Dr.

Nabeel Ahmad
Department of Chemical Engineering
COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore campus
Email: nabeelahmad@cuilahore.edu.pk
 What is mass transfer?
• Chemical Engineering?

• Separation in Chemical Engineering?

• Separation of salt from sea

• Extract of metal from ore, perfumes from flowers, and dye from plants.

• Reaction →Separation has a cost (dominating)

• Separation depends upon the final to initial concentration of separated

substances. If ratio is large than the product cost will be high

• Sulfuric acid cost and uranium cost

• Mechanical separation→filtration→screening

• Operation for separating the components of mixture is based

upon transfer of material from one homogenous phase to
another.

• Diffusivity, vapor pressure, solubility

• Not density or particle size

• Like Heat transfer

• Mass transfer operation equipments

• Daily life examples: Lump to sugar; Salt; Drying of clothes
• Industrial example:
• Separation of CO2 from flue gas
• Separation of H2S from natural rubber
• Ethanol/ water mixture
• acetone and water mixture using suitable solvent
• Dry of materials using air
• Membrane separation
• Leaching?
• Adsorption?
 Classification of MT
• Three states of matter
• State and Phase?
1. Gas, Liquid and solid
2. GG (miscible and practically not possible)
3. GL :Absorption NH3+air pass from water; Distillation
4. GS: drying MT from solid to gas phase; Adsorption MT from gas to solid phase
5. LL extraction: extract & reffinate?
6. LS: crystallization eg sugar cube formation; LS leaching selective separation of material
from solid or dissolution of components from solid particles by using solvent. Eg
extraction of different medicine components from plants
7. SS :very slow MT rate so not preferable; diffusion in SS system very low as compared
to others GS, LL etc
Mechanism of MT
1. Molecular MT: Diffusion by random and spontaneous movement of
microscopic individual molecule in a gas, liquid or solid as a result of
thermal : (natural)

2. Convective MT: eddy diffusion by random macroscopic fluid motion

(some external force)
Driving force for MT
Two phase system
• Molecular diffusion occurs
• Activity or chemical potential
• Equilibrium

Multiphase system
• Diffusion in each phase separately
• Within one phase it is usually described in terms of concentration
changes
 Molecular diffusion
Movement of individual molecule by virtue of their thermal energy
Explanation by kinetic theory

1. Random motion
2. With every collision their direction and
magnitude will change
3. Average distance of molecules travel
between collision is it Mean free path
4. Net diffusion from start point to point
d in a given time is rate of diffusion
5. Rate of diffusion (RFD) is very low
6. RFD can be increase by reducing
pressure (less collisions) or by
increasing temperature (increase
molecular velocity)
Terms used in Mass transfer

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

2. The fundamental of momentum, heat and mass transfer by welty
Terms used in Mass transfer

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

2. The fundamental of momentum, heat and mass transfer by welty
Terms used in Mass transfer
1. Principle of mass
transfer and separation
processes by Binay
Dutta
2. The fundamental of
momentum, heat and
mass transfer by welty
Terms used in Mass transfer

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

2. The fundamental of momentum, heat and mass transfer by welty
Numerical problem
Problem 1: Calculate the mass concentration of 2 gram moles of Sulphur
dioxide to be used to manufacture sulfuric acid in a 0.20 m3 of reactor.

Problem 2: A mixture of noble gases [helium, argon, krypton, and xenon] is

at a total pressure of 100 kPa and a temperature of 200 K. If the mixture has
equal kmole fractions of each of the gases, determine:
a) The composition of the mixture in terms of mass fractions.
b) Total molar concentration
c) The mass density.
Problem 3: The feed gas to an absorber has the following composition 90%CH4,
5%C2H6, 4%nC3H8, 1%nC4H10 at 313k and 200kPa. Calculate the;
(a)Composition of feed gas in terms of mass fraction
(b)Total mass concentration of feed gas.

Problem 4: A liquid mixture contains 30 wt% NaNO3 and 70 wt%H2O. The solution
temperature is 300K and the density of the solution is assumed to 1050 kg/m3.
Calculate the;
a) The composition in terms of mole fractions.
b) The total molar concentration
Do it yourself

Problem 24.1, 24.2, 24.3, 24.4

from book The fundamental of momentum, heat

and mass transfer by welty
Terms used in Mass transfer

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

2. The fundamental of momentum, heat and mass transfer by welty
Terms used in Mass transfer

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

2. The fundamental of momentum, heat and mass transfer by welty
Numerical problem
Problem 5: A gas mixture containing (H2=15%, CO=30%, CO2=5% and N2=50%) flows
through a tube of 1inch diameter, at 15bar total pressure. If the velocities of the
respective components are 0.05m/s, 0.03m/s, 0.02m/s and 0.03m/s, calculate the
mass average and molar average velocities of the mixture.

Problem 6: A gas mixture (N2=5%, H2= 15%, NH3=76% and Ar=4%) flows through a
pipe, 25.4mm in diameter, at 4.05 bar toral pressure. If the velocities of the
respective components are 0.03 m/s, 0.035 m/s, 0.03 m/s and 0.02 m/s, calculate
the mass average, molar average and volume average velocities of the mixture
 Frame of references

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

2. The fundamental of momentum, heat and mass transfer by welty
Numerical problem
Problem 7: One kmole of gas mixture at a total pressure of 250 kPa and
303 K contains 10% CH4, 30% C2H6, and 60% H2 by volume. The
absolute velocities of each species are -10 m/s, -5 m/s, and 15 m/s,
respectively, all in the direction of the z-axis. (a) Determine the molar
average velocity, Umol for the mixture. (b) Evaluate the four fluxes: JCH4-
mol, NCH4-mol.
Solution:
Fick’s Law of diffusion (mass transfer)

General equation

Adolf Eugen Fick

(1829–1901)
1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by
Bulk motion Molecular diffusion 2.
Binay Dutta
The fundamental of momentum, heat and mass transfer
by welty
Prove that mutual diffusivities of species A and B are equal if gas
mixture is ideal when total pressure is constant
• Use general equation for species A and B
NA+NB=N & yA+yB=1

DAB=DBA
PV=nRT P/RT=n/V=C

C=P/RT (differentiate it wrt to z and

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta
substitute in J ficks law. And apply 2. The fundamental of momentum, heat and mass transfer by welty
limits
Differential equation of mass transfer

(open hyperlink)
• Let consider element= ΔZ Arnold diffusion cell
• Cross sectional area of control element= S
• Vol of control element= SΔZ

Mass balance
Mass In- Mass out = Accumulation

At steady state accumulation is zero

𝑆𝑁𝐴,𝑧 |𝑧 − 𝑆𝑁𝐴,𝑧 |𝑧+∆𝑧 = 0
• Dividing my vol SΔZ and apply limit ΔZ to zero
𝑑 𝑑
(𝑁 𝐴,𝑧 )=0 and similarly for B (𝑁𝐵,𝑧 )=0
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧

Putting values in general equation we will get;

𝑑𝑦𝐴
𝑁𝐴, 𝑍 = −CDAB
(1 − 𝑦𝐴)𝑑𝑧
Integrating and putting limits we will get;

−CDAB (1 − 𝑦𝐴2)
𝑁𝐴 , 𝑍 = ln
𝑧2 − 𝑧1 1 − 𝑦𝐴1
We know that log mean average concentration of component ‘B’ is;
(𝑦𝐵2−𝑦𝐵1
𝑦𝐵, 𝑙𝑚 = 𝑦 ) yA+yB=1
ln𝑦𝐵2
𝐵1
Concentration profile for diffusion through
stagnant gas
 Gas Phase diffusion coefficient measurement
• There are two kind of diffusion coefficient
1. Gas phase
2. Liquid phase
• Diffusivity or diffusion coefficient (DAB)
• It is function of T, P, nature and concentration of other constituents.
𝟏
• It decreased with increase in pressure so 𝐃𝐀𝐁 ∝
𝐏
• For moderate range of P upto 25 atm because No. of collisions between
particles is less at lower pressure.
• It is hardly dependent on pressure in case of liquids
• It increases with increase of temperature So 𝑫𝑨𝑩 ∝ 𝐓 𝟏.𝟓
• The diffusivity is generally higher for gases (in the range of 0.5×10–5 to 1.0
× 10-5 m2/s) than for liquids (in the range of 10–10 to 10-9 m2/s). The
diffusivity of gases in solids is higher in the range of 10 –13 to 10-10 m2/s.
• The diffusivity of gases is in the order of 10-10 m2/s for polymer.
 Gas Phase diffusion coefficient measurement

Experimental methods for the calculations of gas phase

coefficient measurement

1. Twin Bulb method

2. Stefan tube method

 Twin bulb method
Assumptions

1. Negligible capillary tube volume compared to volume of

bulbs.
2. Each bulb of always of uniform concentration.
3. Pseudo steady state diffusion through capillary
• At nay instant, diffusion occurring through tube is
occurring at steady state
• As conc in the bulb changes a little a new steady state
is attained simultaneously.

Consider
• Ax is inner cross sectional area of tube
• L is Length of tube
• V1 & V2 are volume of bulb
• PA1 and PA2 (PA1>PA2) = partial pressure of component A at any
time t, in bulb 1 & 2 respectively
• If the total pressure in a bulb remain constant and equal,
equimolar counter diffusion will occur
 Twin bulb method
At steady state, the transport of A for bulb 1 to bulb 2 can be written as ;

PA1 − PA2
Ax NA = Ax DAB = −Ax NB
RTL

V1 dPA1
− = A x NA
RT dt

V2 dPA2
= A x NB
RT dt

−d(PA1 −PA2 ) 1 1
= Ax NA RT +
dt V1 V2

−d(PA1 −PA2 ) Ax DAB (PA1 −PA2 ) 1 1

= +
dt 𝐿 V1 V2
 Twin bulb method
Using conditions
t= 0; (PA1-PA2) = (Pt-0)=Pt
t= t; (PA1-PA2) = PA1,t-PA2,t

Pt Ax DAB 1 1
ln = +
PA1,t −PA2,t L V1 V2 t

Parameters need to measure

1. Initial pressure of vessel.
2. Partial pressure of one of the component in the vessel at the end of
experiment
3. Time of experiment
Numerical problem
Problem 8: To estimate the diffusivity of CO2 by two-bulb method, the
pure CO2 and pure N2 is filled in bulb 1 and bulb 2, respectively. The
volume of bulb 1 is 4 liters and bulb 2 is 3 liters. These two bulbs are
connected by a capillary tube of 5cm length and 2 cm internal
diameter. The partial pressure of CO2 in the bulbs 1 and 2 are 60 kPa
and 40 kPa, respectively at the end of 6 hours. The bulbs are
maintained at 100kPa total pressure and 313K temperature. Estimate
the diffusivity of CO2.
2x10^-5m2/s
Solution:
Solution
 Numerical Problem
Problem 9: To measure the diffusivity of water
vapor by Stefan tube method, the water is filled
in the vertical narrow glass tube and held at a
constant temperature of 30oC. The air is flowing
through the vertical tube at a total pressure of 1
atmosphere and the temperature is 30oC.
Initially, the water level was at distance of 1 cm
from the top of the vertical tube and after 30
minutes the level drops to 1.2 cm from top. The
vapor pressure of water at 30oC is 4.5kPa.
Calculate the diffusivity of water vapor.
(3.4x10^-4 m2/s)

Pb,lm = (Pb2-Pb1)/ln(Pb2/Pb1)
Pt=Pb1+PA1
Pt=Pb2+PA2

R=8314 m3.Pa/kmol.K
 Gas Phase diffusion coefficient prediction

• Experimental values of diffusivity of different binary gas mixtures are

available in literature

• Still there are systems who values are not available in literature

• For such systems we can use suitable correlations to predict the

diffusivity
 Gas Phase diffusion coefficient prediction
Predictive equations

1. Fuller Schettler and Giddings correlation:

 Numerical Problem
Problem 10: For mixture of CO and H2, predict the
diffusivity using Fuller et al. (1966) formula for the
following condition:
a. At 1atm and 100oC temp (ans= 1.15e-4)
b. At 2atm and 100oC temp (ans= 0.579e-4)
c. At 1atm and 200oC temp (ans= 1.761e-4)
Solution: using atomic volume values from literature
(book Dutta)
A= CO and B= H2
𝑉𝐴 = 1 𝐶 + 1 𝑂 = 1 16.5 + 1 5.48 = 21.98

𝑉𝐵 = 2 𝐻2 = 2 2.31 = 4.62
DAB1 PA2
(b) =
DAB2 PA1
DAB1 T1 .
(C) = ^1 74
DAB2 T2
 Gas Phase diffusion coefficient prediction
Chapman-Enskog equation: or Hirschfelder equation

1/2
1.858 × 107 𝑇 1.5 1 1
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 2 +
𝑃𝑡 𝜎𝐴𝐵 Ʊ𝐷 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐵
T is temperature in K
MA, MB are molecules weight of A & B
Pt is total pressure in atmosphere
𝜎AB is characteristic length parameter of binary mixture 𝜎AB = (𝜎A + 𝜎B)/2
Ʊ𝐷 is collision integral = F(KT/ɛAB)
Solve example 2 from book fundamental of momentum, heat and mass
transfer by Welty Assignment
Numerical Problem
Problem 11: For mixture of NH3 & H2, estimate the diffusivity using
chapman-Engkog equation at 1atm and 100oC.

1.13e-4 m2/s
1/2
1.858 × 107 𝑇 1.5 1 1
𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 2 +
𝑃𝑡 𝜎𝐴𝐵 Ʊ𝐷 𝑀𝐴 𝑀𝐵
Solution:
DIFFUSION coefficient measurement liquid
phase system
Open hyperlink
 Numerical Problem
Problem 11: To measure the diffusivity of acetone in water at 20oC a
diaphragm cell is used. Initially, compartment 1 of volume 50 cm3 is filled with
0.5 molar acetone in water and the compartment 2 of volume 55 cm3 is filled
with water. The molar concentration of acetone dropped to 0.4 molar in
compartment 1 after 40 hours. The cell constant is given as 0.3 cm-2. Calculate
the diffusivity of acetone.
Solution: Next slide for solution
 Numerical Problem
Problem 12: Predict the diffusivity of acetone in water at 20oC using Wilke-
Chang equation. The association factor for water is 226. The molar volume of
acetone is 0.074 m3/kmol. The viscosity of water at 20oC is 1.002e-3 kg/m
sec.
Solution: Next slide for solution

Solve Example 5 from book fundamental of momentum, heat

and mass transfer by Welty
Example 2, 3, problem 24.9, 24.10, from book
fundamental of momentum, heat and mass
transfer by Welty
Mechanism of MT

1. Two film theory

2. Penetration theory

3. Surface renewal theory

Two film theory
Assumptions:
1. MT occurs by molecular diffusion through stagnant film phase
boundary. Beyond this film, fluid is well mixed having a
concentration which is same as that of the bulk fluid
2. MT occurs at steady state
3. Bulk flow term (Na+Nb)/Ca/C is very small in ficks law. Hence
equimolar counter diffusion when bulk flow is very low. Rate of
diffusion is same.
4. Equilibrium should exist at interface.
For phase 1:
Rate of transfer per unit area per unit time
𝐷1
𝑁𝐴 = 𝐶1 − 𝐶𝑖1
𝐿1
Similarly
𝐷2
𝑁𝐴 = 𝐶 − 𝐶2
𝐿2 𝑖2

𝑁𝐴
𝐾𝐶 = (coefficient of MT)
∆𝐶
So
𝐷1 𝐷
= 𝑘1 And 2 = 𝑘2
𝐿1 𝐿2

𝑘1 𝐶𝑖2 − 𝐶2 𝐷1 𝐿2
= =
𝑘2 𝐶1 − 𝐶𝑖1 𝐿1 𝐷2

This showed that rate of diffusion is proportional to diffusivity

 Gas-Liquid contacting equipment
• In many application, MT occurs in continuous process.

• Batch process is also used but mostly in low production units or low capacities.

• The objective is to achieve intimate contact between immiscible phases and to ensure high Rate
of MT.

• High turbulent mixing is created to properly disperse one phase into another.

• This helps in generating large interfacial area as well as increases MT coefficient.

• In tray tower, interfacial area is generated by passing gas into liquid through perforations or
openings.

• In packed tower, interfacial area is generated by spreading liquid on the packing surface.

• Equipped with Heating and cooling system to maintain process conditions.

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by
• Custom built Binay Dutta
 • Varity of equip are available, In some
• Gas dispersed in liquid in the form of bubbles

Sparged vessel/bubble
tower Agitator vessel
Tray tower
1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta
• Liquid is dispersed in the form of droplets or discontinuous film in a
continues gas phase

Packed tower Venturi scrubber Spray tower

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

• Some times both gas and liquid phase are continuous.

Wetted wall tower/

liquid film tower

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

• Major gas-liquid contacting operations are:

1. Distillation

2. Stripping

3. Absorption

4. Humidification

5. Dehumidification etc.
1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta
 Agitated vessel
• For vertical baffles are used to prevent the formation of
vortex at free liquid surface. They also help to increase the
turbulence inside the vessel.

• Thin metal plates having width of 8-10% of vessel dia

welded acts as baffles

• Common Impeller designs

• Power input to impeller depends
1. Design of impeller, RPMs
2. Liquid properties, Gas rate
3. Presence of suspended solids

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

 Agitated vessel
• Impeller speed can be as high as 50ft/sec

• Agitated vessels are used when dissolved gas undergoes

chemical reaction.

• Not used in physical absorption due to backmixing of

liquid will reduce the MT driving force

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

Spray tower
• Liquid dispersed in the continuous gas phase
• Liquid is dispersed in the form of fine droplets that where
forced through nozzles.
• Spray nozzles are installed at different levels.
• Spraying should be uniform over cross section for better gas
liquid contact.
• Proper contact time. Time distribution
• Demister to avoid the entrainment of droplets in gas phase
• Gas distributor at the bottom
• This tower can handle a large volumetric gas flow rate at a low
pressure drop.
• The absence of non moving parts is also an advantage.
• This equipment is suitable for:
1. Corrosive liquid and gases
2. Liquid containing suspended solids
3. Gas stream that contain dust or suspended particles
4. Low gas P drop setting.

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

 Tray and plate tower
• Counter current contact
• Each tray act as a stage i.e. liquid to top and gas
from bottom and contact happens
• No of equilibrium stages (ideal stages) required
for the separation are determine by mass balance
and equilibrium considerations.
• Stage efficiency and no of real trays is determine
by mechanical design and conditions of operation.
• Tower less than 1m in dia are rarely used
• Tower more than 10m in dia are mostly used

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

 Tray and plate tower
1. The shell
• Made of metal or alloy.
• Plastic shell is also used sometimes.
• MOC is selected on the basis of; corrosiveness
of fluid, T and P conditions, and COST
• Shell thickness is measured using ASTM
standard vessel design code (e.g. ASME Section
VIII; IS 2825)
• Liquid load and wind stress

1. The Tray
• Bubble cap
• Sieve tray (what is role of small holes?)
• Valve tray ( value flow rate controlling)

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta
• The opening of value changes with gas flow rate
as show in figure but disk is always held on a
vertical lines
• As gas flow increases, disk raises automatically.
• It lower down at low gas flowrate to avoid
weeping
• Good choice for highly fouling services due to self
cleaning.
• Gives low pressure drop and cheaper.

Advantages
• Mechanical wear and corrosive due to movment
of valve legs.
• Sticking of disk on tray if there is any sticky
deposition of disk or tray

1. Principle of mass transfer and separation processes by Binay Dutta

Other parts
• Demister/ Mist eliminator
• Nozzles
• Down comer
• Weirs
Operational feature of tray column
• The flow phenomena on a tray with gas bubbling through flowing
liquid is very complex
• Tray internals are selected and designed keeping in view the
complexity of the flow and the problems that may arises out of it.

Hydraulic gradient and multipass trays

 Weeping, Dumping & Entrainment
• Weeping & Dumping
• Flooding and Entrainment
• Downcomer flooding?
• Frothy liquid fills due to no dispersion
• Performance diagram (From Book Dutta)
• Tray spacing is important to reduce entrainment
 Tray design
• Text Book Dutta
Numerical problem
Problem 13: Ammonia is absorbed by pure water from air-ammonia
mixture using sieve tray tower. The mixture contains 10% NH3 and 90% air.
It is desired to remove 90% NH3. The gas enters at the bottom of the tower
at a flow rate of 150 kmole/h at 298K and 1atm. The water is fed at the top
of the tower at flow rate of 150kmole/h. Assume surface tension of liquid
is 72dyn/cm. The diameter of the sieve is 2mm which is on an equilateral
triangular pitch of 10mm. The density of the liquid is 1000kg/m3. The
recommended foaming factor is 0.8. Extrapolate the tray spacing and
diameter of tower for 75% approach to the flooding velocity to achieve the
desired separation of NH3.
Numerical problem
Problem 14: (design of tower) Calculate the diameter of absorber using
any appropriate method for the separation of a mixture of benzene and
toluene on the basis of the following data and information.
The column will have 30 trays, the feed entering at the 13th tray from the
top. Liquid flow rate, top L=14100kg/h, bottom: L=15300kg/h; Vapor rate,
top: G=23300kg/h, bottom: G=24500kg/h; Liquid density, ρL=810kg/m3
(50.4lb/ft3), vapor density, ρv=2.65kg/m3 (0.165lb/ft3); Liquid surface
tension σ=20.5 dyne/cm; temperature T=82oC; Pressure at the column
top= 18Psia. Use the flow rates at the column bottom for calculations.
 Absorption
1. Coke ovens release NH3,bezene and toluene. NH3 in water and
rest in oil.
2. H2S is soluble in caustic soda and amine solutions.

Chemical absorption: Reactive process (CO2 in amine solutions)

Physical absorption: Non-reactive process (oxygen in water)
Selection of solvent for absorption and
stripping

Check Book Dutta for details

 Equilibrium curve and Equilibrium solubility

We have Two components, 1 is gas and 2 is no volatile liquid.

What is the Solubility of gas?

Absorption curve

Effect of pressure on solubility

If more than one gas,

• The equilibrium solubility of each gas will be independent of
others
• The equilibrium will be defined/described in terms of
partial pressure of gas mixture.
• If one component of gas is insoluble, than their
concentration in the liquid will be so small and cannot
influence the solubility of the relative soluble components
e.g. air and NH3 mixture in water
Minimum liquid rate for absorption

Figure 4.7 (Dutta)

Minimum liquid rate for absorption
Problem 15:

Solution to this problem is available in

book by Dutta
See example 6.1
Problem 16:
A gas mixture containing 3% by volume pentane vapor and 97% inert. The mixture
is treated with a non-volatile absorption oil in an absorber and 97% removal of
pentane is required. The feed solvent is free from solute. The feed gas rate is
50kmol/hr. The equilibrium relation is given as:
0.25𝑋
𝑌=
(1+0.75𝑋)
Calculate the minimum flowrate of oil.
Liquid Liquid extraction