motor vehicles in the Philippine islands
• Provide for regulation and licensing operators.
• First formal law on land transportation

Revised motor vehicle law Act no. 3992

• Enacted on January 01, 1933 and was amended by Act No. 123, 548, 612, 314,
587, and 2383.
• Auto mobile division was renamed division of motor vehicle.
• Chief of division is called superintendent of division of motor vehicles.

Department order no. 4

• Enacted on June 2, 1945
• Issue of public works and highways by the division
• Took effect after the liberation of the Philippine from Japanese invasion.
Land Transportation and Traffic code
• Abolished the motor vehicle office and created land transportation Commission
• Provided that the LTC shall control as far as they apply, the registration and
operation of motor vehicles and the licensing of owners, dealers, conductors,
drivers and similar matters.
• LTC established regional offices in various parts of county to effectively carry out
the mandate.

Executive order no. 546

• promulgated created the Ministry of Transportation and Communication (MOTC)
• The land Transportation Commissioned was renamed as the bureau of land
transportation and was absorbed by MOTC.

Executive order 1011

 • this executive order nullified the Board of Transportation and established the land
Transportation Commission
• On January 30, 1987, the land transportation Commission was abolished and
two offices were created, namely land Transportation office (LTO) and the land
Transportation Franchising and regulatory board (LFTRB)S

Executive order 1011

• this executive order nullified the Board of Transportation and established the land
Transportation Commission
• On January 30, 1987, the land transportation Commission was abolished and
two offices were created, namely land Transportation office (LTO) and the land
Transportation Franchising and regulatory board (LFTRB)S

Objectives of Traffic Enforcement

• To increase safety level – enforcement effort should be directed towards the
reduction of accidents or minimizing their effects.
• To increase traffic efficiency – when traffic violators are reduced particularly
those related to traffic obstruction through an effective enforcement, there will be
free flow of traffic.
• To insure harmonious and comfortable environment – when there is an
increase safety level and increase traffic efficiency, traveling is more comfortable
and luxurious and it may reduce chaotic situation in the traffic way.

Kinds of Enforcement Action

Traffic Arrest – Consist of taking a person into custody for the purpose of holding or
detaining him to answer a charge of law violation.
1. If the offense is committed is very serious.
2. The detention is necessary to avoid continued violation.
3. There is reasonable doubt that the violator will appear in court.

Traffic Citation – means of having violator appear in court without physical arrest.
 1. Traffic Citation Ticket
It is a notice issued by a law enforcement official to a motorist or other road user,
indicating that the user has violated traffic laws.
2. Traffic Operators Permit
Temporary Operators Permit shall be used in apprehension of all violations and
it is strictly required to be issued to the apprehended driver/operator at the site and time
of apprehension.

Traffic Warning – it is the enforcement action does not contemplate possible

assessment of penalty by the court, or otherwise as a result of warning alone.
Visual Warning – Usually used when you have observed a minor violation but
are more importantly occupied at the moment indicate by gesture of the hand
and/or the head.
Verbal Warning – A form of safety education. Explain to the driver/violator the
law he violated and the hazards of such violations.
Written Warning – combination of verbal warning and citation. This is seldom
used nowadays.

ROAD CHECK
This is another enforcement activity which involves the conduct of actual
inspection of vehicles and motorist on the roads.

OBJECTIVES OF ROAD CHECK

-Faulty vehicle equipment
-Registration and licensing violations
-Intoxicated drivers
-The load or cargo of commercial transportation vehicle for load weight.

Systems of Traffic Enforcement

Speed Cameras
 One of the most frequent uses of automatic enforcement is the
enforcement of speed limits using speed cameras. This requires a specialised
speed camera that will measure the speed of each vehicle.
Red Light Evasion
Red light evasion ("red light running") at traffic signals can lead to serious
accidents and it is extremely important that the traffic lights are observed.
Railway Level Crossing
Where a railway (railroad) crosses a road or highway at a level crossing (“at-
grade" crossing) there is always a potential safety issue.
Heavy Vehicle (Truck) Monitoring
Heavy vehicles (trucks in particular) are often driven continuously by a
single driver, accidents often result from fatigue. In many countries, there are
regulations that specify the maximum amount of continuous driving time that is
permitted.
Weight in Motion
Weigh-in-Motion (WiM) systems use a sensor on the road to measure
each vehicle’s axle weight.
Traffic Enforcement Patrol
Traffic Patrol is that part of the officer's activity in which he or she moves about,
driving or walking, within a designated geographical area or along a given roadway for
the general purpose of traffic surveillance.

Five Essential Steps in the Enforcement Process

• Detection (of violation) – A police responsibility that entails looking for defects
in the behavior of motorists. Requires knowledge of law on the part of the police.
• Apprehension – It is also a police function which involves the actual taking of
enforcement actions.
• Prosecution – this area is handled by the prosecution and partly the court
where the police also provides corresponding influences through preparation and
introduction of evidence or close contact with the prosecuting officer.
 • Adjudication – a court and prosecution’s function. The police also influence in
the step by acting as witness to the prosecution or supplying additional evidence.
This step determines the guilt or innocence of the accused.
• Penalization – after due process, the court imposes the penalty upon the
accused once found guilty. The penalty is greatly influenced by previous records
conviction as provided by the police. Penalty involves either a fine or
imprisonment or both, it may also result to the suspension or revocation of the
driver’s license of the accused.

KINDS OF TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT ACTION

For deterrence:
Traffic Surveillance
Ways to Conduct Traffic Surveillance
1. Conspicuous surveillance. The police officer tries to attract attention
by remaining in full view of traffic
2. Visible surveillance. The police officer is located in full view, but in
such a manner as to require careful attention to be discovered
3. Concealed surveillance. The police officer is not visible to persons
on the roadway during the course of their normal observation of the
roadway scene

Stationary Traffic Observation

- It is observation by an officer at a selected place usually at a location with
a high accident rate or chronic traffic problem, for the purpose of deterring
and detecting traffic violations.
- either in a police car or on foot at a "traffic post"
Traffic Screening or Road Checks
- method for detecting unsafe driver and vehicle 'conditions
- it involves the stopping of vehicles
- it may not involve the use of barriers or an obstruction to the total flow of
traffic

Traffic Patrol

Selective enforcement

In response to a traffic law violation:

 Traffic warning
- A traffic warning is any traffic enforcement action taken that does not
involve the possible assessment of legal penalty as a result of the warning
alone.
Traffic warnings may be given to motorists or pedestrians in two ways:
o Written warnings.
o Oral or verbal warnings.

Traffic citation
- A traffic citation is a summons issued by a law enforcement officer to a
person violating a traffic law.
- It is commonly known as a traffic ticket.
- On receiving a traffic citation, the accused person should appear before a
court to pay an fine associated with the charge or contest the charge.

Traffic arrest
- A traffic arrest is an action whereby a violator is taken into physical
custody and detained until he or she can be brought before the district
court to answer the charge of law violation.
- Most extreme form of enforcement action

Safety Equipment Repair Order (SERO)

- is issued for observed violations of state requirements relating to vehicle
equipment.
- it does require compliance within ten days or vehicle registration will be
suspended by the State Motor Vehicle Administration after 30 days.

WHAT IS TRAFFIC SUPERVISION

- It is the direction and guidance by the law enforcement specifically the police
force in anything in relation to traffic.
- Traffic supervision has three main functions:
(1) Traffic law enforcement
(2) Traffic direction
(3) Traffic accident reporting and investigation

DEFINITION OF TRAFFIC DIRECTION

 - assigned to safely expedite the flow of traffic, with the purpose of preventing
congestion and providing maximum vehicular movement.
- For example:
o Communicating to drivers and operators when it is safe to drive or when
they need to stop.
o Directing traffic helps drivers, passengers, and pedestrians across the
board remain safe and secure through hand gestures.
DEFINITION OF TRAFFIC CONTROL
- Involves directing vehicular and pedestrian traffic around a construction zone,
accident or other road disruption.
- Through traffic control devices it directs, guide, and inform drivers by offering
visual or tactile indicators. Common traffic controls include the use of signs,
signals, speed limits, traffic cones, barriers, barricades and traffic controllers.
CONCEPT OT TRAFFIC DIRECTION AND CONTROL

- It is the control of the movements of road users according to proportionate time

through traffic signal or hand gesture.

Objectives
o To prevent traffic accident
o Regulate the flow of traffic
o Control and assist turning vehicles
o Protect pedestrians
o Assist people seeking information
o Assisting emergency vehicles

While Conducting Traffic Direction and Control the following are essential:
1. Traffic Enforcer should be equipped with appropriate traffic-directing gear
 reflective traffic vest and gloves, whistle, and flashlight.
2. Selecting an appropriate position
 standing in the intersection’s center, which offers the greatest
visibility and control but is considered the most dangerous.
 standing on the corner is ideal for directing pedestrian traffic and
offers greater safety.
3. Usage of appropriate Hand Signals
4. Whistle Techniques
a. One (1) whistle blast means ―STOP‖
b. Two (2) whistle blasts means ―GO‖
 Repeated short whistle blasts - used to attract the attention of individuals
who are not responding to traffic direction and control.
5. Verbal Cues

THE TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT INDEX

- is a " statistic that reflects the effectiveness of a traffic law enforcement program
in reducing accidents. The EI is determined using the following formula:

Number of convictions with penalties for hazardous offenses

EI = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of fatal and personal injury accidents

- The number of convictions with penalties and the number of fatal and personal
injury accidents that are used for the calculation of the EI must have occurred
within the same time period.
- Ideal Enforcement Index - balance point between increasing enforcement actions
with no applicable reduction in the accident rate and decreasing enforcement
actions that permit a continued increase in accidents.
o For example, in a given jurisdiction, 500 convictions for moving violations
are obtained in a given month and during that month 50 personal injury
and fatal accidents occur, then we say that the city had an index of 10 -
about the ideal index.
- An EI of 20 is satisfactory. This means that for each accident involving a personal
or fatal injury there will be 20 convictions for hazardous violations, in general.
- In summary, the Enforcement Index is based upon the fact that as the conviction
rate for hazardous offenses increases, the accident rate will decrease.

VIOLATIONS IN TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT

- Excessive use of force

- Racial Profiling
- Corruption
Bribery
Extortion

TOOLS IN TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT

TWO WAY RADIO
A two-way radio (a transceiver) is a radio that can both transmit and receive radio
waves, as opposed to a broadcast receiver, which only receives material. 
It is an audio (sound) transceiver, which is both a transmitter and a receiver in
one unit and is used for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication with
other users who have comparable radios.

HIGH VISIBILITY VESTS

These are designed to increase the visibility of the person wearing them in low-
light conditions or in the dark when illuminated by vehicle and mechanical
equipment headlights.

TRAFFIC SAFETY GLOVES

Traffic Safety Glove is a hand illuminating tool designed to increase the visibility
of traffic control personnel and improve communication of traffic commands. The
device uses two flexible LED assemblies mounted to the palmar and dorsal sides
of each glove. 

WHISTLE
Uses of Whistle:
One long blast with “stop” command
Two short blast with the “start” command
Several shot blasts to get the “attention” of a driver
A short, intermittent, blast to “keep the traffic moving”

TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT CAMERA

Traffic cameras simply monitor traffic, and they are not always posted at
intersections. These cameras primarily notify monitors of accidents and other
major problems on the highways.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT CAMERA

 Red light Speed Camera – photographs vehicles that are going faster
than is allowed.        
                                 
  Average Speed & ANPR Camera- records the vehicle’s plate number
and image of vehicles.
 

Mobile Speed Camera-will record the vehicle speed, time, date and
location along with a photograph of the offending vehicle.
RESPONSIBILITY OF TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT

 Enforce all traffic laws, ordinances, rules and regulations within their
assigned area;

 Direct and maintain the smooth flow of vehicles and make traffic fast
moving in their respective area of responsibility;

 Apprehend erring drivers and issue Uniform Ordinance Violation Receipts;

 Monitor traffic situation in the area of responsibility and report the traffic
condition to his/her supervisor, the sector base and Metrobase;

 Never leave the post unless properly relieved by another Traffic

Constable;

 Submit traffic apprehension report to their respective units together with a

copy of the UOVR Tickets for office reference and consolidation of units'
weekly accomplishment report

 Confiscate the license of drivers who have 3 or more unpaid traffic

fines/accounts, are recidivists or have committed violations that warrant
license confiscation, such as: Colorum and Out of Line Operations and
other Administrative Violations;

 Impound the vehicles of drivers who committed the following impoundable

violations: Colorum operation and other Administrative Violation;
 Surrender to the TDO Supply Unit the issued UOVR booklet upon violation
of specific guidelines in the issuance of trafFc ticket;

 Appear before the TDO Adjudication Division upon receipt of summons for
contested apprehension;
  Assist motorists involved in traffic accidents;

 At the end of each traffic duty, proceed to the assigned biometric finger
scanning station and register the time-out in the daily attendance report.
 From time to time, perform such other functions as may be assigned by
his/her supervisor or superiors.

SELECTIVE TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT

Selective enforcement occurs when government officials such as police officers,
prosecutors, or regulators exercise enforcement discretion, which is the power to
choose whether or how to punish a person who has violated the law. The biased use of
enforcement discretion, such as that based on racial prejudice or corruption, is usually
considered a legal abuse and a threat to the rule of law.

REQUISITES OF TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT

A. Manual traffic control management

This is the simplest form of traffic management, which mainly includes human in the
method. In this method, a traffic policeman is standing on each and every cross-section
of roads and controls flow of traffic by using sign board.
B. Automatic Traffic Management Technique
In order to eliminate most weakness of the manual traffic control system, an automatic
traffic management method is recommended. This system includes simple three-color
traffic signal those are red, green and yellow.
C. Intelligent Traffic Management Technique based on Image Processing
       This technique includes cameras, which are used to capture image of the traffic
density on road. These are placed on a high pole so they can envelop long distance.
Image captured by camera is analyzed by a computer chip in order to detect vehicles on
road.
D. Traffic Management system using Wireless Technologies
       In this technique emergency vehicle is equipped with Transmitter and RF-receiver
is mounted on the signal pole. When emergency vehicle is coming near to the
intersection, it will send signal to the RF- receiver and this receiver sends to main
control system.

ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
A traffic accident is defined as a collision involving one or more vehicles. It can also
involve other “moving objects,” such as a pedestrian or cyclist. Fixed objects, such as a tree,
a wall, or a parked vehicle, can play a role as well.

Classes of traffic accident

 The common kinds of traffic accidents are vehicle rear end collision, side impact
collisions, vehicle rollover, sideswipe collision, head-on collision single car accidents
and multiple vehicle pile-ups.
*Rear-end collision - A rear end collision occurs when one car hits the rear of the car
in front of it. A rear end collision usually happens when the vehicle behind suddenly
accelerates. Injuries to the passengers of the impacted vehicle are usually greater than
those of the passenger of the impacting vehicle.
*Side-impact collision – Side impact collisions occur when the side of a vehicle is hit
by the front or rear of another vehicle. Side impact collision result in more severe
injuries and vehicle damage. However, injuries and damage may be severe depending
on how reliable the safety features of vehicles are such as air bags, crumple zones,
vehicle construction and materials.
*Sideswipe collision – Sideswipe collision are collisions involving the adjacent sides of
two vehicles. Sideswipe contacts usually result only to cosmetic damage.
*Rollover – A vehicle rollover occurs when vehicles flips over its side or roof and
usually happens when the vehicle makes a high speed sharp turn. Tall vehicles such as
SUVs are usually susceptible to a rollover accident since they have a high center of
gravity.
*Head on collision – Head on collision are considered very fatal especially when these
collisions involve two vehicles traveling at very high speed.
*Single car accident – A single car accident is also one of the many kinds of vehicle
accidents but only involves one vehicle. A vehicle may be involved in a single car
accident when such instances e.g. driver losing vehicle control due to drowsiness and
feeling asleep, brake malfunction occur.
*Multiple vehicle pile-up – A multiple vehicle pile-up is an accident involving many
vehicles and usually happening in freeways or highways. Damage to many vehicles and
lives makes this kind of accident one of the deadliest traffic accident since some
vehicles are not only hit one but multiple times and from different directions. Cars even
spin during a pile-up accident increasing the risk of serious injuries and loss of lives to
passengers. Those who decide to escape at once from their vehicles are still at risk of
being hit by other upcoming vehicles. The cause of multi-vehicle collision is often hard
to determine.

Motor vehicle
 It shall mean any vehicle propelled by any power other than muscular power
using the public highways, but exempting road rollers, trolley cars, street sweepers,
bulldozer, graders, fork-lift, cranes, vehicles which runs only on rails or tracks, tractors,
trailers, and traction engine.
Traffic-Way
Any land way open to the public as a matter of right or custom for moving
persons or property from one place to another.
Chain of Events in a Traffic Accident
It is the making up of accidents or the link which explains the occurrence of the
accident and its components are present in every accident.
Key Event
Means the one which characterizes the manner of the occurrence of the traffic
accident. It determines the time, place, and type of accident.
Crucial Event
A Crucial Moment is the point in time where you have a critical choice to make.  
It’s the event or trigger where, depending on how you respond, you can positively or
negatively impact results in a significant way.
Time and Place of Events
It was like a setting of a story or a crime scene, it is where the accident and what
time it occur.

NOTEWORTHY POINTS IN TRAFFICS ACCIDENT MINOR ACCIDENTS

1. SAFETY FIRST - The principal concern during a car accident is the safety and
well-being of everyone involved. Alight from your vehicle and take pictures of the
situation whatever happens.
2. DO NOT CAUSE TRAFFIC - After that, the drivers should pull their vehicles out
of the road immediately so that they're both clear of oncoming traffic. Use flares
or cones, if you have them, to alert other drivers, and turn on your hazard lights
so that you can be more visible. Call the nearest hospital if anyone has been
hurt. Do not leave the scene of an accident--even a minor one--until everything
has been resolved to everyone's satisfaction.
 3. INTERACTING WITH THE OTHER DRIVER - Once the initial shock wears off
and it's apparent that no one's been seriously hurt, tempers may flare. Refrain
from losing your temper. Get the other driver's name, address, contact
information and insurance details, and provide the same for him (this is why it's a
good idea to carry your insurance information in your vehicle). See if an amicable
settlement can be made. If not, call the MMDA hotline 1-3-6, and ask for traffic
enforcers/investigators to be present on the scene immediately. Remain at the
scene until the investigators arrive and tell you that you can go.
4. INSURANCE AND REPAIRS - With the basics taken care of, it's time to see
about the damage to your car and how you can go about getting it fixed. If you
can, call your insurance agent immediately while you're still at the scene and ask
him about repairs. Keep in touch with the traffic investigators, and file a report on
the accident if they ask.

MAJOR ACCIDENTS
1. CHECK IF ANYONE IS HURT. Check yourself and your passengers to see if
anyone has been injured. If someone is hurt, summon medical assistance right
away, or dial MMDA 1-3-6 and ask for a medical team and a traffic investigator to
go to the scene.
2. MAKE SURE TO TAKE PICTURES OF THE ACCIDENT. Once your condition
and that of your passengers has been established, take pictures. This is the best
arguing tool that you can have. Photos showing the vehicles and the surrounding
area can help get you out of a bind if the other person denies what happened.
Make sure to take pictures of both vehicles, (including license plates), and the
area in which the accident occurred.
3. MOVE YOUR VEHICLE OFF TO THE SIDE OF THE ROAD IF POSSIBLE. It is
unsafe to continue to sit in traffic and a two-car fender bender could turn into a
multiple-car pileup very quickly. If you are unable to move your vehicle, make
sure to stay in the area of the incident until the investigators arrives.
4. LET THE INVESTIGATOR TAKE COMMAND OF THE SITUATION, AND
INSTITUTE MEASURES TO PREVENT THE ACCIDENT FROM GETTING
WORSE. When the police arrive, you will want to get their names so that you can
refer back them later when reviewing the accident details. Additionally, you
shouldn't rely solely on the police report to tell your side of the story.
5. EXCHANGE INFORMATION WITH THE OTHER DRIVER. If involved in an
accident with another driver, make sure to exchange the following information
with that driver: name, address, phone number, insurance company, policy
number, driver's license number and license plate number. You also should write
a description of each vehicle, including the make, model, year and color.
 6. CONTACT YOUR INSURANCE COMPANY AND KNOW WHAT YOUR POLICY
COVERS. After exchanging information with the other driver, you next move
should be to contact your insurance company to let them know that you've been
in an accident and to give them your version of the events. Additionally, you
should be aware of what exactly your policy covers. You might find out that the
actual cost to repair your car manageable enough to avoid going through your
insurer and incurring a premium hike.
7. FILE AN ACCIDENT REPORT WITH THE POLICE DEPARTMENT. Having a
police report on hand can assist in speeding up the insurance claims process.
You can file a report at your local police station.

ORDER OF EVENTS
1. PERCEPTION OF HAZARD - Is the seeing, feeling, or hearing and
understanding the unusual and unexpected movement or condition that could be
taken as a sign of the accident about to happen.
2. ENCROACHMENT - Is the movement into the path assigned to another traffic
unit, perhaps the most important encroachment is crossing a center or barrier
line. Another is entering a crosswalk when it is occupied. Pedestrians can
encroach on the path assigned to motor vehicles.
3. LEAVING THE ROADWAY - Is the moving off the roadway, “Roadway” is that
portion of traffic way which is improved, designed, or ordinarily used for vehicular
travel exclusive of the shoulder. The event takes place when one wheel of the
vehicle may leave the roadway. A vehicle may leave the roadway on the left as
well as on the right side.
4. LEAVING THE ROAD - Is the moving off the road and shoulder, if any, this may
mean going into the ditch or over a curb. The event takes place when one wheel
of the vehicle climbs the curb or goes off the shoulder.
5. INITIAL CONTACT - Is the first accidental touching of an object collided with by
a traffic unit in motion, before this, there is no force between the objects colliding,
and afterwards there is force.
6. MAXIMUM ENGAGEMENT - Is the greatest collapse or overlap in a collision, the
force between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at
maximum engagement.
7. DISENGAGEMENT - Is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object
which it has collided, force between the objects ceases this time.
8. STOPPING - It is the coming to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation.
Stopping may occur with or without control by the driver or pedestrian.
TYPES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS
1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident
3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident

CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT ACCORDING TO SEVERITY

1. PROPERTY DAMAGE - It is nay motor vehicle accident in which there is no
injury to any person but damage to the motor vehicle, to other property including
injury to animals.
2. NON-FATAL - It is any motor vehicle accident that results in injuries other than
fatal to one or more persons. The injuries maybe as follows:
a. Fatal Injury - It is an injury that results in death within 12months of the
motor vehicle traffic accident.
b. Serious Visible Injury -It is a bleeding wound, distorted member, or any
condition that requires the victim to be carried from the scene of the
accident. Consider the injury to be visible if symptoms are present even
though the injury itself is not visible.
c. Minor Visible Injury -It is an abrasion, bruise, swelling, limping, or
obviously painful movement.
d. Non-Visible Injury -It is complaint of pain without visible signs of injury; or
momentary unconsciousness.
e. Fatal -It is any motor vehicle accident that results in fatal injuries to one or
more persons.

DEGREES OF SEVERITY OF ACCIDENT

1. FATAL CRASH - At least one person (driver or passenger) killed (within 30
days) by injuries sustained in the crash.
2. MAJOR INJURY - Crash at least one person injured and admitted to hospital but
no fatalities.
3. MINOR INJURY - At least by one person requiring medical care but no fatalities
or injuries requiring hospitalization.
4. MINIMAL INJURY - Crash at least one person injured (for example minor
abrasion/bruises) but no medical attention required and no other more severe
injuries.
OTHER CLASSIFICATION OF ACCIDENT
1. HEAD-ON COLLISIONS - Negligence usually plays a role in head-on collisions.
These types of collisions are among the most devastating.
2. HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION ACCIDENTS - Construction companies have a
responsibility to not cause accidents. Other drivers should drive more carefully in
highway construction areas
3. INTERSECTION ACCIDENTS - Accidents at intersections are usually caused
because someone made a driving error, which could be attributed to negligence.
INTERSTATE ACCIDENTS - Accidents on the interstate can be more serious
due to the speeds at which the cars are traveling.
4. REAR-END ACCIDENTS - Rear-end accidents are among the most common
types of accidents, and they frequently cause whiplash.
5. SIDE-IMPACT ACCIDENTS - Side-impact accidents are also common, and
usually occur at intersections. They can cause more injuries depending on where
the car was hit.

CAUSES OF TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS

1. SIMULTANEOUS FACTORS
a. Road condition
b. Drivers’ attitude or behavior
c. Whether condition
2. SEQUENTIAL FACTORS
a. Speed is greater or less than safe.
b. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction)
3. OPERATIONAL FACTORS
a. Road hazards
b. Drivers’ non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.
4. PERCEPTION FACTORS
a. Drivers’ inability to react promptly to a situation.
b. Drivers’ faulty action to escape collision course.

Attributes
- Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person that affects the
probability of a traffic accident.

Contributing Factors to Accidents

 a. Human Errors
- Reckless driving
- Failing to give way at junctions
- Following too closely/ tailgating
- Overtaking improperly
- Intoxication, alcohol or drug involvement
- Lack of skill
b. Road Deficiencies
- Poor design of layout and control at junctions
- Slippery roads
- Inadequate signing, road marking, and lighting
- Obstruction on the road, such as parked vehicle and on-going road construction
- Potholes and uneven pavement
c. Vehicle Factors
- Defects in tires, brakes and lights
- Poorly maintained motor vehicles
The failure of people, road, and vehicle to behave or react properly cause most of the
accident. Accident investigations determine how and why these failures occur.
Accident investigation
- It is the process of determining the root causes of accidents in order to prevent
them from occurring again.
- This will lead us to the real cause of why something happened, and armed with
that knowledge, we can take affirmative steps to prevent future accidents from
occurring.
An accident investigation attempts to answer the following questions:
 What happened?
 Who is involved?
 When and where did it happen?
 Why did it happen?
 How did the accident occur?
Purpose of Accident Investigation
- Accident are investigated for three (3) main reason:
1. To find the circumstances and cause for an accident prevention program.
2. To give opportunity for the police to gather enough evidence of violation to take
enforcement action.
3. To damage claims, insurance and adjustment purposes.

Activities in Accident Investigation

 1. Reporting- this level involves basic data collection to identify and classify a
motor vehicle, traffic and persons, property and planned movements involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation- this level involves all action taken by the investigator at
the scene of the crime or accident.
3. Technical Preparation- this involves delayed traffic accident data collection and
organization for study and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction- this involves efforts to determine from whatever
information is available, how the accident happened.
5. Cause Analysis- this last level usually involves final analysis on the causes of
accident which are bases for the prevention of similar accident.

Traffic Accident Reconstruction

- It is a scientific approach to solving the questions of how and why an accident
occurred.
- It is accomplished first by correctly interpreting the clues left by the remaining
physical evidence of the accident, then by reconstructing and studying the events
preceding, during, and following the accident.
- This approach is usually performed by experts trained in the field of traffic
accident reconstruction engineering and physics who have extensive, constant
training in all areas relating to motor vehicle accidents including forensic
mapping, crash simulation and 3D animations.
- Reconstructionist may submit written reports and/or develop 3D models to
demonstrate how the accident occurred.
- Since accident reconstruction takes a scientific approach, it is a pretty reliable
source of data.

ON-SCENE INVESTIGATION

Interviewing as Part of Investigation

A successful traffic accident investigation requires considerable basic background

knowledge, to know what question to ask and what to look for, you must also have
some fundamental ideas about accidents and their causes. To avoid wasting of time
and making mistakes, especially during the urgent activities at the scene of an accident,
you need to plan what you are going to do and to continually revise your plan as you
proceed.

 Look at the bystanders and others in attempt to locate drivers.

  Question other witnesses especially those who are anxious to leave.
 Get the names of and contact information for everyone involved.

FIVE MAIN ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUE

 STEP 1: Gather Information

 STEP 2: Search for establish facts.
 STEP 3: Establish essential contributing factors.
 STEP 4: Find root causes.
 STEP 5: Determine corrective actions.
 STYEP 6: Implement corrective actions.

UNDESTANDING ROAD AND WEATHER CONDITIONS

 Rain

Most people do not consider rain an issue unless there is a torrential downpour.
However, rain has a great effect on the road surface and driving conditions. The simple
fact is that even a light rain can greatly impact road conditions.

 Snow

Although it may not be snowing when you begin your travels, pervious snow on
the road can create a glare effecting your ability clearly.

 Falling Temperature

Rain, halt, sleet, and melting snow followed by falling temperatures can result in
ice quickly forming on roads, bridges and over passes. While driving on ice always
poses a danger to drivers, black ice can catch a driver unaware and result of control of
your vehicle.
 Fog

While fog does nit directly affect the condition of the road, it does limit visibility for
the driver. A thick fog will make it difficult to see other vehicles, animals and other
road hazards while driving.

 High Winds

Even on bright, clear, sunny days high winds can affect driving conditions. Winds
blow snow and dirt across the road which may affect driving conditions.
Discovering Motor Vehicle Condition
 Look for conditions confronting a driver approaching the scene such as low
visibility, view obstructions, and traffic control devices.
 Watch for fire and electrical hazards and get them under control.

Determining Driver’s Condition

 Locate drivers and give out hit-and-run descriptions, if necessary.
 Question drivers more carefully, collect all data and ask questions regarding what
they saw and did.
 Examine driver’s condition, look for sign of alcohol or drug use.

What the road narrates on the accident

Causes and Effects of Bad Roads

Poor driving surfaces are often caused by a combination of seasonal and traffic
conditions. In Tennessee, we experience intense seasonal shifts. These changes in
weather can cause hazards like slippery surfaces caused by rain and ice and oil spots
caused by vehicles. Construction zones with uneven pavement are also major cause of
accidents.

How Accident are Caused

Poorly maintained roadways cause accidents in a variety of ways, mostly due to the fact
that they create an enormous hazard to drives. In many instances, a driver may attempt
to avoid a certain situation like a pothole or pooling water which could cause a serious
accident.

Types of Bad Road Conditions

There are several types of bad driving situations which exist throughout the state of
Tennessee including:

 Potholes: Severe accidents can occur when blacktop or asphalt are missing in
large chunks from the road.
 Ice Patches: Ice patches can from even without rain or snow. They typically form
isolated areas on the road.
 Shoulder drop-off: A drop-off region can present a serious danger to drivers.
 Oil and chip: These temporary fixes on roads before they are surfaced. Oil and
chip areas become slippery when left for extended periods of time.
  Construction work zones: Lanes shift and uneven roads are some of the
issues involved in construction areas.
 Slick roads: Slippery surfaces cause hydroplaning to occur.

What is Debris?

DEBRIS- is the scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other materials
left at the scene of the accident caused by a collision.

LEONA VANESSA

Six Kinds of Disrepair in Motor Vehicle

Tire issues: Tires can cause accidents when they overheat and fail due to the
under-inflation. This risk increases in hot weather and on high-speed roads.
Worn tires can also lead to accidents when they fail to provide suitable traction.
Without traction, a car may hydroplane and become impossible to steer.
Brake malfunctions:  Brake pads wear down and require routine replacement.
There are also mechanical and hydraulic brake parts that are susceptible to
problems. Brake fluid is also required for brakes to work correctly.
Steering linkage wear: This issue can affect a driver’s ability to control the
vehicle. If the parts in the steering linkage give out, your car could begin to drive
sharply in one direction, and you will not be able to correct it. A driver could
potentially veer into oncoming traffic or change lanes without any warning.
Loose lug nuts: Lug nuts keep the hubcaps and wheel together. If lug nuts are
not properly tightened, they can loosen, and the wheel may fall off. Lug nuts
should not be tightened while the car is on the ground and has the weight of the
vehicle on them.
Broken defrosters: Poorly functioning defrosters can impede a driver’s ability
to see outside in certain weather conditions.
Rust: A car with a severely rusted chassis could result in parts falling off,
loosening, or collapsing.

Preliminary Examination of Motor Vehicle

Arrival at the scene
1. What happened?
 2. Who are involved?
3. Where and when it happened?
4. How it happened?
5. Why it happened?

Look at bystanders and others in an attempt to locate drivers, witnesses and

volunteer helpers.
Inquiries about general vehicle condition (blowout, brake failure, general vehicle
condition.
Watch for fire and electrical hazards and get them under control.
Look for traffic hazards, put out warning devices and get help with traffic control.
Look for physical evidence and have it guarded until it can be examined,
collected, or located measurement.
Question drivers more carefully, collect all data and ask questions regarding what
they saw and did.
Observe vehicle condition, note lights, light switches, gear position and tires.
Photograph all damage to roadway property, vehicles, and final position.

Final Examination of Motor Vehicle

 Measure to locate marks on the road and final positions, record the place
which injured persons and damage are to be taken.
 Complete on-scene examination of vehicles.
 Make additional photographs of view obstructions, traffic control devices,
and any other any information.
 Organize notes.
 Complete factual data on report.
 Complete investigation and report.

Measurement Used in a Traffic Accident

Coordinate measuring-
Is measuring from the baseline at right angles to the point. The first
measurement is the distance from zero to point perpendicular to the object to be
 measured. The second measurement is the distance from the baseline to the
point.
Triangulation measuring-
Involves measuring to the point from two points on the baseline, two fixed
objects, or two points already measure.
It usually used on larger scenes.

Traffic Accident Meriting Measurement

Non-motor vehicle traffic accident
Refers to any accident occurring on a traffic way involving persons using
the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle in
motion (ex. Pedestrian and a cyclist in a traffic way).
Motor vehicle traffic accident
Any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way (ex. Collision
between automobiles on a highway).

What are Needs to be Measure in Traffic Accident

FINAL POSITIONS OF VEHICLES, DEAD AND INJURED PERSONS, AND
MAJOR VEHICLE PARTS WHICH HAVE BEEN DETTACHED
METAL SCARS
TIRE MARKS
SCARS ALONGSIDE OF THE ROAD
DEBRIS
DAMAGE TO FIXED OBJECTS

Rules in measuring Distances in accident

One of the major time-consuming tasks in the investigation and processing of a
serious crash scene is the measurement and recording of data from the crash scene to
prepare a scale diagram. Currently, crash scene measurements are taken using
physical measuring devices, such as 100-foot fiberglass tapes, LASAR radar measuring
devices and measurement wheels.
 An Electronic Distance Measuring Instrument (EDMI) and a theodolite (a
surveying instrument used to measure horizontal and vertical angles). The total station
can be set up off the roadway. Evidence is located by an investigator holding a pole with
a prism over a location of evidence. The instrument is focused on the prism and the
operator takes a "shot" by pressing a button on the data collector. An infrared beam is
emitted at the prism and is reflected back to the instrument. The operator then enters a
code for the specific "shot," the investigator with the pole moves to another evidence
location, and the process continues. The data collector records the distance, angle, and
elevation for each "shot."
Locating coordinates in accident
The coordinate system is based on locating any specific spot by means of
distances from a fixed reference point (RP), along a reference line (RL). In using this
method a vital ingredient to accurate measurements is the selection of a good reference
point.
If future reconstruction of the collision is necessary, the reference point becomes
the key from which the scene is mapped. Some examples of a good reference point are:
highways mileposts or mile markers, utility poles, fire hydrants, culverts and bridges,
intersections of roadways and any other manmade or natural point of permanent nature.
When selecting a reference point keep in mind that if the RP is destroyed, then
surveyor plans, street maps, engineering drawings, etc., should be available which will
enable the reconstructionist to "place" the RP back at its original location. Remember
that the reference point is the keystone from which the entire collision is measured and
drawn. A bad RP selection would make exact reconstruction of the collision at a later
date difficult, if not impossible, to the degree of accuracy required.
Measuring the skid marks
Skid marks are caused by tires that lock and drag, creating distinct marks on
roadways. Skid mark distance is measured from the start of a skid mark, which may
appear light if two tires lock, and progressively darken as additional tires lock. Average
skid distance is determined by calculating the distance of each tire then dividing that
number by four.

Definition of Drag factor

Drag factor (f) is expression often used in crash investigation and are commonly
associated with various vehicle speed calculations based upon tire mark geometry.
Drag Factor (f) is a non-dimensional (no units) number used to represent the
acceleration or deceleration of a vehicle. It is defined as the total force F (tot) required
for a vehicle’s acceleration (or deceleration) in the direction of acceleration, divided by
the vehicle’s weight.
Calculating the speed from skid marks
Problem (Speed from Skid Marks):
A vehicle going down hill with a slope of 0.15 and a drag factor of 0.70, leaves a skid
marks of 20.6 meters. What is the speed of the vehicle?
Answer:
Given: d=20.6 m F=0.70 g=0.15
Formula: S=15.9 √ d ×(F + g)
Where:
S = speed in kilometer per hour
d = slide-to-stop distance in meters
g = grade or slope
F = drag factor
Solution:
S=15.9 √ d × ( F+ g ) (First, write down the formula)

S=15.9 √ 20.6 × ( 0.70−0.15 ) (Next, substitute the given to the formula, note g is negative
or minus because of the direction of slope which is downhill)

S=15.9 √ 20.6 × ( 0.55 ) (Then, perform the operation first inside the parenthesis, that is
0.70 minus 0.15)
S=15.9 √ 11.33 (Now, multiply 20.6 by the difference that you got or by 0.55)
S=15.9 ( 3.37 ) (Use a calculator to perform the square root, input square root of 11.33,
the answer will be 3.37)
S=54 km/hr (Finally, multiply 15. 9 by 3.37, that will be the final answer, round off your
answer to whole number and write km/hr as the sign being the standard of sign of
velocity or speed of a car)
Conclusion: Therefore, the speed of the vehicle is 54 km/hr .
All calculations are resolved in favor of the driver.

Critical speeds on curves

Every curve in the roadway has a critical speed. If you exceed this critical speed,
the vehicle will begin to spin around its center of mass and leave the roadway.
Regardless of the driver’s skill level or years of experience, if you exceed the critical
speed, your vehicle will lose control.
Critical speed is determined based on how sharp the curve is, how much bank is
in the roadway and the road surface’s “stickiness,” or coefficient of friction.
Let’s examine a curve in the road that has a radius of 200 feet, a curve not
uncommon to most districts. On a sunny day with dry asphalt, the critical speed of this
curve would be approximately 51 mph. A driver traversing this curve at 40 mph would
safely navigate the curve and not think twice.
Imagine that the next day it rained. This change in weather conditions would
lower the critical speed of the curve to approximately 34 mph. If the same driver, who
previously drove through this curve at 40 mph on a sunny day, attempted to do the
same thing on a rainy day, he would find himself spinning off the roadway. This is
because the rain caused the critical speed of the curve to drop to from 40 mph to 34
mph. By driving faster than 34 mph, the vehicle lost traction with the road surface and
the driver lost control.
In addition to critical speed issues, the driver of a vehicle with a high center of
gravity has other issues to contend with. When driving a vehicle with a high center of
gravity, such as a fire truck, you could roll over well below the critical speed of the
curve. As the fire truck enters and begins to round the curve, centrifugal force will cause
the weight of the vehicle to shift to the front outside tire. This causes the center of mass
of the vehicle to shift as well. If you’re traveling too fast and the center of mass of the
vehicle shifts too far, a rollover will result.

ACCIDENT SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

General Considerations
Many of us spend time in a car almost daily, which means it’s inevitable that most
people will eventually be in a car accident. If you find yourself in that situation, the
priority is to check on the condition of the people present in all involved vehicles.
Immediately call for emergency medical services as needed and contact the police.
While you’re waiting for the police to arrive, taking accident scene photos can be a huge
help for making an insurance claim or building your legal case. However, you should
only do this if you’re not physically injured and if the scene around the accident is safe
enough for you to take pictures without putting yourself (or others) in danger.
Accident scene photography can be used as solid evidence as long as it reflects
accurate details and context. While pictures of damages are important, evidence of the
surrounding areas is important as well. Here are some tips for taking effective car
accident photos:
 Take general views of the accident scene: Get an overall view of the accident
scene. Take multiple photos of the scene from different angles. Don't worry about
the details in these pictures.
 Get all vehicles involved in the accident in the picture: Make sure you get the
vehicles' relative positions and different angles of their proximity to other cars.
 Traffic lights and signs: Take photos of any traffic lights, stop signs, yield signs,
and any other traffic indicators that are near the accident scene.
 Conditions of the weather: Take photos of the weather condition, such as
clouds, rain, or snow. These photos can be used if the other driver, who is at fault
for the accident, blames the weather for playing a role in the crash.
 Objects damaged by the accident: Get photos of any damaged street signs,
trees, guardrails, or any other stationary objects damaged by the accident.
 Detailed views of the damaged vehicles: Get close-ups of any broken glasses,
windows, scratches, and any other damaged parts of the vehicles. Check inside
the vehicle and get photos of any interior damages as well.
 License plates and insurance cards: Take photos of license plates of all
vehicles involved in the accident and the other drivers' insurance cards.
 Condition of the roads and surrounding areas: Take photos of any roadside
debris, skid marks, or any other signs of crash in surrounding areas.
 People involved in the accident: Take photos of the other driver(s), any
passengers, witnesses, and police officers to avoid any confusion in identifying
the people involved in the accident. However, do not take photos of injured
people.
 Any physical injuries you sustained: Take photos of any injuries you sustained
that are visually apparent.
 In some instances, a car accident victim will be unable to take photos at the
scene because of severe injuries. If that is the case, try to get a family member or
friend to take pictures on your behalf as soon as possible.

Showing the entire scene

Take a picture of the entire scene. Step far enough from the scene that you can fit the
entire area in the camera frame. Keep photographing the entire scene from different
angles until you've covered the entire perimeter of the accident.

Avoiding irrelevant surroundings

It is a waste of time if you are going to take pictures that are not important or relevant to
the accident scene such as the trees or railway from the other place.

Who can take accident pictures?

There are likely to be bystanders, police officers, or perhaps uninjured passengers who
can take photos. If someone you don’t know is taking pictures, give that person your
phone number and email address so that they can send you the photos (if you’re able to
write down their contact information, that would be even better).

What Pictures to Take at the Scene

Photography is the primary tool for crime scene documentation. Proper crime scene
photography is a deliberate and systematic process. Its main purpose is to visually
convey all aspects of the scene to someone who wasn’t there. All crime scene
photography consists of three basic types of photographs: overall, mid-range, and
close-up. 
1. Overall Photographs
Overall photographs, as the name implies, capture the overall aspects of the crime
scene. Their purpose is to show exactly where the scene was, to the exclusion of any
other location, and to show all boundaries of the scene. These photographs are typically
taken in an overlapping fashion from the outside of the perimeter looking in, and from
the center of the scene looking out, covering all areas of the scene. Items of evidence
and their spatial relationships may be visible, but they are not the main subject of the
photograph
2. Mid-range Photographs
Mid-range photographs transition the viewer from an “outsider looking in” perspective to
a more involved perspective. Items of evidence and their spatial relationships are
shown, typically by depicting a single item in relation to a fixed object in the scene.
Done correctly, this technique will show proper context, perspective, and scale. It will
also show the precise position of each item of evidence. The zoom capability of an
OSCR360 image provides the foundation of a mid-range view and the context for further
photographs. These photographs should be taken at a normal focal length in order to
correctly depict distances.
3. Close-Up Photographs
Close-up photographs are deliberate depictions of individual items of evidence. They
must show all sides of the item and clearly show any markings, defects, or other
identifying features. Each photograph is usually taken twice: once with a scale, and
once without a scale. The image sensor of the camera must be oriented parallel to the
surface being photographed, and the item must fill the frame of the camera. Shadows
must be eliminated unless they are intentional (e.g., present from oblique lighting to
show texture). Depth of field should be maximized so no details are left out of focus.
Because of these requirements, close-up photography may be deferred until it can be
accomplished under controlled conditions.

Difficulties in Night Photography

1. Camera Shakes

Due to the low ambient light, the camera goes for a slower shutter-
speed.This increase chances of movement in the scene thereby causing
blur. As even a small shake of the camera can produce noticeable blur
while long exposure.

2. Noise (ISO)

The low ambient light also necessitates the use of high ISO. But high ISO
induces noise in the shot and also results in loss of detail.

3. Shadows

To have the subject lit, we use artificial lights or flash lights, and a possible
negative impact of this can be a shadow of subject behind it.

4. Improper Focus
 Attaining the right focus is another challenge in low-light situations

5. Under Exposure

 The camera hitting its limits within the exposure triangle

 Human error in exposure when in full-manual mode

6. White Balance

Camera automatically adjusts and compensates for the light temperature.

Daylight Photo-Flash Exposure

 Using a flash outdoors in daylight is helpful. It’s not mandatory, nor essential but
can often help out a photo.
 With flash we can control the direction and quality of light, and create a more
dynamic image.

Admissibility as Evidence
Admissible evidence is any document, testimony, or tangible, physical item, e.g. a
murder weapon, that can be used to prove a fact at issue in a hearing or trial in a court
of law under the rules of evidence.
Evidence is typically introduced to a judge or a jury to prove a fact that is an element of
a case as follows:
Criminal Law: In criminal law, evidence is used in two ways, either to prove a
defendant’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, or evidence is presented by the defendant
to establish a defense to the crime charged;
Civil Law: In civil law, facts to establish the elements of a case must be proven by a
preponderance of the evidence, which is a lower standard than the one that applies in a
criminal case, i.e., beyond a reasonable doubt. In certain special situations in a civil
lawsuit, the standard of proof is clear and convincing” evidence of a fact or facts. This is
a heavier, or more stringent, burden of proof than a “preponderance of the evidence”
standard
Here are four basic types of evidence:
1. Demonstrative: Demonstrative evidence is evidence that shows or
demonstrates a fact at issue in the case. So, for example, a photograph of a
 damaged vehicle that was involved in a car accident would be demonstrative
evidence. It shows how the accident affected the car involved in it.
2. Documentary: Documentary evidence is simply documents that are relevant to
an issue in a case. So, for example, in a case for breach of contract, the contract
would be a necessary item of evidence.
3. Real: Real evidence would be some actual object or thing relating to the case.
So, for example, the actual bullet that was taken from the body of the victim of a
shooting would be real evidence.
4. Testimonial: Testimony is the statement of a witness who appears in court to tell
what they know about the facts at issue in a case. 

Prints of Accident Pictures

Identifying Accident Pictures
Description of the Subject
 Plate Number
 Model/Year
 Color
 Type
 Basic information of the driver
 Basic information of other victims

Equipment in Accident Scene Photography

 Digital Camera
 Memory Card and Card Reader
 External Flash
 Extra Batteries
 Battery Charger
 Level
 Tripod
Photographic Evidence in Accident
Photographs can be used to:
 Show the facts without bias
 Preserve details
 Reconstruct the events that lead to the accident
 Establish fault

ACCIDENT RECONSTRUCTION

What is Accident Reconstruction

Vehicular accident reconstruction is the process of investigating, analyzing, and drawing
conclusions about the causes and events during a vehicle collision. may hire accident
reconstructionist to conduct in-depth collision analysis to identify the contributing factors
in different types of collisions, including the role of the driver(s), vehicle(s), roadway,
traffic, lighting and the environment. It is essential, if not mandatory, that accident
reconstruction be done in cases where death and/or personal injury are involved if
evidence is missing or incomplete.
Steps in Accident Reconstruction

 visit the accident scene to evaluate skid-marks on the roadway, final rest
positions of the vehicles, debris and other physical evidence, and take
measurements and photographs,
 examine the vehicles for damages and transfer evidence (paint, blood, glass,
fibres, etc),
 review prior reports, sketch plans, witness statements, and data collected,
 extract, enhance and analyse video footage of an accident,
 conduct simulations and evaluate various factors that potentially contribute to the
accident.

Facts in Accident Reconstruction

A peculiarity of this profession is that accident reconstructions are methodically worked

backwards, time-wise - from the end results back to the beginning sequence of events.
All kinds of accidents are investigated through reconstruction methodology — plane
crashes, crane failures, bridge collapses, vehicular collisions, etc. Reconstructions of
traffic collisions, specifically, typically involve determining the factors which contributed
to the cause and severity of the collision, such as excessive speed, poor visibility, a
defective tire, the failure of an occupant to wear a safety belt, or the disregard of traffic
control devices.

Reconstruction may reveal a host of factors that led to the accident, including:

 Speeding
 Running stop signs and red lights
 Errors in turning and lane changes
 Loss of driver control due to the failure of a car part or a vehicle defect
 Dangerous road conditions
 Visibility issues

Objectives of Accident Reconstruction

The purpose of traffic accident reconstruction is to investigate, analyze and conclude on

events and causes in a collision between a vehicle and another vehicle, a pedestrian or
roadside object. The outcome of a traffic injury or fatality case, civil liability or insurance
dispute often hinges on the testimony of an accident reconstruction expert.

Necessity of Accident Reconstruction

Accident Reconstruction is often a key element in determining the cause and fault in an
accident. It can identify contributory negligence on one or more parties due to
carelessness, aggressiveness, faulty road conditions, equipment failures or a number of
other factors.

Methods in Accident Reconstruction

Simple Falls

The definition of a fall is when the vehicle is no longer supported by the roadway
surface underneath it. All bodies in free fall near the earth's surface have the same
downward acceleration of 32.2 ft/sec/sec. A body in free fall has the same downward
acceleration whether it starts from rest or has an initial velocity. The presence of air
affects the motion of falling bodies partly through buoyancy and partly through air
resistance. In vehicle reconstruction buoyancy and air resistance are negligible and can
be neglected in the calculations.

Conservation of Momentum

Law of Conservation of Momentum states that in any group of objects that act upon
each other, the total momentum before the action equals the total momentum after the
action.
In traffic accident reconstruction:

 Action is the collision

 Objects are the vehicles

Using the General Momentum Equations

The task of the reconstructionist is to determine how the vehicles came together from
the evidence. These are:

 The point of impact

 Pre-Collision angle of each vehicle
 Post-Collision angle of each vehicle
 Weights of each vehicle
 Post-Collision velocity of each vehicle (Usually from the vehicle skid marks at the
scene)

Delta-V from Linear Momentum and Crush Damage

Accidents are assessed as to the severity of a collision in terms of the injuries suffered
by the occupants of the vehicles. Injuries in a particular accident depend on a number of
factors. The crashworthiness of a vehicle is the ability of a vehicle to be subjected to a
collision and sustain less damage than a vehicle that isn’t as crashworthy. The vehicle
speeds and the change in vehicle speeds affect the severity of an accident. Also,
factors are the usage of restraint such as seat belts and the occupant characteristics
such as health, age, etc.

Approaches in Accident Reconstructions

Reconstruction experts employ a number of sophisticated methodologies to figure out

what elements played a part in the origin and seriousness of an accident. Key aspects
of reconstructing an accident may include:

 Thorough inspection of the vehicle or vehicles involved in the accident

 Analysis of vehicle and crash site images
 Review of the traffic collision report, deposition transcripts, witness statements,
crash test reports, published studies, and other documents
 Evaluation of victims’ medical records to determine the consistency of injuries
with the available evidence.

In reconstructing a car accident, there are several questions that must be

answered, such as the movement of all the vehicles involved or of other people
involved, or of objects from the point of first visual contact to their rest positions. Time
history of velocities, positions as well as crash-related data such as velocity changes,
deformation energies, or passenger loads must also be analysed. Methods to aid in
accident reconstruction combine the simulation of pre-collision, collision, and post-
collision dynamics for multiple vehicles.
These are the ff. techniques to reconstruct a traffic accident:
• visit the accident scene to evaluate skid-marks on the roadway, final rest positions of
the vehicles, debris and other physical evidence, and take measurements and
photographs,
• examine the vehicles for damages and transfer evidence (paint, blood, glass, fibers,
etc),
• review prior reports, sketch plans, witness statements, and data collected,
• extract, enhance and analyz e video footage of an accident,
• conduct simulations and evaluate various factors that potentially contribute to the
accident.
Studying the damage of motor vehicles:
A technique for obtaining measurements of the profile of a damaged area on a vehicle
by using a contour gauge has been described by Tumbas. A variant of this method is
to place a reference rectangle around the entire vehicle. If practicable, the original
length and width of the vehicle concerned should be used as the dimensions of the
sides of the rectangle in order to provide a particularly useful reference frame.
Measurements are taken from the sides of the rectangle to damaged areas of the
vehicle at right angles in both the horizontal and vertical planes. Some adjustments to
the vehicle or rectangle must be made where the ground or vehicle is not level or some
compensation in the measurements must be made to avoid errors. The measurements
required to produce a replica of a damaged vehicle for the purposes of video recording
will depend somewhat on the type of collision involved. In any reconstruction, the
investigator should take a number of measurements to establish a good representation
of the areas of direct damage.
✓ Detailed views documenting all vehicle damage.
• Take sufficient shots that each detail view can be easily located on the vehicle
exterior. Use scales as appropriate. Start at one location (12:00) and proceed around
vehicle. Document all undercarriage damage as well.
✓ Crush Damage Profiling – Grid Method
• This method uses a set of tape measures as a coordinate system to map the damage
to the vehicle. This method can be used almost anywhere,as long as the ground surface
is “reasonably” flat and level.

An area of direct damage is a region that was in direct

Contact with the vehicle or object struck in the collision. Within such a region,
measurements should be taken to establish the precise location of points of mutual
contact, which are specific locations on one vehicle for which contact evidence can be
identified on specific locations of another vehicle or object.
Reconstruction based on position:
 Locate the final resting positions of all the vehicles involved in the collision. Treat
trailers as a separate vehicle regardless of whether or not it remains attached to
the following vehicle. For this purpose, motorcycles and bicycles are also
classified as vehicles. Locate the position of any pedestrians, motorcycle or
bicycle riders, and ejected occupants whether deceased or injured.
 Final positions of vehicles or bodies are classified as controlled or uncontrolled.
Uncontrolled final positions are those reached by vehicles or bodies
unintentionally after collisions. Controlled final positions are those to which
vehicles or bodies are moved on purpose after a collision.
Obstacles in Accident Reconstruction:
The biggest complaint of most accident reconstruction specialists is the failure of the
On-scene investigator to make satisfactory measurements of the results of the accident.
Locating the results of accident, such as final positions of vehicles is done improperly
nine times out of ten. The measurement are crucial to the investigation and provide the
foundation needed to establish vehicle to roadway and vehicle to vehicle relationships
as well as speed estimates.
✓ Collision, also called impact, in physics, the sudden, forceful coming together in
direct contact of two bodies.
✓ Overlap, to cover something partly by going over its edge; to cover part of the same
space; to extend over or past and cover a part.

CONTACT AND INDUCED DAMAGES

 Contact Damage – any damage to the vehicle caused by direct contact with
some object that is not part of the vehicle.
 Induced Damage - any damage to the vehicle caused by another part of the
same vehicle or by forces of the collision.
DEFINITION OF MECHANICS
 Mechanics - It is a branch of physical science that deals with energy and forces
and their effect on bodies.
PRINCIPLES IN ACCIDENT RECONSTRUCTION
  Accident Reconstruction relies heavily on the correct application of physics,
mathematics, and vehicle dynamics. It analyzes collected data to generate a
timeline of events.
- Human Factors
- Environmental Factors
- Physical Factors (Newton’s Law, Energy, Momentum)
WHAT IS MOMENTUM?
 Momentum - It is a physics term and refers to the quantity of motion that an
object has.
It can also be defined as mass in motion.

Law of Conservation of Momentum- rule that states that the momentum of a

system remains unchanged unless a force acts upon it.
-energy cannot be created a destroyed but can be converted from one form to
another.
CENTERED FORCE AND ECCENTRIC FORCE
 Centric Force - When force is applied to an object, so that it is a line of action
passes through the object' s center of gravity
 Eccentric Force - A force that does not pass through the center of gravity of the
body or which acts or it could be through a point at which the body is fixed.
When force is applied in live with a freely moving object's center of gravity, linear
motions occur. It is a force whose direction is not in line with the center of gravity
of a freely moving object on the center of rotation of an object with a fixed axis of
rotation.
LOCATIONS OF MOTOR VEHICLES
Overall, must motorcycle accidents occur in urban areas, non-interstate, and
locations other than intersections.
 HIT AND RUN INVESTIGATION

How a Hit-and-Run Accident Can Be Investigated

Aside from the physical injuries and mental anguish one may suffer from a car accident,
there is also the emotional stress of seeking compensation to aid in your recovery.

Phases in Conducting Hit and Run Investigation

1. Collect All Possible Evidence

The investigation starts with meeting the client

Car accidents can be sudden and unexpected. However, in the case that you are able
to see the perpetrator’s car, try and gather as much information as possible.

2. Gather Eyewitness Testimonies

Various emotions can arise in the event of an unexpected accident, making it difficult to
process the details of an event. However, if there were people around the area where
you crashed, some may be able to provide details about the incident, the at-fault party,
and their vehicle.

3. Surrounding Surveillance Footage

If the crash occurred near a business, school, or government establishment, then there
is a great chance that there are surveillance cameras that captured the event.

Surveillance cameras can be the ultimate tool in the event of a hit-and-run accident.

Role of Hit and Run Investigator

Some forensic aspects of road accident investigation are discussed ; driver

identification in fatal accidents, collision dynamics, vehicle lighting at the time of impact,
and the estimation of speeds in collision between vehicles. Some broader benefits from
improved liaison between those who are concerned with processing road accidents and
their consequences.

Important Evidences in Hit-and-run Cases

Paint evidence is found in the majority of hit-and-run cases and it may provide a link
between a victim and the responsible vehicle.
Locating the Suspected Motor Vehicle
During a criminal investigation, the crime scene investigator or evidence recovery
technician may be assigned the task of processing a vehicle or vessel. That vehicle may
not a primary scene in the investigation however, it will deserve the same attention. As
with any investigation, the primary function of the crime scene investigator or evidence
recovery technician involves the documentation and the collection of physical evidence.
The evidence found in the vehicle may hold an important key to solving that particular
investigation. The types of evidence that may be found in the vehicle will be dependent
on the criminal act that is being committed.

Establishing Description of Motor Vehicle

Motor Vehicle
 Usually a car, truck, motorbike, tractor, caravan or trailer.
 A motor vehicle must have a vehicle identification number or manufacturer’s
number.
 It is self-propelled property.
 Built to travel wholly on land.
 Capable of at least 10km/h and;
 With one or more motors with total power greater than 200w.
 TRAFFIC ACCIDENT REPORTING MANUAL

Introduction

This Manual is based on the Department of Public Works and Highways

(DPWH)Traffic Accident Reporting Manual and has been produced specifically for the
Philippine National Police (PNP) to be used as the primary reference in the collection of
traffic accident data for traffic accidents that occur on the Philippine National Network.
This Manual details the general policy statement and key business processes and
procedures for Accident Data Collection specific for the PNP. In addition it details how
the revised Philippine National Police Traffic Accident Report (TAR) Form, as the
mechanism

Traffic Accident Report Form

The TAR form is the instrument for collection of traffic accident data. The form
provides a structured description of the observable outcomes at the site of the road
accident, including location and time data, details describing the driver, passenger and
vehicle. The form includes a space for a narrative describing the site, a sketch map
showing the physical arrangement of relevant infrastructure and the location of people
and vehicles.

General Accident Details

1. Report No
The accident report number is assigned by the reporting station. Each station should
number reports sequentially starting from 0001 for each year. Each station should keep
a register of traffic accidents so that numbers can be assigned sequentially and so that
report forms can be traced.
2. Provincial Office
The name and number of the Police Provincial Office in which the accident occurred
(e.g., Batangas 19, Bohol 43)
3. Police Station
The name and number of the police station reporting the accident.
4. Regional Office
The name of the Police Regional Office in which the accident occurred. (e.g.Region IV,
ARMM, NCR).
5. No. of Vehicles
Enter total number of vehicles involved in the accident. 
6. No of Drivers Casualties
Enter the total number of drivers injured and/ or killed in the accident
7. No. of Passenger Casualties
Enter the total number of passengers injured or killed in the accident. 
8. No. of Pedestrian Casualties
Enter the number of pedestrians injured and/or killed in the accident.
9. Accident Severity
F- Fatal Accident
When a casualty dies as a result of the accident within 30 days of the accident.
S- Serious Injury Accident
When a casualty sustains serious injuries and requires hospitalization. There must
not be any fatal injury in the accident.
M- Minor Injury Accident
When a casualty sustains minor injuries. There must not be any fatal or
serious injury in the accident
D- Property Damage Only
When nobody is injured in the accident but vehicles or property are damaged.
The Accident Severity is the severity of the most seriously injured casualty.
10. Month
The month in which the accident occurred.
11. Day
The date in the month on which the accident occurred. 
12. Year
The year in which the accident occurred.
13. Day of the Week
Write the day of week on which the accident occurred.
14. Time
The time at which the accident occurred. Military time (24 hour clock) should be used.
15. Junction Type
Circle the most appropriate number to describe the type of junction where the accident
occurred. If the accident occurred at a junction then the name of the second road should
be indicated in the Accident Location section of the form. The collision diagram sketch
should include the road layout and this should be consistent with the Junction Type
selection made here.
16. Traffic Control
Circle the most appropriate number to describe the traffic control at the scene of the
accident.
17. Collision Type
The collision diagram sketch should be consistent with the Collision Type selection
made. It should be noted that Head On, Rear End, Right Angle and Side Swipe must
involve at least two vehicles. They do not refer to accident when a single vehicle hits an
object or a pedestrian.
Head On: Where two vehicles collide head on.
Rear End: Where one vehicle runs into the back of another vehicle.
Right Angle: Where one vehicle drives into the side of another vehicle at approximately
90 degrees.

Side Swipe:
Where two vehicles scrape each other along the sides of the vehicles. The vehicles can
be moving in the same direction OR in opposite directions.
18. Movement
One Way: A One Way street where vehicles can move in one direction only.
Two Way: A Two Way street where vehicles can be driven in both directions
19. Separation
Median: A physical central area which cannot normally be crossed by vehicles. This
separates the two directions of travel.
No Median: The opposite of above.
20. Weather
21. Light
This must consistent within the time of the day.
22. Road Character
Circle the most appropriate number to describe the road at the scene of the accident.
23. Surface Condition
24. Surface Type
25. Main Cause
26. Road Class
Indicate the class of road on which the accident occurred by circling the appropriate
option.
27. Road Repair
Indicate whether the road was under repair or not when the accident occurred
28. Hit and Run
Indicate if the accident involved a driver who failed to stop or report the accident to the
police.

Location Type
Indicate the type of location that best describes the site of the accident.
Urban Area: This is for accidents that occurred in a built up area such as a city or
a town. This option can be selected even if the accident occurred outside a city
boundary if the reporting officer considers it to still be in a city/town type environment.
Rural Area: This is for accidents that occurred outside any settlements. This option
should be selected if the road was passing through forest or through farmland but only
if there was no significant settlement along the road.
Accident Location Details
The location details are critical if any kind of investigation is to take place and also
for the purpose of identifying accident blackspots. It is essential that the information
contained in this section is detailed enough to enable any person' at any time in the
future, to locate the exact scene of the accident. To identify the location the PNP
reporting officer is required to write the distance from a road, landmark or settlement.
This distance should be written in either kilometers
or in meters whichever is the most appropriate".
Circling either “km” or “m” as appropriate should indicate the units used.
 
1. Name of the City/Town/Barangay
Write here the name of the city, town or barangay in which the accident occurred. The
distance from the center of this settlement should be written. This distance may be zero
in which case zero should be written in the space provided. If the accident occurred
away from any settlement then the nearest city, town or village should be written. The
distance to this settlement should be written in the space provided.

2. Accident Location
Write here the name of the road on which the accident occurred. For national
roads a standard naming, system should be used which includes the names of the
towns/cities at either end of the road.
Landmark 1: Write here the name of a prominent landmark along the road on which the
accident occurred. Write the distance from the accident site to this landmark in the
space provided. Kilometer posts should be used wherever possible. Where these
are not available major road intersections should be used.
Landmark 2: Write here the name of a prominent landmark along the road in the
opposite direction to Landmark 1. Write the distance from the
accident site to this landmark in the space provided.

3. Junction Accident Only

Write here the name of the SECOND road if the accident occurred at or near a junction.
Write the distance from the accident site to the intersection with this road I the space
provided. The distance will be zero if the accident occurred on the intersection between
the named roads.

Accident Location Sketch

The accident location sketch is very important and should on its own enable any person,
at any time in the future to locate the exact scene of the accident. The reporting officer
shall draw a neat detailed sketch of the accident location". A simple line sketch
of the roads with distances from several important landmarks should be included.

Police Details
1. Police Description of Accident
2. Driver statement
3. Witness
4. Investigating officers
5. Supervising officers
6. Status of case.

Vehicle Details
-Vehicle plate number
-Owner name and address
-Engine and chassis number
-Insurance/ ORCR number
-Vehicle type
-Direction
-Loading
-Vehicle Defect
-Vehicle Damage

Drivers Details
-Name
-Address
-License number
-License type
-Expiry date
-Driver Sex
-Driver Age
-Driver injury
-Driver error
-Alcohol and drug
-Seat belt/ helmet

Passenger Casualty Details

Vehicle number
Passenger Sex
Passenger Age
Passenger injury

PEDESTRIAN CASUALTY DETAILS

Pedestrian Sex
Pedestrian Age
Pedestrian injury

Definition of Terms

Fatal accident- the road vehicle accident in which at least one person was killed or died
as a result of the accident within 30 days of the accident
Minor injury accident – a road vehicle accident in which at least one person was
injured not required medical treatment.
Serious injury Accident- a road vehicle accident in which at least one person was
injured and admitted to hospital
Proper Damage Only – a road vehicle accident when nobody in injured in the accident
but vehicle or property are damage.
Passenger- means any person other than the driver who is in on or alighting or falling
from a vehicle.
Vehicle – means any device intended for, or being used for the transport of persons or
property.
Pedestrian- means any person who is not in or upon or alighting from a vehicle.

Republic Act No. 4136 (Land Transportation and Traffic Code)

CHAPTER II REGISTRATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES
Section 5, all motor vehicles and other vehicles must be registered.
(a) No motor vehicle shall be used or operated on or upon any public highway of the
Philippines unless the same is properly registered for the current year in accordance
with the provisions of this Act.
(b) Any registration of motor vehicles not renewed on or before the date fixed for
different classifications, as provided hereunder shall become delinquent and invalid:
1. For hire motor vehicles - on or before the last working day of February.
2. Privately-owned motor vehicles - from March one to the last working day of May.
3. All other motor vehicles - from June one to the last working day of June
(d) Change of motor number prohibited. - No repair or change in the motor vehicle
involving the exchange, elimination, effacing, or replacing of the original or registered
serial or motor number as stamped or imprinted, shall be allowed
(e) Encumbrances of motor vehicles. - Mortgages, attachments, and other
encumbrances of motor vehicles, in order to be valid, must be recorded in the Land
Transportation Commission and must be properly recorded on the face of all
outstanding copies of the certificates of registration of the vehicle concerned.
Section 6, Application and payments for registration - Applications and payments for
registration shall be made either personally or by registered mail
Section 7, Registration Classification - Every motor vehicle shall be registered under
one of the following described classifications:
(a) Private passenger automobiles;
(b) Private trucks; and
(c) Private motorcycles, scooters, or motor wheel attachments. Motor vehicles
registered under these classifications shall not be used for hire under any
circumstances and shall not be used to solicit, accept, or be used to transport
passengers or freight for pay.
(d) Public utility automobiles;
(e) Public utility trucks;
(f) Taxis and auto-calesas;
(g) Garage automobiles;
(h) Garage trucks;
(i) Hire trucks: and
(j) Trucks owned by contractors and customs brokers and customs agents. Application
for registration under these classifications shall be accompanied by a certificate of
public convenience or a special permit issued by the Public Service Commission, and
motor vehicles registered under these classifications shall be subject to the Public
Service Law, rules and regulations, as well as the provisions of this Act.
(k) Undertakes
(l) Dealers - Registrations under this classification are intended to cover generally and
successively all the motor vehicles imported or handled by dealers for sale.
(m) Government automobiles;
(n) Government trucks; and
(o) Government motorcycles. Motor vehicles owned by the Government of the
Philippines or any of its political subdivisions shall be registered under these
classifications.
(p) Tourists bringing their own motor vehicles to the Philippines may, without registering
such motor vehicles, use the same during but not after ninety days of their sojourn
(q) Special. The Commissioner of Land Transportation may, in his discretion, allow the
registration under this classification of motor vehicles which do not conform to the
foregoing described regular classification.

ARTICLE II REGISTRATION FEES

Section 8, Schedule of registration fees - Except as otherwise specifically provided in

this Act, each application for renewal of registration of motor vehicles shall be
accompanied by an annual registration fee in accordance with the following schedule:
(a) Private automobiles with pneumatic rubber tires, an amount based on their
respective shipping weight or factory weight as indicated in the following schedule:
• 1,000 kilos or less P75.00
 • 1,000 to 1,500 kilos 100.00
• 1,501 to 2,000 kilos 135.00
• 2,001 kilos and above 180.00
1. Per most heavily loaded wheel Three thousand six hundred kilograms;

2. Per most heavily loaded axle Eight thousand kilograms;

3. Per most heavily loaded axle group (the two axles Fourteen thousand five hundred kilograms.
of the group being at least one meter and less than
two meters apart)

SECTION 9 PERMISSIBLE WEIGHTS AND DIMENSIONS OF VEHICLES IN

HIGHWAYS TRAFFIC

No provincial, city or municipal authority shall enact or enforce any ordinance or

resolution regulating or prescribing the maximum gross weight of any motor vehicle.
(c) No motor vehicle and/or trailer combination shall exceed eighteen meters in overall
projected length, including any load carried on such vehicle and trailer.
(d) No articulated vehicles shall be allowed to draw or pull a trailer and no vehicle
already drawing a trailer shall draw another.
Section 11. Additional fees - In addition to the fees elsewhere provided in this Act, for
each change of registration, from private to for hire or vice-versa; revision of gross
weight rating, change of tire size; transfer of ownership; replacement of a lost
registration certificate, number plate, driver's license or permit; badge; preparation of
affidavit or certified copy of records, or for any similar circumstances requiring the issue,
revision, or reissue of a certificate of registration, driver's license, badge, permit, or
other document, a fee of two pesos shall be collected.
ARTICLE III REGISTRATION CERTIFICATES, RECORDS, NUMBER PLATES
Section 14. Issuance of certificates of registration - A properly numbered certificate of
registration shall be issued for each separate motor vehicle after due inspection and
payment of corresponding registration fees.
Section 18. Use of number plates - At all times, every motor vehicle shall display in
conspicuous places, one in front and one in the rear thereof, the said number plates.
 CHAPTER III OPERATION OF MOTOR VEHICLE
Section 19. Duty to procure license. - Except as otherwise specifically provided in this
Act, no person shall operate any motor vehicle without first procuring a license to drive a
motor vehicle for the current year, nor while such license is delinquent, invalid,
suspended or revoked.
Section 21. Operation of motor vehicles by tourists - Bona fide tourist and similar
transients who are duly licensed to operate motor vehicles in their respective countries
may be allowed to operate motor vehicles during but not after ninety days of their
sojourn in the Philippines.
Section 23 of Republic Act No. 4136, otherwise known as the "Land Transportation and
Traffic Code", as amended, is hereby further amended and read as follows: (REPUBLIC
ACT No. 10930)
"Except for student permits, all drivers' licenses shall be valid for five (5) years reckoned
from the birthdate of the licensee, unless sooner revoked or suspended: Provided,
however, That subject to Section 26 hereof, any holder of a professional or
nonprofessional driver's license who has not committed any violation of Republic Act
No. 4136 and other traffice laws, rules and regulations during the five (5)-year period
shall be entitled to a renewal of such license for ten (10) years, subject to the
restrictions as may be imposed by the LTO.
Sec. 23-A Establishment of Stricter Rules Before the Issuance of Driver's License. - The
LTO shall promulgate prerequisites and guidelines before the grant of drivers' licenses
to ensure that these are issued only to deserving applicants with sufficient driving skills
and knowledge on road safety and proper road courtesy.
"Toward this end, the conduct of theoretical and practical examinations, among others,
must sufficiently measure the competency of drivers and must be designed to the type
of license applied for its corresponding restrictions: Provided, That for professional
drivers, the tests must be appropriated to the vehicle and type of service the applicant
intends to operate."
Section 26. Renewal of license. - Any license not renewed on or before the last working
day of the month when the applicant was born shall become delinquent and invalid
Section 30. Student-driver's permit. - Upon proper application and the payment of three
pesos, the Commissioner or his deputy may issue student-driver's permits, valid for six
months to persons not under eighteen years of age, who desire to learn to operate
motor vehicles.
 Section 29. Confiscation of driver's licenses. - Law enforcement and peace officers duly
designated by the Commissioner shall, in apprehending any driver for violations of this
Act or of any regulations issued pursuant thereto, or of local traffic rules and regulations,
confiscate the license of the driver concerned and issue a receipt prescribed and issued
by the Commission therefor which shall authorize the driver to operate a motor vehicle
for a period not exceeding seventy-two hours from the time and date of issue of said
receipt.

TRAFFIC RULES

Passengers
Motor trucks and
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE SPEEDS Cars and
buses
Motorcycle

1. On open country roads, with no "blinds corners" not 80 km. per hour 50 km. per hour
closely bordered by habitations.

2. On "through streets" or boulevards, clear of traffic, with 40 km. per hour 30 km. per hour
no " blind corners," when so designated.

3. On city and municipal streets, with light traffic, when not 30 km. per hour 30 km. per hour
designated "through streets".

4. Through crowded streets, approaching intersections at 20 km. per hour 20 km. per hour
"blind corners," passing school zones, passing other
vehicles which are stationery, or for similar dangerous
circumstances.

Section 35. Restriction as to speed.

(c) The rates of speed hereinabove prescribed shall not apply to the following:
(1) A physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls;
(2) The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of accident or
other emergency;
(3) Any driver bringing a wounded or sick person for emergency treatment to a hospital,
clinic, or any other similar place;
(4) The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the Armed Forces while in use for official
purposes in times of riot, insurrection or invasion;
 (5) The driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit of a criminal; (6) A
law-enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic laws; and (7) The
driver officially operating a motor vehicle of any fire department, provided that
exemption shall not be construed to allow unless or unnecessary fast driving of drivers
aforementioned Section 36. Speed limits uniform throughout the Philippines. - No
provincial, city or municipal authority shall enact or enforce any ordinance or resolution
specifying maximum allowable speeds other than those provided in this Act.
37. Driving on right side of highway - Unless a different course of action is required in
the interest of the safety and the security of life, person or property, or because of
unreasonable difficulty of operation in compliance herewith, every person operating a
motor vehicle or an animal-drawn vehicle on a highway shall pass to the right when
meeting persons or vehicles coming toward him, and to the left when overtaking
persons or vehicles going the same direction, and when turning to the left in going from
one highway to another, every vehicle shall be conducted to the right of the center of
the intersection of the highway.
Section 39. Overtaking a vehicle - The driver of any motor vehicle overtaking another
vehicle proceeding in the same direction shall pass at a safe distance to the left thereof,
and shall not again drive to the right side of the highway until safety clear of such
overtaken vehicle
Section 40. Driver to give way to overtaking vehicle - The driver of a vehicle about to be
overtaken and passed by another vehicle approaching from the rear shall give way to
the overtaking vehicle on suitable and audible signal being given by the driver of the
overtaking vehicle, and shall not increase the speed of his vehicle until completely
passed by the overtaking vehicle.
Section 42. Right of way
(a) When two vehicles approach or enter an intersection at approximately the same
time, the driver of the vehicle on the left shall yield the right of way to the vehicle on the
right
(b) The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall yield the right of way to police or fire
department vehicles and ambulances when such vehicles are operated on official
business and the drivers thereof sound audible signal of their approach.
Section 44. Signals on starting, stopping or turning - (a) The driver of any vehicle upon
a highway, before starting, stopping or turning from a direct line, shall first see that such
movement can be made in safety, and if any pedestrian may be affected by such
movement, shall give a clearly audible signal by sounding the horn, and whenever the
operation of any other vehicle approaching or following may be affected by such
movement, shall give a signal plainly visible to the driver of such other vehicles of the
intention to make such movement.
 ARTICLE V Miscellaneous Traffic Rules
Section 48. Reckless driving- No person shall operate a motor vehicle on any highway
recklessly or without reasonable caution considering the width, traffic, grades, crossing,
curvatures, visibility and other conditions of the highway and the conditions of the
atmosphere and weather, or so as to endanger the property or the safety or rights of
any person or so as to cause excessive or unreasonable damage to the highway.
Swerving is not a traffic violation per se. It is defined as a movement wherein vehicles
shift from a lane to another. (MMDA, 2O19)
Section 49. Right of way for police and other emergency vehicles - Upon the approach
of any police or fire department vehicle, or of an ambulance giving audible signal, the
driver of every other vehicle shall immediately drive the same to a position as near as
possible and parallel to the right-hand edge or curb of the highway, clear of any
intersection of highways, and shall stop and remain in such position, unless otherwise
directed by a peace officer, until such vehicle shall have passed.
Section 51. Hitching to a vehicle - No person shall hang on to, ride on, the outside or the
rear end of any vehicle, and no person on a bicycle, roller skate or other similar device,
shall hold fast to or hitch on to any moving vehicle, and no driver shall knowingly permit
any person to hang on to or ride, the outside or rear end of his vehicle or allow any
person on a bicycle, roller skate or other similar device to hold fast or hitch to his
vehicle.
Section 53. Driving while under the influence of liquor or narcotic drug - No person shall
drive a motor vehicle while under the influence of liquor or narcotic drug
Section 54. Obstruction of traffic - No person shall drive his motor vehicle in such a
manner as to obstruct or impede the passage of any vehicle, nor, while discharging or
taking on passengers or loading or unloading freight, obstruct the free passage of other
vehicles on the highway.
Section 55. Duty of driver in case of accident - In the event that any accident should
occur as a result of the operation of a motor vehicle upon a highway, the driver present,
shall show his driver's license, give his true name and address and also the true name
and address of the owner of the motor vehicle.
No driver of a motor vehicle concerned in a vehicular accident shall leave the scene of
the accident without aiding the victim, except under any of the following circumstances:
1. If he is in imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or persons by
reason of the accident;
2. If he reports the accident to the nearest officer of the law; or
3. If he has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.
Section 56. Penalty for violation - The following penalties shall be imposed for violations
of this Act:
(a) For registering later than seven days after acquiring title to an unregistered motor
vehicle or after conversion of a registered motor vehicle requiring larger registration fee
than that for which it was originally registered, or for renewal of a delinquent registration,
the penalty shall be a fine fifty per cent of the registration fees corresponding to the
portion of the year for which the vehicle is registered for use.
b) For failure to sign driver's license or to carry same while driving, twenty pesos fine.
(c) Driving a vehicle with a delinquent or invalid driver's license, fifty pesos fine.
(d) Driving a motor vehicle with delinquent, suspended or invalid registration, or without
registration or without the proper license plate for the current year, three hundred pesos
fine.
(e) Driving a motor vehicle without first securing a driver's license, three hundred pesos
fine.
(f) Driving a motor vehicle while under the influence of liquor or narcotic drug, a fine of
not less than two hundred pesos nor more than five hundred pesos, or imprisonment of
not more than three months, or both, at the discretion of the Court.
(l) For violation of any provisions of this Act or regulations promulgated pursuant
hereto, not hereinbefore specifically punished, a fine of not less than ten or more than
fifty pesos shall be imposed.
(m) In the event an offender cannot pay any fine imposed pursuant to the provisions of
this Act, he shall be made to undergo subsidiary imprisonment as provided for in the
Revised Penal Code. (RA 5465)
(n) If, as the result of negligence or reckless or unreasonable fast driving, any accident
occurs resulting in death or injury of any person, the motor vehicle operator at fault
shall, upon conviction, be punished under the provisions of the Revised Penal Code.