ACTA UNIVERSITATIS SAPIENTIAE, PHILOLOGICA, 6, 2 (2014) 261–273

DOI: 10.1515/ausp-2015-0018
English for Special Purposes: Specialized
Languages and Problems of Terminology
Imola Katalin NAGY
$EPARTMENTOF!PPLIED,INGUISTICS
3APIENTIA(UNGARIAN5NIVERSITYOF4RANSYLVANIA4ÈRGU-UREŊ2OMANIA
nimolkat@gmail.com

Abstract. 4HIS PAPER DEALS WITH SOME ASPECTS OF %NGLISH FOR PROFESSIONAL
PURPOSES !FTER A SHORT HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED TO ,30
LANGUAGE FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES  WE FOCUS ON SOME OF THE LINGUISTIC
PECULIARITIESOF%NGLISHFOR3PECIlC0URPOSES/URAIMISTOMAKEASYNTHESIS
of the main theories and debates upon the issue of specialized languages,
ASTHENUMBEROFARTICLESANDWRITINGSONTHETOPICISTREMENDOUS7EALSO
WISHTOMAKEABRIEFPRESENTATIONOFTHEMOSTIMPORTANTCONTRIBUTIONSSTILL
WEHAVETOADMITTHATTHELISTOFAUTHORSANDARTICLESISMUCHLONGERWEHAD
TOMAKEASELECTIONDUETOTHEEDITORIALLIMITATIONSOFTHISARTICLE 7EHAVE
GATHERED AND SYNTHESIZED WHAT AUTHORS LIKE #ABRÎ #ELCE -URCIA #RYSTAL
#ROITORU -OTOS 3TREVENS AND OTHERS HAVE SAID AND WE HAVE ALSO TRIED TO
make a comprehensive list of the names given to specialized language or
LANGUAGE FOR SPECIlC PURPOSES OVER TIME 3TILL WE HAVE TO STATE THAT IT IS
NOTOURGOALTOCOMEUPWITHEXAMPLESORCONCLUSIONSREGARDINGOUROWN
PERSONAL%30EXPERIENCEANDORPREVIOUSRESEARCH4HEGOALOFTHISPRESENT
STUDY IS TO MAKE A SYNTHESIS OF THE THEORIES AND WRITINGS ON THE TOPIC OF
%NGLISH FOR SPECIlC PURPOSES IE METAELEMZÎSMETAANALYSIS in Klaudy’s
WORDSORSZEKUNDERKUTATÇSSECONDARYRESEARCHIN&×RISSWORDS 

Keywords: SPECIALIZEDLANGUAGES%NGLISHFORSPECIALORSPECIlCPURPOSESn

ESP, linguistic features, terminology

Introduction
%NGLISH FOR 3PECIlC 0URPOSES HAS BEEN DEVELOPED TO MEET THE NEEDS OF THOSE
LEARNERSWHOINTENDTOUSE%NGLISHINPROFESSIONALCONTEXTSANDFORPROFESSIONAL
PURPOSES,ANGUAGESFORSPECIlCPURPOSESORINTHISCASE%NGLISHFOR3PECIlC
0URPOSES HEREINAFTER REFERRED TO AS %30  CAN BE DEALT WITH FROM AT LEAST TWO
perspectives: on the one hand, from a didactic perspective, as ESP is a sphere of
LANGUAGETEACHING/NTHEOTHERHANDWEMUSTAPPROACHTHEISSUEOFSPECIALIZED
LANGUAGES  FROM A LINGUISTIC VIEWPOINT AS %NGLISH FOR 3PECIlC 0URPOSES IS

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A PECULIAR SEGMENT OF LANGUAGE WITH ITS MAJOR COMPONENT n TERMINOLOGY TO
WHICHSOMEAUTHORSADDTHESCIENCESPECIlCGRAMMARIELINGUISTICISSUESAND
PARTICULARITIES )N THIS ARTICLE WE INTEND TO COVER THE MOST IMPORTANT THEORIES
and approaches of ESP and special languages, implicating both didactic and
LINGUISTICPECULIARITIES4HElRSTPARTOFTHEARTICLEISDEDICATEDTOTHEEVOLUTION
OF THE DIDACTIC ASPECTS OF %30 WHILE THE SECOND PART DEALS WITH SOME OF THE
MOSTIMPORTANTAPPROACHESTOTHELINGUISTICPECULIARITIESOF%NGLISHFOR3PECIlC
Purposes over the past decades.
4HElRSTMAJORISSUEISCONNECTEDTOTHEPLURALITYOFNAMESGIVENTOWHATWE
CALLHERE%NGLISHFOR3PECIlC0URPOSES)N%NGLISHSEVERALTERMSAREUSEDAMONG
WHICH specialized languages, special languages, specialized communication,
TECHNICAL %NGLISH SCIENTIlC %NGLISH %NGLISH FOR SPECIAL OR SPECIlC PURPOSES
ESP, English for Occupational Purposes, Professional English or, more recently,
!CADEMIC AND 0ROFESSIONAL ,ANGUAGES. In Romanian, researchers use the
FOLLOWINGNAMESLIMBAJSPECIALIZATLIMBAJPROFESIONALCOMUNICARESPECIALIZATŌ
COMUNICAREPROFESIONALŌTEHNOLECTWHILEIN(UNGARIANTHEREARETWOCOMPETING
terms, szaknyelv and szakmai nyelvhasználat SEE+URTÇN 

4HEHISTORICALBACKGROUNDOF%NGLISHFOR3PECIlC
Purposes
4HEHISTORYOFTHE%30%NGLISHFOR3PECIlC0URPOSES MOVEMENTCANBETRACED
back to the 1960s, though several books and materials designed to teaching
%NGLISH FOR SPECIALISTS IN DIFFERENT lELDS ESPECIALLY BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS 
WEREPUBLISHEDEVENINTHElRSTDECADESOFTHEth century. As Marianne Celce-
-URCIA PUTSIThALMOSTYEARSAGO%3,%&,PRACTITIONERSINMANYPARTS
OFTHEWORLDBEGANTOCONVENEONORDERTODISCUSSTHEDEVELOPMENTOFSYSTEMATIC
analyses of students’ needs, particularly as they related to the features of the
%NGLISHTHATSTUDENTSMUSTEMPLOYINTHEREALWORLDv#ELCE -URCIA 
There are four important phases in the history and development of the ESP
MOVEMENT4HElRSTPHASECOVERSTHESANDSWHENTEACHING%30FOCUSED
ONTHESENTENCE LEVEL4HENEEDSANALYSESTHATWERECARRIEDOUTCONCENTRATEDON
the lexical and grammatical features of professional registers, such as the language
OFENGINEERINGORTHELANGUAGEOFLAW2ESEARCHERSDISCOVEREDAMONGTHEMOST
STRIKINGCHARACTERISTICSOF%34%NGLISHFOR3CIENCEAND4ECHNOLOGY FORINSTANCE
the extensive use of Present Tense Simple, of passive constructions and of noun
COMPOUNDS)NWHAT"USINESS%NGLISHWASCONCERNEDTHEFOCUSWASONTHERULES
OF WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS RULES THAT STATED THE USE OF A SET FORMAT FORMULAIC
EXPRESSIONSALIMITEDSETOFVOCABULARYANDCONJUNCTIONSh!FTERCAREFULANALYSES
OFIDENTIlEDSPOKENORWRITTENDISCOURSEPRACTITIONERSORGANIZEDTHEIRGRAMMAR

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BASED CURRICULA AROUND THE FEATURES OF THESE SPECIAL REGISTERS /NE OF THE MOST
FAMOUS VOLUMES TO APPEAR DURING THIS PERIOD WAS 3WALESS 7RITING 3CIENTIlC
English WHERECHAPTERSAREBASEDPRINCIPALLYUPONTHEGRAMMATICALFORMS
MOSTCOMMONLYFOUNDINTHESCIENTIlC%NGLISHREGISTERvibid
The late 1970s and early 1980s brought about the second phase in the career
OF%30INWHICHTHESENTENCELEVELANALYSISANDTHEFOCUSONGRAMMATICALFORMS
STARTED TO INTEGRATE RHETORICAL FUNCTIONS AS WELL )N  4ARONE ET ALII  
PUBLISHEDASTUDYTHATINTENDEDTOEXAMINETHEFUNCTIONANDFREQUENCYOFPASSIVE
VOICEWITHINASTROPHYSICS7HENCOMPARINGTHEFUNCTIONSOFPASSIVESTRUCTURESIN
THESEASTROPHYSICSJOURNALARTICLESWITHACTIVEVOICETHEYPRACTICALLYPERFORMED
A RHETORICAL ANALYSIS STATING THAT PASSIVE VOICE WAS USED BY THE SCIENTISTS
AUTHORSOFTHEARTICLESWHENhATHEYAREFOLLOWINGESTABLISHEDPROCEDURESRATHER
THAN  DISCUSSING THEIR OWN PROCEDURAL CHOICES B THEY ARE DISCUSSING OTHERS
WORKINCONTRASTTOTHEIROWNCTHEYAREREFERRINGTOTHEIROWNFUTURERESEARCH
ORDTHEYWISHTOFRONTIETOPICALIZE CERTAININFORMATIONINSENTENCESvibid.
n 4ARONEETALIIWEREPIONEERSOFRHETORICALANALYSISIN%30ASTHEYDIDNOT
SIMPLYSTATETHATAPARTICULARFEATURENAMELYTHEPASSIVEVOICE WASFREQUENTLY
USED IN A CERTAIN TYPE OF TEXT BUT THEY ALSO ASKED WHY THIS SPECIlC ITEM WAS
employed, identifying different rhetorical functions. Moreover, they started to
TAKEINTOCONSIDERATIONTHEDIFFERENCESWITHINLARGER%30REGISTERSASTHEYDID
NOT REFER TO THE WHOLE RANGE OF SCIENTIlC DISCIPLINES TO %NGLISH FOR 3CIENCE
but to a particular branch of it, i.e. astrophysics. Thus, in this second phase
THEFOCUSOFREGISTERANALYSISBECAMEMORERHETORICALANDWHENTALKINGABOUT
UNDERSTANDINGLANGUAGEUSEIN%30MERECOUNTINGOFGRAMMATICALANDORLEXICAL
FEATURESWASNOTENOUGHANYLONGER
The third phase of the evolution of ESP integrated the discoveries of the
PREVIOUS TWO PHASES LINGUISTIC FEATURES AND RHETORICAL ELEMENTS  AS THE FOCUS
WAS ON THE TARGET SITUATION AND THE ORAL COMMUNICATION STUDENTS MAY NEED IN
DIFFERENTPROFESSIONALCONTEXTSWHICHLEDTOTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFTHESO CALLED
notional-functional curriculum. The main pillars of this notional-functional
APPROACH WERE THE COMMUNICATIVE PURPOSES OR FUNCTIONS  OF THE SPEAKER THE
SETTING FOR LANGUAGE USE AND THE MODE OF COMMUNICATION AND THE KEYWORD OF
THE WHOLE APPROACH IS THE FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF COMMUNICATION h4HEREFORE IN
.OTIONAL &UNCTIONAL 3YLLABUSES INSTEAD OF HAVING TEXTBOOK UNITS WHICH ARE
ORGANIZEDGRAMMATICALLYASIN0HASE SUCHASThe Present PerfectORWHICH
CONSIDER THE PURPOSES OF WRITTEN DISCOURSE EG Article Introductions or The
3ALES ,ETTER  AS IN 0HASE  THERE ARE CHAPTER HEADINGS SUCH AS Agreeing and
Disagreeing or Paying Compliments. Within the chapters, students are provided
WITHSAMPLEDIALOGUESTAKINGPLACEINDIFFERENTCONTEXTSAMONGDIFFERENTPEOPLE
THEREBY EXEMPLIFYING THE LANGUAGE WHICH REALIZES A SPEAKERS COMMUNICATIVE
PURPOSESWITHINASPECIlEDCONTEXTvibid 

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264 Imola Katalin NAGY

The fourth phase started in the second half of the 1980s. If earlier the focus
had been on the discourse and its grammatical features, on the communicative
SITUATIONORTHECOMMUNICATIVEPURPOSENOWTHEATTENTIONSHIFTEDTOTHESTRATEGIES
USEDBYLEARNERSTOACQUIRETHELANGUAGETHECONTRIBUTIONPFPSYCHOLINGUISTICS 
(UTCHINSONAND7ATERS WERETHElRSTWHOCLAIMEDTHATTHENEEDSANALYSIS
HADTOINCLUDEISSUESLIKETHEMEASUREMENTOFTHELEARNERSEXISTINGKNOWLEDGE
their interest in the materials presented, the learners’ modalities of storing and
retrieving information and their active involvement in curriculum design.
More recently, lexicographers and terminologists have started to focus less on
the didactic aspects and more on the problem of specialized languages, this time
THEMAINQUESTIONBEINGNOTNECESSARILYHOWTOTEACHSPECIALIZEDLANGUAGESBUT
WHATSUCHLANGUAGESLOOKLIKE2AQUEL-ARTINEZ-OTOS SEEMSTOOPTFORA
NEWTERM!CADEMICAND0ROFESSIONAL,ANGUAGES, a term created and introduced
by Alcaraz in his articles %L INGLES PROFESIONAL Y ACADEMICO Academic and
Professional English  %LLENGUJADELAFARMACIA,EXICOLOGIAYLEXICOGRAlA
4HE,ANGUAGEOF0HARMACEUTICAL3CIENCES,EXICOLOGYANDLEXICOGRAPHY 
and #ONSCIOUSNESSIN,IFEAND,AW 
4HElRSTDECADEOFTHESCANBECALLEDTHESOCIETYOFKNOWLEDGEAShONEOFTHE
DElNINGFEATURESOFTHISSOCIETYISINTERDISCIPLINARITYx!NDIT ISALSOCHARACTERIZED
BY A TENDENCY TOWARD SPECIALIZATION !S A RESULT BOTH INTERDISCIPLINARITY AND
SPECIALIZATION HAVE A GREAT INmUENCE ON WHAT HAS BEEN NAMED AS !CADEMIC
AND 0ROFESSIONAL ,ANGUAGESv -OTOS    4HUS THE TERM !CADEMIC AND
0ROFESSIONAL,ANGUAGESISTHEMOSTRECENTTERMWITHWHICHWEREFERTOWHATHAS
been called technical language, special language, specialized language, language
FORSPECIlCPURPOSESPROFESSIONALLANGUAGE so far. “This term, coined by Alcaraz,
REFERSTOTHETYPEOFLANGUAGEUSEDBYSPECIlCKNOWLEDGECOMMUNITIESORGROUPSOF
PROFESSIONALSSUCHASCHEMISTSLAWYERSPHYSICIANSETCTHATSHARESIMILARVALUES
and institutions that use the same genres and terminology to communicate. We
ARE AWARE OF THE LACK OF CONSENSUS AMONG SCHOLARS REGARDING THE BOUNDARIES OF
CONCEPTSTRANSMITTEDBYOTHERTERMSSUCHAS@,ANGUAGEFOR3PECIlC0URPOSESOR
@3PECIALIZED,ANGUAGE)NORDERTOAVOIDANYCONTROVERSYTHETERM{!CADEMICAND
0ROFESSIONAL,ANGUAGE{WILLSTRICTLYBEUSEDHERETOREFERTOANYTYPEOFLANGUAGE
used in specialized communication, in an academic or professional setting and
CHARACTERIZEDASHAVINGARESTRICTEDNUMBEROFUSERSvibid

2. Linguistic peculiarities of specialized languages

)N ORDER TO TEACH SPECIALIZED LANGUAGES ONE MUST KNOW WHAT SPECIAL LANGUAGE
STANDSFORWHATITSMAINLINGUISTICFEATURESARE$ElNINGTHEPRINCIPLESTHATGOVERN
THEPHYSICALWORLDREQUIRESASPECIALLINGUISTICCODE4HELANGUAGEOFSCIENCES IS

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precise, clear and unambiguous. Impersonal statements, logical thinking, clear and
ACCURATEDESCRIPTIONSPREVAILWHILEMETAPHORSHUMOURORAFFECTIVECONNOTATIONS
ARECOMPLETELYABSENT!CCORDINGTO#RYSTAL %NGLISHFOR3CIENCES INVOLVESA
SPECIALVOCABULARYWHICHOFTENMEANSALARGESETOFWORDSOF,ATINOR'REEKORIGINBUT
THEDEVELOPMENTOFSCIENCESANDNEWDISCOVERIESIMPOSETHECONTINUOUSRENEWALOR
ENRICHMENTOFTHISSCIENTIlCVOCABULARY4HEREISALSOAhSCIENCE SPECIlCvGRAMMAR
this means that the language of science prefers very accurate and unambiguous
EXPRESSIONSWHICHLEADSTOAHIGHERRATEOFREPETITIVEEXPRESSIONSTOTHEFREQUENT
USEOFRELATIVEPRONOUNSwhich, that, of which ORADVERBIALS,INKINGWORDSTHAT
express contradiction, explanation, and conclusion are unavoidable. Such linking
WORDSARETHECONJUNCTIONSand, although, though, since, as PREPOSITIONSdespite,
during ORADVERBSUSUALLYMEANWHILElRSTLYSECONDLY 
3CIENTIlCTEXTSIN%NGLISHOFTENUSELONGANDCOMPLEXSENTENCESWITHCOMPLEX
NOUNPHRASES!NOTHERPARTICULARFEATUREOFSCIENTIlC%NGLISHISTHEUSEOFPASSIVE
VOICEWHICHALLOWSTHESPEAKERWRITERTOBEMOREIMPERSONALTOWITHDRAWFROM
his role of doer and put the emphasis on the experiment or phenomenon that
has been carried out or presented. Another aspect that must be mentioned is the
use of non-verbal items such as graphics, models, images, tables, etc. Yet, the
INTERPRETATIONOREXPLANATIONOFTHESENON VERBALSEGMENTSOFSCIENTIlCDISCOURSES
ISVERBALh4HEMETHODOLOGYOFSCIENCEWITHITSDEMANDFOROBJECTIVITYSYSTEMATIC
INVESTIGATION AND EXACT MEASUREMENTS HAS SEVERAL LINGUISTIC CONSEQUENCES
There is an overriding concern for impersonal statement, logical exposition
AND PRECISE DESCRIPTION %MOTIONAL COMMENT HUMOUR lGURATIVE EXPRESSION
ANDOTHERASPECTSOFPERSONALLANGUAGEAREAVOIDEDEXCEPTINWRITINGFORALAY
AUDIENCE v#RYSTAL 
David Crystal also describes the features of SCIENCESPECIlC grammar, i.e. the
LARGETECHNICALVOCABULARYLARGELYBASEDON,ATINOR'REEKTERMSWITHALOTOF
COMPOUNDS WHICH CAN BE VERY LONG IMPOSING ABBREVIATIONS FOR PRACTICAL USE
LONG SENTENCES WITH A COMPLEX INTERNAL STRUCTURE SENTENCES BASED ON NOUN
PHRASES ANDTHEUSEOFPASSIVECONSTRUCTIONS.EOLOGISMSAREINEXTRICABLYLINKED
TOLANGUAGEEVOLUTIONTHUSTOSPECIALLANGUAGESh-OREOVERSCIENTIlCVOCABULARY
REQUIRESCONTINUALUPDATINGINTHELIGHTOFTHEPROCESSOFDISCOVERY3CIENCEISIN
FACTTHEMAINBIRTHPLACEFORNEWWORDSINALANGUAGEINACOMPREHENSIVE%NGLISH
DICTIONARYTHEVASTMAJORITYOFTHEWORDSWOULDBESCIENTIlCORTECHNOLOGICAL 
terms, more than 750,000 species of insects have been discovered […] and if all
THEIRNAMESWEREINCORPORATEDINTOTHELARGESTAVAILABLEDICTIONARIESTHEBOOKS
WOULDIMMEDIATELYDOUBLEINSIZEvibid
- 4ERESA #ABRÎ   DIFFERENTIATES SPECIALIZED LANGUAGES FROM ARTIlCIAL
languages. In her book entitled Terminology. Theory, Methods and Applications
she speaks about special or specialized languages to refer to a set of subcodes
THATPARTIALLYOVERLAPWITHTHESUBCODESOFTHEGENERALLANGUAGE EACHOFWHICH

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266 Imola Katalin NAGY

CAN BE SPECIlCALLY CHARACTERIZED BY CERTAIN PARTICULARS SUCH AS SUBJECT lELD
TYPE OF INTERLOCUTORS SITUATION SPEAKERS INTENTIONS THE CONTEXT IN WHICH A
communicative exchange occurs, the type of exchange, etc. According to her,
SPECIALLANGUAGESHAVEMANYFEATURESINCOMMONWITHTHEGENERALLANGUAGESO
THATADElNITIONOFSPECIALLANGUAGESMUSTINCLUDETHEFOLLOWINGCHARACTERISTICS
a. The distinctive elements of special languages are not isolated phenomena,
but rather interrelated sets of characteristics.
b. The purpose of communication is more important than other, complementary
functions.
C4HESPECIALNATURECONSISTSOFDIFFERENCESINSUBJECTlELDUSERKNOWLEDGE
ANDAREAOFUSAGE#ABRÎ
In her book, Cabré uses the term special languages meaning a subcode of the
GENERALLANGUAGECHARACTERIZEDBYTHEFOLLOWINGFEATURES
 h3PECIAL SUBJECT lELDS ARE THOSE THAT ARE NOT A PART OF SPEAKERS GENERAL
KNOWLEDGETHEYARETHEOBJECTOFASPECIlCLEARNINGPROCESS
3PEAKERSWHOHAVETHISTYPEOFKNOWLEDGEAREUSERSOFSPECIALLANGUAGES
IN OTHER WORDS SUBJECT lELD EXPERTS ALTHOUGH HERE WE MAKE A DISTINCTION
BETWEEN ORIGINATORS AND RECIPIENTS OF SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATION /RIGINATORS
WHO PRODUCE SPECIALIZED COMMUNICATION MUST HAVE KNOWLEDGE OF A SPECIlC
SUBJECTlELDWHICHTHEYHAVEACQUIREDTHROUGHTRAINING)NCONTRASTRECIPIENTS
CAN BE OTHER EXPERTS OR THE GENERAL PUBLIC WHICH PASSIVELY RECEIVES SPECIAL
COMMUNICATIONWHILEACQUIRINGKNOWLEDGE
3. Communication in special languages is usually formal and occurs in
SITUATIONSGOVERNEDBYPROFESSIONALORSCIENTIlCCRITERIA
4. Special languages are characterized by a number of language-based features
UNITSANDRULES ANDTEXT BASEDFEATURESTEXTANDDOCUMENTTYPES 
5. A special language is not a structurally monolithic subset, but rather permits
THEFOLLOWINGVARIATIONSDEPENDINGONUSAGEANDTHECOMMUNICATIVESITUATION
A4HEDEGREEOFABSTRACTIONWHICHDEPENDSONTHESUBJECTlELDTHERECIPIENTS
of the information, and the sender’s communicative purpose.
B4HECOMMUNICATIVEPURPOSEWHICHDETERMINESVARIATIONSINTEXTTYPE
c. Geographic, historic, and social dialects.
d. Personal style.
6. Special languages share a number of pragmatic and language-based
CHARACTERISTICS THUS ALLOWING US TO REFER TO THEM AS A SUBSET OF THE GENERAL
language that presents a degree of unity.
 3PECIAL LANGUAGES ARE A SUBSET OF THE LANGUAGE AS A WHOLE 4HEY INTERSECT
WITH THE GENERAL PURPOSE LANGUAGE WITH WHICH IT NOT ONLY SHARES FEATURES BUT
ALSOMAINTAINSCONSTANTEXCHANGEOFUNITSANDCONVENTIONSvibidn
4HEGREATESTDIVERGENCESBETWEENGENERALLANGUAGEANDSPECIALIZEDLANGUAGE
AREFOUNDINTHEVOCABULARY4HEWORDSINTHEGENERALLANGUAGETEXTSAREMUCH

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 %NGLISHFOR3PECIAL0URPOSES3PECIALIZED,ANGUAGES 267

easier to understand for most speakers of the language than those in the special
texts. There are three groups of lexemes in special language texts:
a. general language lexical items
B SPECIlC LEXICAL ITEMS THAT CAN BE ATTRIBUTED TO A BORDERLINE AREA BETWEEN
general language and special language
CLEXICALITEMSSPECIlCTOSPECIALTEXTSTHESO CALLEDterminus technicus items.
4ECHNICALTERMSARECHARACTERIZEDBYUNIVOCITYANDACCURACYTHEYARESUBJECT
TOAHIGHERDEGREEOFNORMALIZATIONANDSTANDARDIZATION4HEYAREUSEDINSPECIlC
CONTEXTSTHEYARELISTEDINSPECIALIZEDDICTIONARIESORGLOSSARIESh!LSOKNOWNAS
TERMINOLOGYORSUBJECTSPECIlCTERMSTHEYREFERTOTHOSELEXICALUNITSEXCLUSIVELY
USEDBYAGIVENKNOWLEDGECOMMUNITYINASPECIlCDOMAINv-OTOS 
3EMI TECHNICALTERMSARESUBJECTTOPOLYSEMYANDTHEYAREOFTENCREATEDDUETO
THEEXTENSIONOFMEANINGTHROUGHANALOGY4HEIRUSAGEISNOTRESTRICTEDTOSPECIlC
ORSCIENTIlCCONTEXTSONTHECONTRARYTHEYCANBECOMMONTOSEVERALlELDS3EMI
technical terms are lexical units “that come from the general language but have
ACQUIREDONEORMOREDIFFERENTMEANINGSWHENUSEDWITHINASPECIlCAREAvibid 
'ENERALVOCABULARYUNITSAREWORDSFROMTHEGENERALVOCABULARYOFALANGUAGE
THATAREUSEDINASPECIALIZEDCONTEXTWITHOUTLOSINGTHEIRORIGINALMEANING
#ERTAINSTRUCTURESANDCATEGORIESAPPEARMOREFREQUENTLYINSPECIALTEXTSTHAN
in general language texts:
A-ORPHOLOGICALSTRUCTURESBASEDON'REEKOR,ATINFORMATIVES
b. Abbreviations and symbols
c. Nominalizations based on verbs
D3TRAIGHTFORWARDSENTENCESTRUCTUREWITHLITTLECOMPLEXSUBORDINATION
Certain units and structures characteristic of the general language are not found
IN SPECIAL TEXTS CERTAIN AFlXES THOSE WHICH ARE DEEMED COLLOQUIAL  SOME VERB
FORMSTHESECONDPERSONFORMSIMPERATIVESETC SOMEPRONOUNSSECONDPERSON
PRONOUNS ANDSOMESENTENCETYPESEXCLAMATIONSETC #ABRÎn 
9ET#ABRÎ AND!LCARAZ HAVESHOWNTHATONECANNOTASSUMETHE
MONOSEMIC AND UNIVOCAL NATURE OF TERMS FROM SPECIALIZED lELDS WE SIMPLY
CANNOT TAKE IT FOR GRANTED THAT SPECIALISTS FROM A CERTAIN lELD WILL UNDERSTAND
EACHOTHERWITHOUTBEINGFORCEDTORELYONTHEHELPOFSPECIALIZEDDICTIONARIES
JUSTBECAUSETHEMAJORITYOFTHETERMSTHEYUSEAREOF'REEKANDOR,ATINORIGIN
and because the terminology is standardized according to international bodies’
conventions. The explanation is that “not every unit belonging to a specialized
AREACANBELABELLEDASBEINGHIGHLYTECHNICALANDUNIVOCALx,EXICALUNITSOF
ANY GIVEN SPECIALIZED DOMAIN CAN BE CLASSIlED INTO THREE DIFFERENT CATEGORIES
TECHNICALTERMSSEMI TECHNICALTERMSANDGENERALVOCABULARYFREQUENTLYUSEDIN
ASPECIALIZEDDOMAINv-OTOS
%LENA#ROITORU PROVIDESASETOFCRITERIATHATDISTINGUISHTECHNICALTEXTS
her approach focusing on the translation of specialized languages. Translating

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268 Imola Katalin NAGY

SPECIALIZED TEXTS IS A PROCESS OF TEXT TAMING WHICH INVOLVES THE LINGUISTIC
analysis of the text, but also the consideration of the socio-cultural background.
4HETRANSLATIONOFSUCHTEXTSINVOLVESTWOSTEPSIEDECODINGTHEMESSAGEASA
receptor and encoding it for other receptors. Technical translations focus on the
lRSTSTEPASITIMPLIESUNDERSTANDINGOFTHEPECULIARITIESOFTECHNICALANDSCIENTIlC
DISCOURSE WHILE THE LATTER STEP INVOLVES hTHE USE OF ADEQUATE TERMINOLOGY THE
KNOWLEDGE OF THE PROBLEMS PHENOMENA PROCESSES ETC DEALT WITH AND THE
COLLABORATIONWITHTHESPECIALISTINTHElELDv#ROITORU 
#ROITORUMENTIONSTHEFOLLOWINGFEATURESOFSCIENTIlC%NGLISH
n .OMINATIVE  INlNITIVE WITH PRESENT AND PAST REFERENCE POINTING TO BOTH
simultaneity and anteriority relationship – it was considered to be, it proved to
have been;
n!CCUSATIVEINlNITIVEWITHSIMULTANEITYRELATIONSHIPthe Talmud considers
WINETOBETHEMOSTEFlCIENT;
– preposition +gerund and verbal nouns;
nVERBALADJECTIVES
nGERUNDASASUBJECTUSUALLYRENDEREDIN2OMANIANBYPRINFAPTULCŌ or used
AFTERINSTEADOFANDTRANSLATEDŊi nu;
nPASSIVECONSTRUCTIONSWHICHHAVETHEHIGHESTFREQUENCYINSPECIALIZEDTEXTSx
4HEUSEOFTHESUBJUNCTIVEMOODISSPECIlCTOFORMAL%NGLISHHENCETOSPECIALIZED
TEXTSibid !MONGOTHERPECULIARITIESSHEMENTIONSEMPHATICUSEWHICHLAYS
stress on a certain element or comparative sentences and comparative constructions,
POST MODIlCATIONRENDEREDBYTHE–ingFORMwine containing or people suffering
from translated into Romanian through attributive clauses VINURI CARE CONňIN or
OAMENICARESUFERŌDE ORWH MARKEDRELATIVECLAUSESSEPARATEDBYACOMMAFROM
THEMAINCLAUSE WHICHISALSOASYNTACTICCHARACTERISTICOFSPECIALIZEDTEXTS
-ARIAN !LESONS STUDY   LINKS THE ISSUE OF SPECIALIZED LANGUAGE TO THE
discourse community that uses it, stating that earlier only the language of science
ANDTECHNOLOGYWASFOUNDSCIENTIlCENOUGHTOBECOMESUBJECTTO%30CONCERNS
Nevertheless, “one of the key features that characterize specialized languages
is its close relation to the needs of the Discourse Communities that use them.”
!LESON 
!LESON RELIES ON THE DElNITION OFFERED BY !LCARAZ WHEN ATTEMPTING TO
CIRCUMSCRIBETHELEVELSANDFEATURESOFSCIENTIlCLANGUAGEh4ECHNICALORHIGHLY
TECHNICALVOCABULARYISSTILLDElNEDASTHELEXICONBELONGINGTOASUBJECTSPECIALTY
WHEREAS SEMI TECHNICAL VOCABULARY CONSISTS OF WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS THAT
BELONGTOTHEGIVENGENERAL COREVOCABULARYOFALANGUAGEBUTTHATAREFREQUENTLY
EMPLOYEDONAGIVENSPECIALIZEDlELDWITHANADDEDSPECIlCSENSEx&URTHERMORE
SPECIALIZED LEXICON HAD TO COMPLY AS A RESULT WITH THE IDEAS OF UNIVOCITY AND
PRESCRIPTIONTHATISTOSAYTHEREISONEWORDORLEXICALUNIT PERCONCEPTANDA
DISCOURSECOMMUNITYTHATPRESCRIBESTHATRELATIONASSUCHvibid

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-ORE RECENTLY A SIGNIlCANT SHIFT HAS OCCURRED IN THE PERCEPTION AND TEACHING
POLICIES OF %30 AS THE PREVIOUS READING SKILL FOCUSED TENDENCY HAS GIVEN WAY
TOAMOREMODERNANDRATHERHOLISTICAPPROACHWHICHTAKESINTOACCOUNTISSUES
OFPRAGMATICSWAYSOFEXPRESSINGHINTSTHEROLE OF PRESUPPOSITIONS  FUNCTIONAL
GRAMMARTHEUSEOFQUALITATIVEADJECTIVESANDADVERBS ANDDISCOURSEANALYSISTHE
USEOFSPECIlCGENRESINASPECIlCSETTINGANDASPECIlCGOAL %30ISNOLONGERONLY
an issue of reading and understanding specialized texts from books and manuals.
h6OCABULARYFORINSTANCEISNOTJUSTREGARDEDUNDERTHETWO FOLDCLASSIlCATIONOF
TECHNICALANDSEMI TECHNICALLANGUAGE/NTHECONTRARYTHEREISASTRONGINTERESTBY
RESEARCHERSTOANALYSETHENON SPECIlCVOCABULARYFROMTHEGENERAL CORELANGUAGE
THATISCONVENTIONALLYEMPLOYEDINSPECIlCPROFESSIONALANDACADEMICCONTEXTSAT
HIGHFREQUENCYRATES#ONCERNINGSYNTAXMOSTOFTHERESEARCHDONEHIGHLIGHTSTHE
notion of the existence of certain grammatical and syntactical traits that are more
FREQUENTLYUSEDTHANOTHERSANDREINFORCESTHEIDEATHATITISVERYDIFlCULTTOlND
SYNTACTIC STRUCTURES WHOSE USE IS ESSENTIALLY SPECIlC 4HUS %30 WITH REGARD TO
SYNTAXABIDESBYTHESAMESYNTACTICRULESOFGENERALLANGUAGENOTWITHSTANDINGTHE
FACTTHATTHEYESTABLISHACERTAINPREFERENCEFORSOMESTRUCTURESx #ONSEQUENTLY
lexicon is given again a preferred status in ESP studies. Summarizing, modern
perspectives have gone back to the idea that context in professional and academic
SETTINGSDETERMINEINAWAYTHELANGUAGEWEUSEvibid
4HE QUESTION ,OWE ASKS IN HIS ARTICLE #HARACTERISTICS OF THE ,ANGUAGE OF
Science IS WHETHER THE LANGUAGE OF SCIENCE IS LESS CULTURE BOUND AND MORE
SPECIAL THAN ANY OTHER SUBJECT (E QUOTES 3TREVENS WHO STATES THAT SCIENTIlC
DISCOURSEUSESALOTOFSYMBOLSNUMBERSLARGELYINTERNATIONALINCHARACTER A
LOTOFWORDSROOTSANDAFlXESOF'REEKAND,ATINORIGIN4HEFEATURESOFSCIENTIlC
PROSE ARE RATHER LONG SENTENCES CONTAINING MANY CLAUSES AND WITH MUCH
EMBEDDINGLONGNOMINALGROUPSCONTAININGSTRINGSOFADJECTIVESORNOUNSACTING
AS ADJECTIVES EACH PROVIDING GREATER SPECIlCITY FREQUENT PASSIVES HAVING THE
EFFECTOFPUTTINGIMPORTANTIDEASININITIALPOSITIONWHEREIN%NGLISHTHEYCARRY
SALIENCEOFMEANING3TREVENSDElNESSCIENTIlC%NGLISHAShSIMPLYTHE%NGLISH
used by scientists or for the purpose of those engaged in science. It has the same
grammar, pronunciation and spelling as are found in all kinds of English; it
INCLUDESMUCHOFTHEGENERALVOCABULARYOF%NGLISHTHOUGHWITHALARGENUMBER
OFSPECIALIZEDITEMSOROFFAMILIARWORDSUSEDINSPECIALIZEDWAYSITALSOCARRIES
AN ARRAY OF LINKED SYMBOLS AND VISUAL SYMBOLIZATIONS WHICH NEVERTHELESS CAN
BEVERBALIZEDBYTHOSEWHOKNOWTHERULESFORDOINGSO7HATTHENISDIFFERENT
OR SPECIAL ABOUT SCIENTIlC %NGLISH ! BRIEF AND OVERSIMPLIlED ANSWER IS THAT
the particular mixture of grammatical and vocabulary items typically found in
SCIENTIlC %NGLISH MAY DISPLAY SOME OR ALL OF AN ARRAY OF FEATURES INCLUDINGx
long and complicated noun-phrases, a higher proportion of logico-grammatical
ITEMSAHIGHPROPORTIONOFITEMSOFSPECIALIZEDVOCABULARY%QUALLYIMPORTANTIS

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270 Imola Katalin NAGY

THEFACTTHATTHEARGUMENTTHERHETORICTHECOMMUNICATIVEFUNCTIONOFSCIENTIlC

%NGLISHISCHOSENSOASTOSERVETHEPARTICULARPURPOSESOFTHEWRITERORSPEAKERv
3TREVENSAPUD,OWE 4HUSTHEMAINFEATURESOFSPECIALIZEDLANGUAGEARE
logic, linkers and specialized vocabulary.
/N THE OTHER HAND 2OBINSON   DENIES THE POSSIBILITY OF ESTABLISHING
and clearly differentiating a register of science. “There is broad agreement that
SCIENTIlC%NGLISHISGENERAL%NGLISHPLUSTHEEXTRACOMPONENTSOFSCIENCE3HE
says that there is a great need for less generalization and greater precision that
COULD ACCOUNT FOR DIFFERENCES OF OPINION 3WALES FOR INSTANCE HAS ADVOCATED
THATTHEMAINVERBSINSCIENTIlCTEXTSAREGENERALLYINTHEPRESENTSIMPLETENSE
WHEREAS#LOSEEMPHASIZESTHECONTINUOUSFORMOFTHEVERB!BROADAGREEMENT
THATTHEDISCOURSEMARKERSANDCONNECTIVESLINKWORDS AREIMPORTANTDOESSEEM
to exist. […] though ironically Robinson remarks of connectives that they are
important perhaps not because they are special to ESP but because the general
%,4HASSOFARIGNOREDTHEMv2OBINSONAPUD,OWE
4ERRY #OPECK ET AL   HAVE ATTEMPTED TO MAKE UP AN INVENTORY OF THE
features that render a text technical. “When someone calls language technical
in everyday life, it is usually understood to mean that its message is hard to
GRASP )N SCIENTIlC CIRCLES HOWEVER THE MODIlER HAS A HAPPIER CONNOTATION x
RESEARCHERSGENERALLYUNDERSTANDTECHNICALTEXTTOMEANWRITINGWHICHISMORE
TRACTABLEBECAUSEFOREXAMPLEITLACKSlGURATIVELANGUAGEANDCANBEUNDERSTOOD
INITSLITERALSENSEv#OPECKETAL 
!FTER PRESENTING SOME DElNITIONS OF THE TERM technical text that they have
FOUNDONTHEINTERNETTHEAUTHORSOFTHISARTICLESUGGESTTHATDUETOTHEDIFlCULTYOF
PROVIDINGAGENERALLYACCEPTEDDElNITIONWESHOULDUSETHETERMtext technicality
INSTEAD,INGUISTSCATEGORIZEWRITTENMATERIALSACCORDINGTOGENRE3OMEAUTHORS
seem to use this term and text type interchangeably […] is technical text a genre,
or a type or something else? […] We came to the conclusion that technicality is
NOTAGENRETHATITISAFEATUREOFANUMBEROFGENRESvibid
Based on the categories in the international Corpus of English, Copeck and his
FELLOWAUTHORSCONCLUDEDTHATliteral public writingWOULDBEROUGHLYSYNONYMOUS
WITHtechnical text,ITERALPUBLICWRITINGINCLUDESTHEFOLLOWINGFEATURESLITERAL
PUBLICWRITINGEMPLOYINGTHEDICTIONARYMEANINGSOFWORDSINFORMATIONLITERAL
WRITINGRELATINGASEQUENCEOFEVENTSORTHEPARTICULARDETAILSOFATHINGINSTRUCTION
 LITERAL WRITING COMMUNICATING A SET OF RELATED CONCEPTS PERSUASION  LITERAL
WRITINGDEVELOPINGANARGUMENT 4HEREFOREAMINIMALDElNITIONOFTECHNICALTEXTS
WOULDBETHEFOLLOWINGhASYMBOLICRECORDONAMEDIUMINAGENERALLY UNDERSTOOD
system of communication employing glyphs and the rules to combine them.
These broadly disseminated records are intended for a general readership; they
EMPLOYWORDSINTHEIRLITERALSENSEANDASSUMEONLYOBJECTIVEGENERALLYAVAILABLE
KNOWLEDGEABOUTTHEWORLDANDTHEDOMAINOFDISCOURSEvibid

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 %NGLISHFOR3PECIAL0URPOSES3PECIALIZED,ANGUAGES 271

After conducting the research and analyzing the data, the researchers have
FORMULATEDADElNITIONOFtechnicality and have removed some of the items from
THELISTNAMELYTHEONESTHATHAVEPROVEDTOBEWEAKPREDICTORSOFTECHNICALITY
Surprisingly enough, some of the items removed are the ones previous authors
mentioned as being features of SCIENTIlC ITY !MONG THE WEAK PREDICTORS OF
TECHNICALITYTHEAUTHORSHAVEIDENTIlEDANDREMOVEDFROMTHELISTWEMENTION
increasing complexity in the content, grammatical writing, connotative language,
examples, complex sentences, passive constructions, and statements of opinion
or belief. Additionally, TERMSDElNEDINTHETEXTNON TEXTUALELEMENTSSUCHAS
lGURES and lists have also been found as not relevant for text technicality. Still,
DESPITETHEREMOVEDITEMSTHERESEARCHERSSTATETHATEACHREMOVEDITEMWASA
plausible candidate to indicate technicality.
3TILL WHAT MAKES A TEXT TECHNICAL !CCORDING TO #OPECKS RATHER LONG AND
NARRATIVE LIKEDElNITIONATECHNICALTEXTISATEXThQUITELIKETOHAVEANIDENTIlED
topicONWHICHITISfocused)TWILLcommunicate knowledge about that topic in a
SERIOUSANDOBJECTIVEMANNER, developing its thoughts in a logical, orderly way. This
PRODUCESADOCUMENTWITHhierarchical organizationINWHICHINFORMATIONCANBE
accessed at random. Sections in such documents often bear titles or headings.
Authors typically use terminology SPECIlCTOTHEDOMAINANDavoid colloquialism
and humour or invective4HEIRWRITINGISLIKELYTOUSEsame-sense domain verbs
and to make generic referencesTALKABOUTCLASSESRATHERTHANINDIVIDUALS 
4ECHNICALTEXTSFREQUENTLYHAVEANintroduction and a table or contents or index.
They may use citations but avoid quoted dialogue. Material may be presented
WITH special fonts or punctuation or according to some commonly understood
convention. It AVOIDSVAGUETERMSORlGURATIVELANGUAGE and tends to use explicit
analogies, unambiguous references and nominalizations.
!NUMBEROFSYNTACTICCHARACTERISTICSSUGGESTTECHNICALITY4ECHNICALWRITING
uses few interrogative or imperative sentences, but sentences incorporating some
form of ‘be’ are common. Statements are often couched in the third person and
the present tense and employ subordination suggesting cause and effect. Binders
and hedges are used to knit the narrative together. Writing can be dense: ellipses
AREFREQUENTparticles or empathics rarevibid

Conclusions
It seems obvious that the senior branch of ESP is English for Science and
4ECHNOLOGYASITRECEIVEDTHEBIGGESTAMOUNTOFATTENTIONITWASTHElRSTTOBE
included in English teaching curricula, and it has had the greatest number of
PRACTITIONERSANDTHEMOSTNUMEROUSVOLUMESOFPUBLICATIONS4HEMAJORITYOF
SCIENTIlCPAPERSANDBOOKSHAVELONGBEENPRINTEDIN%NGLISHNOWONDERTHAT

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272 Imola Katalin NAGY

Copeck’s research has also focused on technical texts and that they use the term
technical text in a broad sense. Another explanation of this concentration on EST
is that “science, especially at the discourse level, is more regular across languages”
#ELCE -URCIA WHICHMEANSTHATTHEREAREMANYSIMILARITIESBETWEEN
SCIENTIlC%NGLISHAND3CIENTIlC2OMANIANFORINSTANCEESPECIALLYWITHTERMSOF
,ATINOR'REEKORIGINNAMESOFCHEMICALSUBSTANCESETC
4HUSWECANCONCLUDETHATIFINTHEEARLYYEARSOFDEVELOPINGANDIMPLEMENTING
METHODSANDMATERIALSFORTEACHING%30THEINTERESTWASORIENTEDTOWARDS%NGLISH
for Science and Technology and English for Business and Economics, in the
SANEWBRANCHOFSCIENCEEMERGEDANDGAINEDIMPORTANCETHUS%NGLISHFOR
Information Technology and English for the Internet became fashionable. In the
2000s, due to the spread of mass tourism and to the changes that occurred in
THELABOURMARKETWHICHMADEMOREANDMOREPEOPLETAKEUPJOBSEVENIFONLY
SUMMERJOBS ABROADTHENEEDFOROTHERh%NGLISHESvGREWANDSEVERALCOURSEBOOKS
ON%NGLISHFOR4OURISMOR%NGLISHFOR-EDICINEFORINSTANCEWEREPUBLISHED
4HE DIVERSIlCATION OF %30 TEACHING MATERIALS AND lELDS IS ACCOMPANIED BY
an increase of the interest in the lexis, terminology and grammar of English
FOR 3PECIlC 0URPOSES ALSO CALLED SCIENTIlC %NGLISH #RYSTAL  TECHNICAL %NGLISH
#OPECKETAL SPECIALIZEDLANGUAGESPECIALLANGUAGESPECIALIZEDCOMMUNICATION
#ABRÎ  0ROFESSIONAL %NGLISH OR MORE RECENTLY !CADEMIC AND 0ROFESSIONAL
,ANGUAGE-OTOS 3PECIALIZEDCOMMUNICATIONSEEMSTOHAVEBECOMETHEFOCUS
OFAWIDERANGEOFSTUDIESANDWEASSUMETHATRESEARCHINTHElELDOFSPECIALIZED
LANGUAGESWILLEXPANDINTHEFUTURE

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Online resources

#OPECK4+"ARKER3$ELISLE33ZPAKOVWICZ*$ELANNOYWhat is technical

text? WWWRESEARCHGATENET. -AY
Gatehouse, K.. +EY )SSUES IN %NGLISH FOR 3PECIlC 0URPOSES %30  #URRICULUM
Development, WWWKHAE SERVICECOM-ARCH
,AURENCE!%NGLISHFOR3PECIlC0URPOSES7HATDOESITMEAN7HYISITDIFFERENT
HTTPWWWANTLABSCIWASEDAACJPABSTRACTS%30ARTICLEHTML-ARCH
,OWE)Characteristics of the language of scienceWWWSCIENTIlLANGUAGE
COMESPCHARACTERISTICS LANGUAGE SCIENCEPDF-AY

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